CHAPTER 10

Deprived Groups
Introduction Historically in every society there are certain groups who are weak or deprived from socio-political-economic or educational points of view. In Indian society the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, the Other Backward Classes and women, especially from these groups, are regarded weak or deprived groups. Religious minorities in Independent India are also considered weak from the point of view of economic and political empowerment. Article 46 of the Indian Constitution requires the state to promote with special care, the educational and economic interests of the backward citizens and in particular of the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. The Constitution also confers certain rights specifically on minority groups; the right to conserve a minority groups distinct language, script, or culture and the right to establish and administer educational institutions of the groups choice (Articles 29 and 30). Indias system of preferential treatment for disadvantaged sections of the population is popularly known as a policy of compensatory discrimination. Such policies entail systematic departures from norms of equality (such as merit, evenhandedness etc.), which are justified on the following grounds: 1. Preferential treatment may be viewed as a guarantee against the persistence of discrimination in subtle and indirect forms. 2. The beneficial results that they will presumably promote social integration, use of neglected talent, more equitable distribution of power and resources etc. 3. It seeks to mitigate the systematic and cumulative deprivations suffered by deprived groups in the past. Independent India has firmly and explicitly embraced the protective discrimination policy in favour of Scheduled Castes (SCs), Scheduled Tribes (STs), Other Backward Classes (OBCs), women and minorities. In its scope and reach, compensatory discrimination has received considerable attention from the legislators, the courts and the executive. This policy has succeeded

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to some extent in taking care of the special needs of the deprived groups. It has, however, also created some tension and confrontation between social groups who have received the benefits of reservation and those who have not. Sociologically speaking, compensatory discrimination may be described as a way of reducing social disparities by creating special opportunities for some in addition to equal opportunities created for all. Obviously, there is a tension between the two principles (equal opportunities for all and special opportunities for some) and success in realising the larger objective of reducing disparities will depend on the care with which a balance is struck between the two. BACKWARD CLASSES The term Backward Classes is used to describe all the weaker sections of the society. It includes Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes and other backward classes. Now we discuss these groups in details. SCHEDULED CASTES According to 1991 census, the population of Scheduled Castes is 13.82 crores. They constitute 16.48 per cent of the countrys total population. The empowerment of the socially disadvantaged groups is high on the government agenda. There is a provision of special central assistance for the welfare of the Scheduled Castes. The term Scheduled Caste (SC) can be understood in the context of

caste as an all pervasive feature of the Indian society. The institutionalised inequality in the caste system manifests its extreme form in the growth of completely segregated set of castes called Scheduled Castes. The Scheduled Castes come at the bottom of the caste hierarchy on the basis of ritual impurity. They are technically outside the four fold varna scheme. These castes were imputed with maximum degree of ritual and social impurity. Their occupations were held to be the lowest in the normative hierarchy. This led to their residential segregation in villages and towns. Scheduled Caste is a politicolegal ter m coined by the Simon Commission and then by the Government of India Act, 1935. In Post-Independent India, the term Scheduled Caste was adopted by the Constitution for the purpose of providing them some special privileges under compensatory discrimination policy. Gandhiji had given them a new name, Harijan or son of God, but the radical elements among Scheduled Castes call themselves Dalits. The word Dalit encompasses the communities known as untouchables who are officially termed as Scheduled Castes. Dalit is a Marathi word which generally means broken to pieces. Jyotiba Phule, Dr. Ambedkar and the Dalit Panther Movement in the seventies have popularised this term. Problems of the Scheduled Castes A majority of Dalits are poor, deprived of basic needs, and socially backward.

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Many do not have access to sufficient amount of food, healthcare, housing and clothing. Moreover, caste inequalities continue to be among the most important factors affecting their access to education. Though traditional occupations are gradually dissolving, Dalits generally continue to be concentrated in occupations that render little social status or possibility for social mobility. Moreover, caste violence has witnessed a dramatic increase over the last couple of years. Modernisation has done much to weaken traditional caste occupations and practices. It has also strengthened them. Practices of untouchability and exclusion are still continuing in some areas regardless of constitutional guarantees and official decrees. Scheduled Castes as a group are not homogeneous. They are internally differentiated in terms of occupation, numerical strength, geographical spread and ritual status. But together they are segregated from other castes on the criteria of untouchability. They are considered as ritually defiled. They were subjected to various types of social disabilities and several restrictions were imposed on them. After 52 years of commencement of the Constitution and after nearly 50 years of planning, they continue to suffer. Untouchability still persists to an extent in some pockets in rural India. The majority of the Scheduled Castes in villages continue to suffer because they work under the control of the dominant castes and the landlords. They continue to be

economically dependent on the landowning castes and are exploited in different ways. As a result, several remedial measures have been tried to improve the conditions of the Scheduled Castes in India. Constitutional Provisions for the Scheduled Castes The Constitution provides the Scheduled Castes many safeguards and special privileges. The government appoints a commissioner for Scheduled Castes to look into their grievances, and his annual report is placed before the Parliament. The important measures taken by the Indian government for Scheduled Castes include: 1. Abolition of untouchability. 2. Protection from social injustice and various forms of exploitation. 3. To keep open religious institutions to all irrespective of caste, class and gender. 4. Removal of restrictions on access to wells, tanks, shops, restaurants, roads, etc. 5. Giving them preferential treatment in admission to educational institutions. 6. Giving them other benefits and grants for pursuing education. 7. Compensatory provisions for recruitment and promotion in government services. 8. Giving them special representation in Lok Sabha,Vidhan Sabha and Punchayti Raj. 9. Setting up separate departments and advisory councils to promote

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their welfare and safeguard their interests. 10. Making special provision for the administration and control of the scheduled areas. Present Status The Scheduled Castes are still not fully integrated to the mainstream of Indian society. Despite constitutional provisions and various developmental schemes exclusively for their welfare, only a small section of the Scheduled Castes has benefited. In fact, the special provisions and reservations for them over generations have led to the emergence of an elite or creamy layer within the Scheduled Castes. SCHEDULED TRIBES According to the 1991 census, the tribal population in India is more than 6.7 million. They constitute 8.28 per cent of the total Indian population. In India Chattisgarh, Jharkhand, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Orissa, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh have Sheduled Tribes population in large number. Some states like Goa, Haryana, Punjab and Delhi have reportedly no tribal population. The Scheduled Tribe population is spread over the various regions of India and we find much diversity among them. The Scheduled Tribes have been specified by Presidential Orders issued under the provisions of Article 341 and 342 of the Constitution. The Constitution of India does not define the Scheduled Tribes. They have been

specified by the Presidential Orders issued in consultation with the Governors of the respective states. Social differentiation among the tribes is different from that of the advanced agricultural and industrial societies. They have however, gradations and inequalities based on age, sex and kinship. Different tribal groups can be classified on the basis of language, religion, and degree of their isolation and the pattern of livelihood. Some of these attributes of tribes often resemble with that of the non-tribal people of a given region rather than the tribal people of another region. The basic disability of the Scheduled Castes stems from their low ritual and economic status whereas that of Scheduled Tribes is rooted in their physical isolation after adverse and exploitative economic conditions. Some of the major problems of Scheduled Tribes are the following: 1. Indebtedness Indebtedness is probably the most difficult problem faced by the tribal population in India. It is due to rampant poverty, loss of tribal rights over land and forests as well as poor and primitive mode of agriculture etc. It has not only economic dimensions but also social and psychological dimensions. 2. Land Alienation Agriculture is the primary occupation of the tribals. Nearly 88 per cent Scheduled T ribes are engaged in agriculture. Besides, tribals have great

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emotional attachment with their lands. Their chronic indebtedness to the shopkeepers and moneylenders becomes the primary factor in land alienation. Their simplicity and ignorance only accelerate their impoverishment. The other methods that the civilised people use to encroach upon the lands of the tribals are by utilising the intimidation of court, and by using the method of temptation of immediate gain. 3. Poverty and Unemployment Insensitive planning in tribal areas has led to chronic poverty among the tribals. In 1983-84, the percentage of persons below the poverty line among the Scheduled Tribes was 58.4 per cent in rural areas and 39.9 per cent among the urban population. Besides poverty, employment scenario is quite grim in the tribal areas. In the present scenario, the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana for employment generation is under implementation since 1989. The objectives of the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana are generation of additional gainful employment, creation of productive community assets and improvement of overall quality of life in rural areas. The Jawahar Rozgar Yojana has provisions for preference to Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes for employment. 4. Other Problems Many of the tribal areas have been marked out by migration of people seeking to etch out their livelihood in different parts of the country. For

instance there have been an acceleration of women from Jharkhand coming to cities like Delhi as domestic workers. The other problems which tribals of India usually face are that of illiteracy, housing, communication, industrialisation, urbanisation, migration and depopulation. The main factors responsible for the depopulating trend of some tribes are radical changes in ecological conditions, abrupt disturbances in man-nature equilibrium and the dehumanisation of the forest policy and its cruel implementation. It is, however, a paradox that on the one hand the population of large tribes has been increasing and on the other hand a number of other tribes are moving towards total extinction. Constitutional Provisions for the Scheduled Tribes The term Scheduled Tribe is nowhere clearly defined in the Constitution. Article 342 empowers the President of India to specify a tribe as a Scheduled T ribe. There are two types of constitutional provisions for Scheduled T ribes: one with regard to their protection and the other for tribal development. 1. Special provisions are made for the educational attainment of the Scheduled T ribes. These provisions include reservation of seats and relaxation in requirements for admission to educational institutions,

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scholarships, etc. 2. Reservation of posts in service. 3. Safeguard of tribal interest in property. 4. The State is enjoined upon to promote with special care the educational and economic interests of Scheduled Tribes and protect them from social injustice and all forms of exploitation. 5. Seats are reserved for Scheduled Tribes in Lok Sabha and State Legislatures. 6. The recognition of traditional tribal rights to land and legal protection against alienation of tribal land. 7. The President may at any time appoint a Commission to report on the administration of the scheduled areas and the welfare of the Scheduled Tribes in the State. Efforts have also been made since independence to improve the condition of tribals by: (i) distribution of land to the tribals and development of land already in their possession; (ii) distribution of improved agricultural instruments, seeds, manure and extension of agricultural facilities; and (iii) the protection of tribals from moneylenders. The Ministry of Tribal Affairs has been set up in 1999 to attend exclusively to the needs of the tribal population in the country. OTHER BACKWARD CLASSES Other Backward Classes comprise the

non-untouchable, lower and intermediary castes who were traditionally engaged in agriculture, animal husbandry and handicrafts services. Caste rank and occupation are the main criteria by which they are considered backward. The OBCs are above the so-called untouchable groups and below the twice born castes. There is much confusion regarding the composition and provisions for the OBCs. The Supreme Court in the Mandal Commission case held the view that the backwardness contemplated by Article 16(4) is mainly social. It need not be both social and educational. The OBCs do not constitute a homogeneous category. There are many divisions within the overall category. Andre Betteille considers peasant castes as the core of the backward classes. The significance of the category Backward Classes lies not only in its size and extent, but also in the uniquely Indian way of defining its boundaries. In India, backward-ness is viewed as an attribute not of individuals but of communities, which are, by their nature, self-perpetuating. The backward classes are not classes at all, but groups of communities. They are a large and mixed category of persons with boundaries that are both unrelated and elastic. Thus, the Other Backward Classes are a residual and highly ambiguous category. Provisions for the Other Backward Classes The OBCs constitute 51 per cent of the

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total population of the country. The Constitution does not define Backward Classes. Under Article 340, the Constitution provides for the appointment of a commission to investigate the condition of backward classes. The first Backward Classes Commission was appointed in 1953, with Kaka Saheb Kalelkar as chairman. This showed that the nation was determined to extend to them the necessary assistance for their empowerment. The Commission was of the view that the Backward Classes cannot come into their own with their unaided strength. The Kaka Kalelkar Commission identified 2,399 castes (about 70 per cent of Indias population) as backward. It suggested several measures for their development. Caste was taken as the key factor in making a list of Backward Classes. The Commission proposed reservations of at least 25 per cent in class I Services, 33.5 per cent in class II Services and 40 per cent in Class III and IV Services for the castes listed as backward. In the Commissions view, real social equality in India could be achieved only by eliminating caste distinctions and social discrimination. However, reservation for OBCs has been seen more from the political angle than from the welfare angle. Pressure for incorporating more castes into the list of OBCs has been seen as a design of vote bank politics. The V.P. Singh Government announced 27 per cent reservation for the OBCs following the Mandal Commissions report. The Supreme Courts verdict of 1992 on the Mandal Commissions report has the

following features: 1. Caste was accepted as basis for identifying the beneficiaries of reservations. 2. The upper limit of reservation was fixed at 50 per cent. 3. Creamy-layer was to be excluded from reservations. 4. Reservation in certain technical posts was not advised. 5. There were to be no reservation in promotions. 6. The Union Government was to specify socio-economic criteria to exclude socially advanced persons among the Backward Classes. 7. Tribunals were to be set up by the union and state governments to examine complaints of over inclusion and under -inclusion and requests for inclusion in the list of Other Backward Classes. Today most states have divided OBCs into two groups comprising Annexure-I and Annexure-II. Annexure-I represents the creamy layer among the OBCs. As another measure of support, the National Backward Classes Finance and Development Corporation (NBCFDC) was set up by the Government of India in 1992, with the objective of providing concessional finance to members of the Backward Classes living below the poverty line, for income generating activities. Assessment of the Policies for SCs, STs and OBCs Sociologists have differentiated between the compensatory discrimi-

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nation provided to the SCs or STs and the privileges given to the OBCs. If SCs and STs are by now easily recognisable groups in Indian society the same cannot be said about the OBCs. Policies regarding OBCs differ from state to state and different groups of people are included. We can underline the following special features of compensatory discrimination in favour of OBCs: 1. Other Backward Classes are usually not defined in exactly the same way in different parts of the country. The most important measures adopted or recommended for their advancement are reservations in the educational institutions, especially in professional and technical colleges and government service. 2. Reservations for the SCs and STs are directed basically towards the goal of greater equality in society. 3. The OBCs have a very different position in Indian society from that of the SCs and STs. The Harijans and the adivasis have been the victims of active social discrimination through segregation in the first case and isolation in the second. The same cannot be said to be true of OBCs. MINORITIES Minority is a term, which is difficult to define with any degree of precision. It may refer to a relatively small group of people either dominated by or

capable of being dominated by a preponderant majority. It is now widely felt that population size is not the only feature of minority status. If a group is discriminated on the basis of religion, race or culture it can be considered a minority group. The International Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences defines minority as a group of people differentiated from others in the same society by race, nationality, religion or language, who think of themselves as differentiated group and are thought of by others as a differentiated group with negative connotations. The Constitution of India uses the term minority but nowhere defines it. The Supreme Court and various High Courts have depended on the statistical criterion. Any community that does not constitute more than 50 per cent in a state is, thus, called a minority. The Indian Constitution recognises two types of minorities the one based on language and the other based on religion. According to the 1991 census of India, Hindus constitute 82.41 per cent of the total population followed by Muslims (11.67 per cent), Christians (2.34 per cent), Sikhs (1.94 per cent), Buddhists (0.76 per cent), Jains (0.40 per cent), and others constitute 0.44 per cent of the total population of India. The issues of minority are really relational i.e. in terms of the location and the majority. The wish to preserve distinctive features of ones social and cultural life is an essential feature of a minority community. Such a group

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may be held together by shared descent, physical characteristics, traditions, customs, language and religious faith, or by a combination of these. They very often organise themselves into a coherent group drawing on shared values, cultures, languages or religions. For example, the Muslims in India are a minority group on the basis of their religion in comparison to the majority of Hindus. But they constitute a majority in the State of Jammu and Kashmir. The wish to represent their demands often gives rise to political demands by minority groups. Contribution of Minorities The minority communities have made significant contributions in practically all fields. They actively participated in Indias freedom movement. Following points show their contributions in different fields: 1. In the political field they have occupied the posts ranging from the President of the worlds largest democracy to the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court of India. 2. Punjab, dominated by the Sikhs, is the foremost producer of wheat and they have made Green Revolution a success. 3. On the cultural front too minorities have made splendid contributions. Urdu by itself is an excellent example. The language imbibes some of the best cultural traditions of Hinduism and Islam. 4. Many Muslims, Christians and

members of other minorities have richly contributed to literature in other Indian languages too. They have also contributed to classical music, dance and films etc. 5. Indian science, journalism and sports are richer by the contribution of minority members. 6. Parsis have played significant roles in the industrialisation of the country. 7. Minorities have done their best in promoting national interests within their reach. Constitutional Provisions for the Minorities The Constitution of Independent India has guaranteed various rights to the minorities. The rationale for this is that while the majority community by virtue of its number can guard its interest, a minority community needs additional support to safeguard its interests. The Constitution has guaranteed them the following rights: (1) Under Article 29(1), if there is a cultural minority which wants to preserve its own language and culture, the State would not by law impose upon it any other culture belonging to the majority of the locality. This provision gives protection not only to religious minorities but also to linguistic minorities. (2) Under Article 350(A), the Constitution directs every State to provide adequate facilities for instruction in the mother tongue

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at the primary stage of education to children belonging to linguistic minority groups. (3) Under Article 350(B), there has been a provision for a special officer for linguistic minorities to investigate all matters relating to the safeguards provided for linguistic minorities under the Constitution. Under the Constitutional provision, there can be no discrimination in admission into any state educational institution on grounds only of religion, race, caste or language. (4) Under Article 300(1), all minorities shall have the fundamental right to establish and administer educational institutions of their choice. Their property cannot be acquired by the State without paying compensation. With regard to granting aid, the state cannot discriminate against any educational institution on the ground that it is under the management of a minority, whether based on religion or language. In 1964, the Supreme Court upheld the right of the minorities to choose the medium of instruction in their schools. The Government has notified five communities namely, Muslims, Sikhs, Christians, Buddhists and Zoroastrians as minorities at the national level. To evaluate the working of the various safeguards of the Constitution for the protection of religious minorities and to make recommendations to ensure

effective implementation and enforcement of all the safeguards and laws, a Minorities Commission was set up in 1978. This Commission was replaced by the National Commission for Minorities in 1993. The 15 = point programme has been implemented for welfare of minorities. It has the objective of securing life and property of minorities. It has also provided special consideration for minorities in public employment to ensure nondiscrimination in development programmes and grant of financial benefits. In addition, the government has also set up a National Minorities Development and Finance Corporation (NMDFC). The Corporation would provide financial aid for economic and developmental activities for the benefit of backward sections among the minorities. Despite several governmental and non-governmental efforts, a large section of the minorities still lag behind. Most of them are illiterate and deprived in a country of continental dimensions. Industrial and technological growth in India needs to influence not just the majority community but also in equal measure the minorities. Now economic opportunities will enhance their self-confidence and generate in them a new outlook. Industrial and technological growth and educational development are the two most effective instruments to bring about national integration. Legislation and cooperation at the level of society can accelerate the process of integration of minorities in the national mainstream.

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WOMEN India became an independent country in 1947. We dedicated ourselves as a nation in 1950 to build a democratic society based upon justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. But even after fifty five years of Indian independence, women are still one of the most powerless and marginalised sections of Indian society. Various social and economic indicators provide the evidence of inequalities and vulnerabilities of women in all sectors economic, social, demographic, health, nutrition etc. The rising incidence of crime and violence against women are indicators of the condition of society. Increasing physical violence against women in the form of rape, dowry deaths, wife beating and femalefoeticide are all indicative of the powerless position of women in family and society. Sometimes women are treated as inferior members in their own families. They are mostly at the receiving end. Womens oppression and their exploitation cuts across caste and class lines. Even in the neo-rich families, women feel subordinated to men. They have a dual identity in such families i.e., one inside the family, where their identity is defined in relation to their male members, and the other outside the family. Marital status and their fertility provide crucial identity to women. Married women achieve status and respect in the family and society after attaining motherhood, especially after giving birth to sons. Working women are considered to be enjoying an

independent and superior position in society. But they are not free from their family roles. As a result, they face roleconflicts in all places. There is a considerable ambiguity about the nature and status of women in Indian society. She has two contradictory images. On the one hand, she is believed to represent power and evoke both fear and reverence. On the other hand, she is largely appreciated for her beauty and delicateness. In traditional India, women were supposed to be supreme in the household domains, whereas in the public domain men were supposed to be supreme. The status of women improved to some extent during the Bhakti movement. It granted social and religious freedom to women. The religious and social reform movements gave a sense of confidence to women. The reformative measures undertaken during the British rule had positive changes in the status of women. Measures like the spread of education and abolition of practices like sati and child marriage had positively influenced the status of women. Movements initiated by social reformers like Raja Ram Mohan Roy, Ishwarchandra Vidyasagar, Annie Beasant and Mahatma Gandhi also helped in bringing positive changes in the status of women. After Independence, various legislations were passed to improve the status of women. The legislative measures include Special Marriage Act, 1954, Hindu Marriage Act, 1955, Hindu

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Succession Act, 1956 and the AntiDowry Act, 1961. The Constitution of Independent India also guarantees Right to Equality as a Fundamental Right. Being the allegedly inferior gender, women still have to forego some privileges and rights that are regarded as belonging exclusively to the male domain. Even in respect of role allocation, distinction is made between womens domain of work and mens domain of work. The Present Status of Women After Independence, a lot of improvement has been made in the position of women in society. Women belonging to the educated, urban and high-income group are the major beneficiaries of the developmental measures. The life of an average Indian woman is one long battle against discrimination and deprivation. The life of a poor Indian woman is characterised by too many illnesses and too many children. Gender inequality in India stems from three important sources: (i) difference in womens and mens economic roles and potential power, (ii) cultural traditions restricting the movement and autonomy of women; and (iii) marriage and family practices. We shall get a comprehensive picture if we analyse various indicators of the status of women in the present society. Sex ratio in India is always biased in favour of the male population. There is a downward trend from 972 females per thousand males in 1901, to 930 per

thousand in 1971. In the 2001 census, it shows an improvement of 6 points, from 927 per thousand in 1991 to 933 per thousand males. The adverse sex ratio can be attributed to a number of factors such as, preference for male child, discrimination against the female child, female foeticide and female infanticide. Female literacy rate has always been lagging behind male literacy and the national average. There are widespread regional variations in female literacy too. Womens access to income and control over economic resources is even worse. Their work tends to be invisible and under-rewarded. Most working women remain outside the organised sector. On the domestic front, women always work longer hours than their male counterparts. Violence against women is on the rise. This increase in violence can be attributed to the low status of women in a patrilineal society, an increase in lawlessness, poor enforcement of legal provisions, consumerism, and erosion of traditional values. Constitutional Women Provisions for

The Constitution of India accepts the principle of equality of gender. The Preamble of the Constitution speaks of equality of status and opportunity and of social, economic and political justice. Article 14 of the Constitution assures equality before law and equal protection of the laws as a fundamental right. Article 15 and 16 prohibit any type of discrimination on the ground of gender. Article 15 also provides that the state may make

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special provisions for women and that such provisions may not be treated as violation of right to equality. The Constitution imposes a fundamental duty on every citizen through article 15 (A) (e) to renounce all practices that are derogatory to the dignity of women. The Directive Principles refer to women at three places. Article 39 (c) seeks the state to see that the health and strength of men and women workers is not abused. Article 39 (d) asks the state to direct its policy to see that there is equal pay for equal work for both men and women. Article 112 requires the state to provide for maternity relief. Other Provisions The State has enacted various women specific and women related legislations to safeguard the constitutional rights given to women. The Hindu Marriage Act, 1955 has made divorce an easy affair. The Equal Remuneration Act, 1976 provides for equal pay to men and women for equal work. The Immoral T raf fic Prevention Act makes sexual exploitation of male or female, a cognisable offence. The Dowry Prohibition Act, 1961 aims at containing the evil of dowry. Under this Act, if a girl commits suicide within seven years of her marriage and it is proved that she was subject to

cruelty, the husband/in-laws are liable to be punished. The Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1976 has raised the age of marriage of a girl to 18 years and that of a boy to 21 years. The Medical Termination of Pregnancy Act, 1971 legalises abortion on health grounds. The Indecent Representation of Women (Prohibition) Act, 1986 and the Commission of Sati (Prevention) Act, 1987 have been passed to protect the dignity of women and prevent their exploitation and violence against them. The Sixth Five Year Plan laid greater emphasis on womens economic role. It identified core development issues of women as health, education and employment. There was a shift in emphasis from welfare in the 70s to development in the 80s, and now to empowerment in the 90s. The Womens Reservation Bill aims at providing women with 33 per cent representation in the legislative bodies. What we must understand now is that by granting the constitutional provisions and by enacting various legislations only the position of women in the society cannot be improved substantially. So, they must be given a participatory role in the affairs of state and society. Moreover, we need to change our attitude towards womens issues and their empowerment.

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GLOSSARY
CUSTOM. Custom means established patterns of behaviour and belief. DEVIANCE. This refers to behaviour which infringes rules or the expectation of other, and which attracts disapproval or punishment. GLOBAL PROCESS. It refers to a social or economic process which is trans-national in nature. It is a process which denotes removal of legal, political and technological barriers for free flow of capital, goods and ideas from the country to another. JATI PANCHAYAT. The village assembly which consists only of a particular caste members in a village is called Jati Panchayat. FOLKWAYS. Folkways refers to day-to-day activities within a society or community which have become established and are socially sanctioned. MORES. Mores are those folkways to which the sense of group togetherness is added. It is more difficult to break than the folkways. PANCHAYAT. Panchayat is a democratic village assembly. It is usually elected by the adult members of the village for 5 years. T HIRD WORLD . The countries outside the industrially advanced capitalist countries and the former socialist countries are known as the third world.

EXERCISES
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Who are the Scheduled Castes? Discuss the problems of the Scheduled Castes? State the constitutional provisions for the Scheduled Castes. Who are the Scheduled Tribes? Discuss the problems of tribes in India. State the constitutional provisions for the Scheduled Tribes. Explain the term Backward Classes. Discuss the status of women in contemporary India. What do you understand by the Minorities? Explain the problems of Minorities in India.

SUGGESTED READINGS
1. Beteille, Andre, Chronicles of Our Time, Penguin Books, New Delhi, 2000. 2. Dubey, S.C., ed, India Since Independence, Vikas Publications, New Delhi, 1977. 3. Ahmad, Imtiaz and others, ed, Pluralism and Equality, Sage Publications,

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New Delhi, 2000. 4. Thapar, Romesh, ed, Tribe, Caste and Religion, Macmilan, Delhi, 1977. 5. Srinivas, M.N., ed, Caste: Its Twentieth Century Avatar, Penguin, New Delhi, 1996. 6. Singh, K.S., The People of India : National Series (Volume II) The Scheduled Castes, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1993.