%silltr

BASIC NEUMATICS

Indianapolis, 46556 IN Rev.0100 Copyright 1997 Pori # SttlCT-Pl-IX

TAgLE

oF cot{tENts Mainlinefiller Air Dislribution DeadEnd Line RingMain Lines Secondary Drains Automalic Air SizingCompressed Mains lor Materials Piping Gas PiPe(SGP) Standard Table4.21 PipeSizeSpcificalion steelPipes Stainless Tube Copper Rubber Tube('Air Hose") Plastic tubing 5 AIRTBEATMENT Fillering Filter Standard Air Ouality Filtering levels Flegulation Pressure Begulator Standard Regulator PilotOperated Filter-Regulator Characteristics and Sizingol Regulators Filters Air Compressod Lubrication Proportional Lubricators F.R.L Units Sizand lnstallation 6 ACTUATORS Linar Cylinders SingleActingCylinder DoubleActingCylinder Cylinder Construction Cushioning Special Cylinder Options DoubleRod Non BotalingBod Twin Rod FlatCylinder TandemCylinder MultiPosition Cylinder Cylinder Mounting Floating Joints Buckling Strength Cylinder Sizing Force Cylinder ThoreticalForce BequkedForce

l INTRODUCTION do? Whatcan Pneumatics Air Properties Compr6ss6d ot

1
1

29 29 30
JU 21 ?1

SYSTEM 2 THEBASIC PNEUMATIC svstem e the air Production dislribution and 4 The Air Consumption Syslem AIR 3 COMPRESSED THEORY Units Pressur Prooerties Gases of Law) lsothermic change(Boyle's lsobaric change Charles Law Lawof Gay Lussac lsochoric change (lsentropic) Adiabatic change Volume Standard Flow Bernoulli's Equation Air Humidity Relative humidity Pressur Flow and Useof the diagram: Formulae: 6 6 I 10 10 11 11 11 11 12 12 12 12 12 13 15 16 16

35
.tc
?F AE

36 36 38 38 38 40 40 42 42 M 45 45 46 46 46 48 rt8 49 49 49 49 50
9U

'

AND 4 AIRCOMPRESSION DISTRIBUTIONI9 Compressors 19 Reciprocating Compressors 19 SinglestagePistonCompressor 19 Two stagePistonCompressor 19 Diaphragm compressor 20 Rotarycompressors 21 Rotaryslidingvanecompressor 21 Screwcompressor 21 rating Compressor 21 Volumetric Etficiency 22 Thermal and OverallEfficiency 22 Accessories Compressor 23 Air receiver 23 Sizinga receiver 23 lnletfilter 23 Air Dehydralion 24 Altercoolers 24 Air cooled 24 Watercooled 24 Air dryers 26 (deliquescent) Drying Absorption 26 (dEsiccanl) Adsorption Drying 27 Hetrigerant drying 28

51 51 51 52 52 52 53 54 54 55
55

55
J5

57

TABLE oF Co

TENTS 88 88 88 90

Load Fatio SpeedControl Air Flowand Consumption RotaryActuators Rackand PinionType VaneType RotaryActuators: SizingRotaryActuato|s Torqueand Inertia SpcialActuators Locking Cylinder Rodless rylinders Wilh magnetic coupling, unguided Guidedtypes,with magnetic coupling Guided, with mechanical coupling SlideUnits HollowRod Cylinder linearRotating Cylinder Air Chuck(GrippeO 7 DIRECTIONAL CONTROL VALVES ValveFunctions Symbol Portldentification Monostable bistable and ValveTypes PoppetValves Valvss Sliding SpoolValves Elastomer seal MetalSeal PlaneSlid6Valve RotaryValves ValveOperation Mechanical operation Carewhen usingRollerLevers Manual Operation Air Operation. PilotedOperation. Solenoid Operation DirectPiping Manifolds Sub Bass Multiple Sub Bases GangedSub Bases ValveSizing Indications Flowcapacity for in Orifices seriesconnection Flow capacity of lubes Valveswith Cylinders Auxiliary Valves

58 59 60 63 63 63 63 63 66 66 66 66 67 67 68 68 69 69 70 70 70 71 71 71 72 73 73 73 74 74 75 76 76 78 76 T7 78 79 80 80 81 81 81 82 82 83 84 85 88

Valves Non-Retum SpeedConlrollers ShutlleValve QuickExhauslValves

91 8 BAS|C CIBCUITS 91 lntroduction ol FlowAmplilication Inversion 91 Signal o, Selec{ion MemoryFunction 92 Timetunctions 93 switching Delayed on 94 switching otf Delayed 94 on Pulseon switching 94 a Pulseon releasing valve 95 Control Cylinder 96 ManualControl 96 SingleActingCylinder 96 and SpedControl 96 DirectOperation IntedockAND Function 97 Inverse ODeration: NOT Function 97 DoubleactingCylinder 98 Direct Control 98 Holding end positions the 98 CylinderPositions Detecting 99 oo Fetum Automatic Strokes Repsating 101 Control Squenc 101 Howto describe sequnoe a 101 Nomenclature 101 of Sequence lwo Cylinders 102 103 Singl Cycle/ Rpeating Cycle Commands Opposing 104 with Elimination a Pulse 104 Pressure Clamping: Control 104 System Cascade 105 APPENDIX Symbols Air Tratment Equipment Actuators Valves Circuits BasicRules RestPosition CircuitLayout Nomenclature SampleDiagrams 108 108 108 109 109
111 111 111 112 113 115

P N E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

INTRODUCTION
liquidor gas' throughthe useof pressurized energy and A fluidpowersystemis one thal transmits controls in and In Pneumatics. mediais air.This of coursecomesfromthe atmosphere is reduced volumeby this air thus its Compressed is mainlyusedto do workby actingon a pistonor compression, incrasing pressure. vane-- producing someusefulmotiontor instance. is Pneumatics considered fieldof Industrial air, use Whilemanytacetsof industry compressed the general here. and components their knowledge pneumatic of The corect use ol pnumatic controlrequires adeguate an of working sysiem.lt is alwaysthe rsponsibility lh function ensuretheirintegralion an etficienl lo into -As a to dsigner certifysafetyin all conditions including failedcondition. with any otheronergysource, air applied. compressed can causeharmif not properly may be currenlly sequencer olherlogiccontroller or Although electronic controlusinga programmable components. of specilied is stillnecessary knowthe basicfunction lhE pneumatic it lo typesand design in describing This bookdealswiththe t9chnology the components controlsystems, of the methods inlerconneclion introduces of and teatures air treatmont of equipment, actuators vafues, and pneumatic basic circuits.

W H A TC A N P N E U M A T I C S O ? D

gentleuseof low pressure to test lrom the optician's air The applications compressed are limitless, tor air processmachines, fluidpressure the humaneyeball, multiplicity linearand rotarymotionson robotic in the ol pneumatic presses breaking drills. tor and concrete I to the hightorcesrequired pneumatic and controlat work,in a The shortlist belowseNesonlyto indicate vrsatility varietyof pneumatic th expanding industry. continuously . Operation systemvalvesfor air,wateror chemicals of . Operationof heavy or hot doors . Unloading hopprs building, in steelmaking, miningand chemical industries of . Ramming tampingin concrete and and asphaltlaying . Litting and movingin slab molding machines . Cropspraying operation othertractorequipment ot and . Spraypainting . Holding making and movingin woodworkingandfumiture . Holding jigs and fixturesin assembly in machinery machine and tools . Holding gluing,heatsEaling welding plastics tor or . Holding brazingor wolding tor . Forming and flattening operations bending, of drawing . Spotweldingmachines . Riveting . Opration guillotine blades of . Bottling fillingmachines and . Woodworkingmachinery drivesand teeds . Tstrigs . Machine tool,workor toolfeeding . Component material convevor transfer and

EU ATtc TEcHt{oLocY

. Pnumalic robots . Autogauging . Air separation vacuumlifiingot thin sheots and . Dentaldrills . and so muchmore...newapplications developed daily ars

PROPERTIES F COMPRESSED IR O A Some important reasons torthe wide ofcompressedinindustry use ah arai
Avallablllty Mostfacto.iesand industrial plantshavea compressod supplyin workingareas,and portable air compressors servemorremolesituations. can Storag6 It is easilystoredin largevolumesif required. Slmpllclty ot Deslgn and Control Pneumatic components of simpledesignand are easilyfittedto provideextensive are automated systems withcomparatively simplecontrol. Cholce of Movement ll offersboth linearmovement angularrotation and with simpleand continuously variabl operational sDeeds. Economy Installation of relatively cost due to modestcomponent is low cost.Thereis also a low maintenance cosl due to long life withoutservice. Rellablllty Pneumalic components havsa longworkinglife resulting highsystemreliability. in Reslstanceto Envlronment It is largelyunatfcted the hightemperature, in dustyand corrosive atmospheres whichother in systemsmay fail.

Environmentally Clean It is clean withproper and exhaust tratTent beinstalled cleanroom air can to standards. Satety It is nota fire hazard highriskareas,andthe system unattected ovedoad ackrators in is by as simply stallor slip.Pneumatic actuators notproduce -- oth6r do heat thanfriction.

T PNEUl,tATtc EcHNoLocY

S 2 T H E B A S I CP N E U M A T I C Y S T E M
of the and Pneumatic cylinders! rotaryactuators air motorsprovide forceand movemenl moslpneumatic matetial. controlsystems, hold,move,form,and procss to i.e. are components required air serviceunilslo olher pneumatic To operate and controltheseacluators, of of prpar compressed and valvesto controllhe pressur, and direction movement lhe tlow air lh actualors. A basicpneumatic system, shownin tig 2.1, consislsof two mainsections: . The Air Production Distribulion System and . The Air Consuming System

Fig. 2.1 ThBasicPnumatic System. partsand theirmaintunctions Thcomponent are:

N H E A I B P R O D U C T I OA N D D I S T R I B U T I OS Y S T E M N O corpr"""o,
pressure compressed delivred a higherpressure the Air takenin at atmospheric is and at to pneumatic mechanical nergy pneumatic into system.lt thustransforms energy. Electrlc Motor powerto the comprossor. transforms lt Supplies mechanical the electrical energyinto mchanical nrgy.

@ PressureSwltch pressure Controls electric the motor sensing pressur thetank.lt is setto a maximum the in by at pressure which stops motor, a minimum it the and atwhich restarts it it.

@ checkvalve
into Letsthe compressed fromthcompressor th6 tankand prevents leakingbackwhenthe air it compressor stopped. is

T P N E U U A T t c cHN o L o c Y

@ranr
Stors comprssd lts size is dofind the capacity the compressor. the air. of The by largerthe volume, longerthinteruals th runs.Mostsystems between comprssor shouldbe designed a 50o/o cycle,providing least2x syslemdemandin storage. tor duty at

@ Prcssure cauge
Indicates TEnkPressure. the

@ AutoDrain
Drainsall the walercondensing the tankwithoutsupervision. in

@ s"hty v"tr"
Blowscompressed otf if thpressure the tank shouldriseabovethe allowed air in

pressure.

@ Retrlgerated Dryer Alr

Coolsthe compressed to a tew degrees air abovefreezingpointand condenses mostof the air humidity. This avoidshavingwaterin the downstrcam This devicemusl be prceded an system. by (not aftercooler shownin the simpledrawing) and not directlyinline withthe compressor it will be or over-taxd. ldeally,inletair temperature shouldbe ambientor roomtemperature.

@ unerlner
Beingin the mainpipe,this filtermusl havea minimal pressure dropand the capability oil mist of rmoval. helpsto keepthe linetreefrom dust,watr, lt and oil.

THE AIR CONSUMPTION YSTEM S (D lttt"t*ott

Forconsumption, is taken tromthetopof themainpipe allow air off to occasional cudensate slayin to thmainpipe. Whn reachs lowpoint water it a a take-oft beneath pipewillllowintoan from the Automatic Drain thecondensate be removed. and will Normally there would a union thepipeanda be in shut-off valv allowmaintenance the.dorvnstream to to componanlsr @ luto o."tn
Everydescending tube shouldhavea drainat its lowestpoint. The mostetlicientmethod is an Auto Drain,whichprevents waterfrom remaining the lube shouldmanualdraining in be neglected. Directly abovthe Auto Drainis an expansion chamb6r, allowing air to lhe cool (through xpansion) removemorentrained and liquid.

alr Servlce Unlt

Conditions compressed to provide the pressure, air cleanair at optimum and occasionally adds lubricant xtend life of thosepneumatic to the systemcomponents nedlubrication. that

@ Dlrectlonal valve
pressurizes exhausts cylinder Altemately and the connections controlthe direction movemem. to of Shownas an indiMdual device,thermay b6 a numberof directional valvesgroupedon a manifold.

PitEUrrartcTEcHNoLocY

Adu"to,
work.Shownis a linearcylinder, Transforms potential air the nergy the compressed intomechanical of it can alsobe a rolaryactualoror an air tooletc.

@ SpeedGontrollers Allowan easyand stepless movement. speedadiustment the actuator ot

We will discuss thesecomponenis moredeiailin sections to 7, aftera lookat the theoryof in 4 compressed This is a musttor understanding air. whathappens a pneumatic in system.

EU ATIc TEcH OLOGV

3 C O M P R E S S EA I R T H E O R Y D
JNITS
The Intemational worldwide since1960,but the USA,UK, and Syslemof Unilshasbeenin acceptance Japanstillusethe lmperial Systemlo a greatextent. ll is exirmely importanl that,in thisvershrinking world,all measuremnt systemsbecomecleady underslood. delinitive The studyot pneumatics an inlernational scalerequires familiarity competence on and witheitherset of units;therefore document employbothEnglish this will and Sl units.
Quantity Mass kngth Time Temperature, absolute (Celsius) TemDeraturc Radius Angle Area, Section Volume (velocity) Speed Angular Speed Accleration Inertia Force Weight Impulse Work Potentialenergy Kinetic energy Torque Power Pressurc Standard volume Volume flow Energy,Work Power Symbol Ngme SI Unlt 1 . B A s I cU N I T s : kg kilogram m meter
5

Remarks

m T L E

second Kelvin 'c DegreeCelsius 2, CoMPoSED UNrrs: m meter Radian(n/m) a,F,1-6,e.p I A,S m2 squaremeter v mt cubic meter v m s'' meterper second s' radiansper second a) m s-2 nreterper sec.per sec. J m2 kg kilogram per squaremtr F N Newton G N Earth acceleration

0"C= 273.16 K

= kg ' rn's'2 9.80665 m's-2 = kg . m2's-2 0.5-m-i = J's-l =N m'' at0 =0'Candp =760 nm Hg = Pa.m3 N.m p'O=N'm.s-r=W

Ns

w
E,W E,W M P

t'

J J

NewtonSecond Joule= Newton meter Joule Joule Joule Watt

3. RELATTD CoMPnDSSED To ArR p Pa Pascal vn In3n Standad Cubic Meter

E,W Joule N'm P w Watt Table3.1 Sl Unitsusedin oneumatics

tn-n s'

Std. cubic meters/ sc

EU

ATIc TEcHI{oIoGY

To nam have unitsby powers ln,smaller larger o( basic units, number prctixes a of and thantheabove bn agreed upon arelisted and below.
Powet 10-1 1O-2 iO-3 10-6

Preflx
deci centi milli micro

Svmbol d c m ],

Pourer
101 fi2 103 tO6

Preflx
Deka Heclo Kilo Mega

Svmbol
da h k M

Table3.2Prefixes powers ten tor of

This ladsus to a kPa (kilo-pascal 1/100b ol a BAR)and an MPa (1,OOO,OO0 pascalsor 10 BAF). or Practice withtheseprefixes and pay attention whatthsymbolrepresents termsof powersof ten. Pay to in specialattention the difterence to between and m, M

Converting lrom onstandad of unitsto anotheris welldocumnted. Converting easiestwh6ndealing is withan answer--- 6.9.whendea,ing with a mathematical formula, use one standard only (tor all terms)and thenconvert answer, Be awarethat formulae the may changewhenexpressed difierentunitsor standards. in The tablesfollowing showa comparison between MetricSl unitsand the lmperialunits. the
Magnitude Mass L:ngth TemDeraturc Area. Section Volume Metric Unit (m) kg s

(e) Enelish
pound ounce foot yard inch sq. ft. so.inch cu. yard cu. inch cu. flooundforce (lbf,) (psi) lbf./sq.inch

m m mm n'
cm2

Facaor +e m 2,?05 0.o3s27 3.281 l.094 0.03937

l.8oC+32

Fsctor e +m 0.4535 ?,8.3527 0.3048 0.914 25.4 0.0929 6.45t6 0.76/.5 16.388 2832 0.02832 28.32
4.448/.

('F-32)/1.8

n' m'
dm3

VolumeFlow Force
Pressure

n'/min dm3Jmin ffmin) N bar

scfm scfm

10.76 0.155 1.308 0.06102 0.03531 35.31 0.0353r

0.2u8
14.5

0.06895

Table 3.3aConversion Units of

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY

llrlric lo Englilh

(Mulridy Lqrgnl Fn hln cm m

By-To
mNs in in

obrain -)
lorNr N.n kg.m
Prrt|0fa mm(H,O) mn(Hg) bn kPs bar kg/cm? aln Enrgy N.m J MJ Pouar w kw

Engli$ to fil.lrlc (itulriply By-To

Obtain-)

0.0391 0.0394 0,3937 32E,|0

0.73?5 1ag
0,00142 0.0197 0.0t97 0,145 la.5o la.4a '|4,7

It. b li. h

L.n!tl mls in in Ir Aru in id tf Volum0 inr in' lf It3 gal(U,S.) W!lehl ot b Forca bt bt bl

2.51 25.,4 2.!A 0.046 645.16 6.,1516 0.0929 t6387 16.387 0.0283 26.329 3.785 28,3i8 0.4536 453.6 0,4536 ia.4lEa

pm mm cm tn mrf qe l|t,
mm3 cm! (cc) mt L

Toqoc n. b It. lb Praatur! in{Hp) h(HS) psi psi psi

En.tty ft.h fi.lb kwr Powra f.br's hp

r.659 0.13811 r 2.s357 10' 0.0s5t8 6 897 0.06697 0.07G1

t.366 1.356 3,6 t.356 0.7157

N.m kg' m kg/cm, xgl',rr, kPa bar kgy'cm'l N.m J MJ W kW

Arr md crrf mt
Volumr mmt cm'(cc) L L W.ighr g k9 Fo.c. gl kgf N

0.616 0,1550 10.765

x 6.10 105 0.0610 35.320 0.0353 o.fi12 O.005il 2.2046

h' h' ir
inr in' ff lf gal (U.s.) oz b

Pll Psl Pri Prt Pg Pii psi fi.lb ll.lb

0.7375 0.7375 0.n7E 0.7375 l.3al

rwh

ll.lUg np

k9

Tlmparaluat qC- 5A"F'32) Flov..b SCFMx 2E.57- Nltnin

2.iDs r 'loi lbf lbf 2.2016 lbl 0.2248

T!npar.hr! 'F-(1.8r"C)+32 Flo{ r.b Numint0.035.SCFli gf= gram- forcr kgl-tilogratn.brcs lbfepound-krcr N.m-nanlon-Ddtr k9.m.lilog.t|t|.m.br lt.lb.loqt.pound mm (HrO). rnllorb( *abr collmn h (Hp) . inche! rabr coltm nm (Hg) - nilllnote. mcrcuy colurm in (Hg). ind|ge tne|trty colu|m

sl kE
N

Ke! Fm = micron(miclongb4 mm- millitnoto, am r conlimeter mils-0,001 ilch h-hch n - foot cr - culic cgntmater L = titsr gal (U.S,). U.S.gallon 9 r gram kg - kilogl8m oz. ouhoo h-pdd

p| pri I pounds squars hdl kPa. klopascls atn . qtrnospher.3 J - iruL MJ. firegajoulo W-wa[ lW. kibwn t!'\lh. bloratt-hour hp. horsaporver ' dogff8 C|rtglade 'F - d.gre Fahmh.il
! - lgcon(b Nunin - Nofiul lit l! F9r ninub

SCFi = Sd. cllitic feet per rnirute B.aic FgnnlLr Orda ciEumle.anoa. |!O - 2fi Ord. a'r8. d. Fotce=Prg9qjrxAfea Volurre(md eide)C.ylir{tr (pislonaraa . t9d cross-rc1ion a|oa) r d()Ie Cflinder Volume(headend) tigton a.ga x *.!ko Tor$re - h.co t prpodd/hr dlr.rc ftgrn $haft

Table3.3b Conversion Units of

P N E u r i t a r t cT E c H N o L o c Y

PRESSU E R ll shouldbnotedthatthe Sl unitof pressure th pascal (Pa) is = I N/m2(Newton square I Pa per merer) This unil is extremely smalland so, to avoidhugenumbers practice, agreement been madeto in an has use lhe bar as a unitot 100,000 Pa. 100,000 = 100 kPa = 1 lxr Pa It corresponds sutticient with purposes accuracy practical for withthe old metricunit kgf/cm". Moreprecise equivalents I STDatm =14.696 =1.01925 =i.03329 kgrt/cm'?. psi are bar ln English unitspressure expressed psl (almostnevrretenedlo as p.s.i.as one wouldexpect),or is in poundsprsquarelnch,also relating torceto an area. a
Physlca 500 kPa
i p t 45r
I

iloteorology

Pneumatlca

irn,

: !

200 kPa 100kPa

Atmospheric Pressu16

I I

l'' I

1050mbar 30 in Hg

Standard psi 14.696

Vacuum

Flg. 3.4 the varioussystemsof prcssure indication A pressure the contextof pneumatics assumed bver-pressurei.e. aboveatmospheric in is pressure as 'and is commonly referred as gaugo (also geg)pressure(GA or pslg). to A pre*surecan also be exprssed absolutpressure (ABS or psla) i.e, a pre*surerelative a tull as to vacuum. In vacuumtechnology pressure a belowatmosphric under prcssu]a is usd. i.e. The variouswaysof indicating pressure illustrated fig 3,4, usinga standard ar pressure in atmosphric of 1013m/baras a reterence.Notethat this is not 1 bar, although normalpneumatic for calculations the dilference be ignored. can

PNEU

ATIC TECHNOLOGY

Fnopennes FGAsEs o
t S o T H E R M I C H A N G E( B O Y L E ' SL A W ) C proportional its voltlme", to temperature, pressure a givenmassof gas is inversely the of "...withconstant or: P' Y= constant

v=1i p=1

p1xVl

p2xV2

p3xV3

Fig. 3.5 illustration Boyle'sLaw of pressure 101325 is compressed constanl Pa at temperature lf volumeV.= 1 m3at standard absolute a ot to a volumeV = 0.5 m"then:

p , . v . ,=
i.e. p"=

P",V"P"=#
to1325m.i.n3 o3n3

202650Pa

Theratio V1^r'2 the"Compression cr is Ratio" pressure 4 bar, { = witha gauge of '

\2

aill=l3 = a.gs
1013

u
6

Thetablebelowshowsthe pressure ratiofor pressures from 1 to 10 barabs.

p

cr

0.987

2
1.987

3 2.974

3.961

5 4.918

5.935

7 6.922

7.908

8.895

10 9.882

Notethe difference between rducing volumeot atmospheric to halt,1:2.026 the pressure a air and ratioat a gaugepressure 1 bar (2 sps),1:1.987! this is theory; no adiustment madetor practice of But is whenw in simplyuse gaugepressur bar +11 pressure 14.7psi.is compressed constant lf volumeV, = 1 ff at a standard absolute of at temprature a lo volumeV, = 0.5ft" then:

P,.V, = P"'V" P"=-t

. i.e. p, =

o1.lA

LA7pd(L fr = 29.4 Psla -

PNEU ATIc TEcHtIoLoGY Calculaling compression the ratioin lmprial English to or unitsis donein the sameway, p, converted pressure absolule (add 14.7psi) dividedby 14.7psi (oneatmosphere).
P(pslq) cf

10 1.68

20 2.36

3.04

30

40 3.72

50
4.4

60 5.08

70 5.76

80
6.44

90 7.12

100 7.80

On lholher handit wouldbe wrongto use Boyle'sLaw in pneumatics. the caseof toolsas well as In cylinders changeis neverlsothermic alwaysAdiabatic the but change.(Seefunherbelowand pg. 58 - 61 I S O B A R I CC H A N G E Charles Law '...at constant prossure, givnmassol gas increases volume a in -Celsiusrisein temperature --lLaw ot Gay Luaaac
459f,

bv# of its volumelor everydegree

gysrvoprisein temoerature. 191

Y/7= constant, so

w=E
v2

v1

T1

and w=+

Exampfe W = 100m3, =9.9, 72=2O.C,W=? 1: I1 We haveto use the absolute temperatures K, thus in ;;;= ztr
100 1 n n . ? q'-::::: ?
273

:;;, .tJ

W=

= 107.326 m'

_>-T

Exampfe !4 = 100ff, f 1 = 40"F,T2= AO"F, = ? 2: VZ Wehave usethabsolute to tompraturesH (Rankine), in thus

4997

1oo- v2
539?

vz= 19!Ij!2Z=1ssrt"
4997

ISOCHOFIC HANGE C 'at constant volume,the pressure proportional the temperatur" is to ('lsochoric" comestromth Greekwordsropo Osad"chora'),for space,fieldetc. , and roo- , "iso' = equal)

so TT:T,Z

P1.P2

ano

T2 P=nT1
->T

Wheref is the absolute temprature K (Kelvin) R (Rankine). in or

The previous relationships combind provide generalgas equation: are to the

p't v1

pzw

EUHATIC TECHNOLOGY

pneumatic equipment to basistor calculalion designor selct This law providss one of the mainthofetical \ haveto be considered. twhen temperature changes C ( A D T A B A T T CI S E N T R O P l C ) H A N G E so The previous Lawsassumea slowchange, onlythe two considered -for magniludes changing. praciice, example whenair flowsintoa are h 'adiabatic ThenBoyle's chang'occurs. cylinder, is nol the caseand this to Law ' p.Vis constant changes p. lA= constant. " dtail, diagram the It wouldtake too muchtimeto go intograter w illustrates ditference the clearlyenough: see that thereis a lossof We volumewhenpressure buildsup quickly. will meetthis law againwhen of discussing air consumption cylinders. the S T A N D A R DV O L U M E to volume,pressure it between and temperature, is necessary reterall Dueto thesemutualrlationships of the standard cubic meter (m"r), Delined the air quantity as volume, daia on air volumeto a standardized pressure 760 mm Hg (101325Pa)-- or the and an absolute ol 1.293kg massal a temperature ooC of pressure 14.7psi) havinga of standardcubic foot (scf) whichis oncubicfoot of air at sea lvel(absolute humidity 360/o. of temperature 680F a relative of and FLOW practice The basicunitfor volumetlow "O' is the Normal CubicMeterper second(m"%).In pneumatic per volums expressed termsof litrsper minute(l / min)or normalcubicdecimeters minute(dm?min). are in (sclm). cubicfoot p6r minute", unit l The usualnon-metric tor volumetlowis the "standard ) Bernoulll's Equatlon Bernoulli states: 'lf a liquidof specific througha tubwithvaryingdiameters, totalenergyat the aravityflowshorizontalty point1 and 2 is the same'

or,pt + | p. v't2= Fe+ L P ' v 2 z 2

pressure, velocity The relationship the between to ol the air, andthe densityot the air (p) applies gases if the flow speeddoes not xced 3a)0 m/s (tysec)can be approx.(1083tusec).Velocity calculated: v= 0.054Q /D'?(O is cfm, D is i.d. in inches) are Applications this equation the venturitube of regulators. and tlowcompensalion pressure in AIR HUMIDITY a of present depend Atmospheric alwayscontains percentage watervapor.The amountof moisture air will on the atmospheric humidity temprature. and Whenatmospheric coolsit will reacha certainpointat whichit is saturaledwith moisture, is known air this the dew polnt. lf the air coolsfurtherit can no longerreiainall lhe moisture thsu|plusis expelled and as \as Tminiature droplets torm a condensate. to

-----+ v1 Flg. 3.6 illustralion Bemoulli's of Law

-->

P N E U I I A T IT E c H N o T o G v c The actualquantity waterlhat can be rtained ol depends on 1mt entirely temperalufe; of comprssd air is only capableof holding samequantity watervaporas 1m3 almospheric the of of air.

The tablebelowshowsthe number gramsof waterper cubicmeter(andcubicteet)tor a wide of lemperalure rangetrom-40'C to +40"Cand from--400Fto 200 oF.The boldline refersto atmospheric with air fhe volumeat the lemperature question. in The thin line givesthe amountof waterpet Standard Cubic . dimension. air consumption normally All is exprssed standard in volume;this makescalculation unnecessary Forthe lemperature rangeof pneumalic applications tablebelowgivesthexactvalues.The upprhalt the refersto temperatures abovelrezing, lowerto belowfreezing. the The upperrowsshowthe contentof a slandard cubicmeter,the loweronesthe volumeat thgiventemperature.
Temperature oC g/m'n *(Standard)
3

0
4.98

5
6.99 6.E6
-5

l0
9.86

l5 20 25 30 35 t3.76 18.99 25.94 35.12 4 7 . 1 9 -t5 1.52

l.6l

40
OJ.UJ

g/m (Atrnospheric) 4.98 Temperrture oC 0 4.98 g/m'n (Standard) g/m (Atmospheric) TempersturoF giftr *(Srandard) gifC (Ahospheric)

3.36

9.5 t -10 2.28

13.04 17.69 23.76 3t.64 4 1 . 8 3 5 4 . 1 1

-20 1.00 1.08 100

1.48

0.u
0.7

-25

-30 0.4
0.45 140 4.53

-35 0.25

40
0.15

4.98 32 .137 32 .t37 40

.188 .185

o.29
160
7.44 5.82

0.18

60
.4
- 3t J

Temprature "F

s/fC (Shndard) g/ft' (Atmospheric)

30
ItA

.r37

.177

.083
.085

20

60 .78 .71 l0 .053 .056

t.z9
0 .033 .036

120 2.65 2.2? -10 .020 .023

lm
I l.8l

3.67 -20

.ot2
.014

-30 .007 .009

8.94 40 .004
.005

Tabla 3.7 WaterSaturation Air (DewPoint) of (80-32) The term g/tf standard rfers a volumeat gzoF. BooF volumeis extended l+ to At it.s to or l.i tf 459? Consequently haveone standard to cubicloot at 80oF, tf of atmospheric at 800F required 1.1 air are with all its watercontent; that makes1.1 x 0.71= 78 gramsol water. so Relative humtdlty With the exceptionof extremeweatherconditions,such as a suddentemperaturedrop, atrnosphericair is neversaturated.The ratioof the actualwatercontenlandthat of the dew pointis calledrelative humidity, and is indicated a percentage. as Relatlvehumldlty (r.h.) =

qu.ntlty (dewpoint) saturatlon

actual water content

1ovh

Erample 1: Temperature 25oG,r.h.65"/0.Howmuchwateris crntainedin 1 m3? Dewpoint2soo= 24glm".0.65= 15.6g/mt Whenair is compressed, capacity holding its for moisture vaporform is onlythat of its reduced in volume. Hence,unless temperature the risessubstantially, waterwill condense out. Erample 2: 1o m3 ol almospheric at 15oc and 65yor.h. is compresssd 6 bar gaugepressure. air to The temperature allowed riseto 25oC. How muchwaterwill condense is to out? FromTable3.7:At 1soo,10 m3 air canholda maximum 13.04g/m..10m" 130.4 of = of g

P NE U A T I c T E c H t t o L o G Y At 650/o the air will conlain130.4g '0.65= 84.9g {a) r.h. can air volumeol compressed at 6 bar pressur be calculated: The reduced

pl'v1 = pzvz =

p;

v1 = v2 = +H#

'10 = 1.44 mc m3

of air FromTable 1.44m3of at 25oCcanholda maximum 23'76g '1'44 = 34.2g (b) 3.7 air equalsthe totalamountof waterin the air (a) minusthe volumethat ihe compressed Condensation oul' (b), hEnce84.9- U.2 = 50'6 I of waterwill condense can absorb in to air beforethe compressed is distributed, avoidharmfuletfecte lhe muslbe rmoved Thiscondensate components. lineand the pneumatic in r.h.65%. Howmuchwateris conlained I ff? 800F, Example3: Temperalure Dewpoint80"F= 0.71g/ ff. 0.65- o.aog/ff Observethat the metric chart dimenslonswould exhlbll ldentical relationshipswhen convertedto lmperialunlts.
g HzO/m 3 500

't5

t0 5

0.1 0

from Flg. 3.8 Dewpointsfor tempratures -0 to aboul+80"C pointsot a cubicmeterat the related temperature, thin curveat the Thboldcurveshowslhe saturation volume. standard

P N E U I , | A T IT E c H N o L o G Y c PRESSURE ND FLOW A The mostimportant pressur flow. relatlonshlptor pnGumatics that btwen is and THEYARENOTTHESAME. NOTTHINK DO TEFMS..,e.g.a 'Iow THEYARE INTERCHANGEABLE conlrolis nol a regulalor (repeatas rquirod tlow and pressure untilretained), is the relationshio lt between that we will nowconsider. ll thereis no tlow,the pressure an entiresystemis the sameat everypoint,but whenthereis flowfrom in one Pointto another, pressure the latterwill alwaysbe lowrthatat the first.This difference calld th in is pressure drop.ll dspendson threevalues: . initialpressure . volumeof f low . llow resistance the connection of The flow resistance air has no unit;in electricity equivalent Ohm (Q). In pneumatics, opposile for its is th6 of resislance used,the equivalenl is flow section(S, kv or C" factor)-- a conductance value.The equivalent tlowsectionS is expressed mm' and represents areaof an oriticein a thin plate(diaphragm) in the which crsatesthe samerelationship pressures flow as th6 lement b6tw6en and detinedby it. Valveshave complicated oritic shapes, therefore flow ratethroughlhe deviceis measured lhe first,and thenthe device may be assigned corresponding the equivalent section. easyapproximation flow An wouldbe that: C, ol 1= 18Smm', equivalent e.g. orifice 18 mm' equals flowof aC, i. of the This relationship by dotinition sameas in electricity, is the wherefuoltage dropequalscurrenttimes resistance". can be transformed pneumatics "pressure This for to dropequalsflowdividedby FlowSection", only,whilethe electricunitsare dkectlyproportional, relationship air is very complexand neversimply lhe lor proportional. electricity, cunntot 1 A (oneAmpere) In a creates, overa rosistor I Ohm,a voltagedropof 1 of Volt. Regardless this dropis trom 100to 99 or from 4 to 3 volts,the pressure if dropoverthe sameobiectand withthe samestandard volumeflow varieswiththe initialpressure the and alsowiththe temperature. Reason: compressibility the air. of For defining one ot the four interrelated previously, data,mentioned fromthe oth6rthra6,we requirea diagram.
10

Sonic Flow

(jn (s..4r/ ,nin)

O (dmgn/min)

pressure Flg, 3.9 Diagram showing relationship th betwn and flowfor an oriticewith an equivalnt Flow Sectionof 1 mm"

PNEU

ATIC TECHNOLOGY

a Whenthe airrlowreaches of The triangle the lowerrightcornermarksthe rang "sonicflowspeed". in -- whatver ditference pressure of the speedcloseto lhe spedof sound'flowcan no longerincrease This insidethis triangle. inputand outputmightbe. As you can se,all the curvesdropvertically between drop,but onlyon the inputpressure. on meansthat the flowno longerdepends the pressure lJse of the diagram: At bothinputand outputpressure. the firstverticallineon the The pressure scaleat the lettside indicates lor are lett,whichrepresents zgroflow,inputand outpulpressures the same.The variouscurves, inpul a withincreasing flow' pressures decreases howthe outpulpressure lrom 1 to 10 bar,indicate 5 drop 1 bar = outputpressure bar.We followthe curve"6'to the Example1:lnputpressure bar,pressure 6 pointwhereit cutsthe horizontal marked'$. Fromtherewe go vertically downto the Flowscale line (dotted line)and tindabout55 ymin.The 9.44 l/minwrittenbelowthat lineis the exactvalue,calculated 'StandardVolume definethe so-call6d Theseinputand outputpressures withthe formulafurtherbelow. ot for ot FlowOn",a figuretoundin valvecatalogues a quickcomparison the flowcapacity valves. orifice"S" fining,tubetc.)withan equivalent to The VolumeFlowof 9.44 l/minapplies an element(Valve, an of 1 mm'. lf an lement for example "S' ot 4,5 mm',the flowwouldbe 4.5 timeshigher,in this case4.5 has . 54.44limin= 245 Umln ot of Example2: Givenan element wilh an 'S'ol 12 mm",a workingpressure 7 barand an air consumption

pressure result? will 600ymin. What output

through an corresponds a llowof ff = 50 l/min with A flowof 600l/min through "y ot 12mm" an this of quivalent We for section 1 mm'?. need conversion theuseof thediagram lig.3.9.Wenow of A line it with line follow curve the starting 7 baruntil intersects th6vertical tor 50l/min. horizontal ai about bar. 6.3 towards Dressure indicates the scale
Formu tae: fromthe diagram, flow the Whenit is required havea morexactvaluethanthat whichcan be estimated to with formulae. can be calculated one of the two following A glanceat the diagram fig. 3.9 makesit clear,thattheremustbe ditfernt lormulae the sonicflow lor of rangeand the "subsonic" condition. transient flow The fromsubsonic sonicflow is reached, to whnthe pressurc ratioof the absolute inputand outsutpressures lssor equalto 1.896: is pl + 1,013<1.896. (pA+1.013) Sonic tlow: pl + 1.013> 1.896. (pa +1.013) Subsonlcflow: The Volume floweouals: flow Olor subsonic

' Q = x2.2 .5.{(pa + 1.013)(pl -pa) (vmin)

andfor sonicflow: .S.(p1 + 1.013) (Umin) O= 11,1
'

Soundis, after all, vibrating air molerules.Thus the "speedof sound" (sonic condition, Mach #) is the trminalvelocity air drop -- andmaximumflow occursat a certain % I for air movemenl For comprcssed to !!99 therc mustbe a prcssure (up to 100%)but maximumflow (for whatevr pressure greaterpressure drop. Therc can be a drop sizeorifice) occursat 46% of pr

EUTATtcTEcHNoLocY

whers inmm'and inbar; isa constant theouarion , which liters 60 seconds per p per S is and 22.a with ffi torce(delined theruling pressure). by Notethata pneumalic systsm nev6r flowconditions, a supply as can operat satislactorily sonic under pressure forexample, barwould of, giveuslessthan2.7barforwork. 6 Erample 3:W catculate flow,assumed example withaninputpressure 7 bar,a totalequivalnt th in 2, of flowsection 12mm2 valvsandtubes thecalculated pressure 6.3bar: of for and working ot 't2 . Q = 22.2. Umln. !7.313'0.7 = 602.74 Thisshows theaccuracy thediagram sufficient practical pneumatic that of is for us.
tn Imperlal unlts The formulafor subsonic flow: e = 224lc." And lor sonicflorir: Q=0.486C, (p2+14.7)

t,.

P ro!

=
at) n

e '

= r9
.|l

prasauro (wrtical [nes) in psig Downstream

Flg. 3.10Air tlowcurvesfor a deMcehavinga C, of 1.0 (derivd from the abovetwo tormulae) Flowat a certainpressure dropcan be derivd from Fig.3.10. pressur) Selectlh pl (upstream lrom the diagonal and tollowstraight line acrossto the verticalaxis-- this is the maximum flowat that pressure. Nowselct pressure a droptromither bottomnumbers the pressure) from the numbers thouterarc of the gfaph(Ap in psi). Next,lollovv curveol (downstram or on the pl yourp2 or Ap slection thenfollowstraight the selec{ed untilit intersects and acrossfrom that pointto the verticalaxisto find tlowin sctm.

T PNEUT,|ATIC ECHNOLOGY

your resultlrom tig' 3' 10 by 2, C, has The resultsare linear, .g.il the devicein application a C, ot 2.0 multiply by of 0.5 multiply one half,etc. find 100psig on the this drop- to discover for yourself that llow occursat a cgrlainpressure Observ critical 46 p2 horizontal and notethat p2 is approximately axis downto the flowline.Dropstraight diagonal critical flow.Therecan be a produces maximum 46% psia.This confirms a pressure dropot (approximatelyl that greaterdropin pressure tlow wlll not Increase. but (withso many drop.In realworldapplications a that useof Fig.3.10 requites knownpressure Obsorve of will individual relyon a safeestimate whata to comeby, so lhe cautious is variables) knowledge difficult this The NFPA dropis verydifficult. a system's actualpressur pressure drop;ught to be. Predicting desird pressure dropof 15%. group)recommends maximum (National a a FluidPowerAssociation, U.S.standards ot Example1:Howmanysctmwill flowthrougha valvewitha C, of 1.0 givena supplypressure 80 psig and a psi pressure 20 drop? Fromthe chartFig.3.10find 80 psigon the criticalflowline.Next,lind 60 psig (80 psigminusa 20 psi vertically fromthe 60 psigtind the pre*suredrop)on the horizontral at the bottom. Moving axis acrossto the verticalaxis llow line)and movestraight intersection the 80 psigcurve(fromthe critical of 38 wherethe answerot approximately scfmwill be tound, for and Example2: A flowof 40 sctmis required an application supplyis 60 psig.WhatsizeC" mustall comDonents exceed? (e.9.a flowsto atmosphere Fromthe chartFig.3.10findlh scfmot a C" ot l.0. It the application or involvos otherdevices(e.9,cylinders will be used;if the application "blow-off)the criticalflowsc{m pressure drop.Observe thatat 60 psigsupplya q of 1.0orifice the ruleof thumb157o actuators) use 24 drop (p2is 51 psig)the llow is approximately will flowapproximately scfm.Witha 15"/.pressure 36 -- andthusa C" of morelhan 1.66will provide scfm(1.66x 24 = 40). 40 sctm wilh sizingof components and dealing on For moreinformation C" pleasereterto pages84 and tollowing sy$ems.

P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y

COMPRESSORS
energy motorinlo the potnlial engrgyof an eleclricor combustion the A comprssor convrts mechanical of comoressed air. and Reciprocating Rotary. Air compressors intotwo maincategories: lall are withinthesecatgories shownin fig 4.1. The principal typesot compressors

Compressors Displacement

Systems used Fig. 4.1The MainCompressor'types for Pneumalic RECIPROCATINCOMPRESSORS G SIngle stage Plston Compressor pressure is Air taknin at atmospheric r pressure a single in to t compressed the required stroke. Downward movment thpistonincreases of volumeto createa loweroressure thanthat of the atmosphere, causingair to ent6rthe cylinder throughthe inletvalve. At the end of the stroke,the pistonmoves upwards, inletvalveclosesas the alr is th compressed, forcingthe oulletvalveto open tank. discharging intoa r6c6iv6r air usdin Thistypeot comprssor genrally is systemsrequiring in the 3-7 bar rang. air

Flg. 4.2 SingleStagePistonCompressor Two stage Platon Compressor above6 bar,the excessive In a single-stage compressor, whenair is compressed heatcreatedgreatly reduces efficiency.Because this,pistoncompressors th of usedin industrial compressed syslemsare air usuallytwo stages, pressure compressed two stagesto the finalpressure. is in Air takenin at atmospheric \ )

PNEU ATIc TEcH oLoGY

It the finalpressur is 7 bar,the firststage normally compresses the air to approximately 3 bar,afterwhichit is cooled,ll is thenfed inlo the secondslage cylinder whichcomit Dresses to 7 bar. The compressed air entrs second lhe stagcylinder a at reducd tem9reatly peratur afterpassing throughlhe int6rcooler,thus improving etficiency compared to that ot a singlestage unit.The final delivery temperature may be in th regionof 120"C. Dlaphngm compressor Diaphragm providecompressed compressors air in the 3-5 bar rangetotallytree of oil and are therefore widelyusdby tood,pharmaceutical and similarindustries. provides changein chamber The diaphragm a volume.This allowsair intakein the downstroke and compression the up stroke. in Smaller types,witha fractional electric HP motorand smallreseryoir portable makepossible compressoci, ideallor spraypainting, Flg. 4.4 Diaphragm Comprssor

Flg. 4,3 Two StagePistonCompressor

Output

P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

I R O T A R YC O M P R E S S O R S I Rotaty stldlng vane comPressor mounted This hasan eccentrically rotorhavinga seriesof vanessliding in radialslols. cenldtugal As the rolorrotales, ,orceholdsthe vanesin contaclwith the statorwall and the space between trom bladesdecreases th6 adiacent the so air inletto outlet, compressing air. and Lubrication sealingis oil achieved inlecting intothair by streamnearthe inlet.The oil also acts as a coolantto limitthe delivery tempeture. 9crew compressor

Fig.4.5 Van Compressor

helicalrotorsrotatein opposite Two meshing them directions. freespacebetween The decrases axiallyin volumeand this the compresses air trappedbetweon rotors the 1 (figa.6.). a ' provides lubrication sealing and Oil flooding screws. separators Oil lhe between two rotating remov oil fromthe outletair. this of highflow ratesin xcess 400 Continuous at tromlhesmachines m"/min obtainable are pressures to l0 bar. up this Moreso thanthe VaneCompressor, type pulse-free offersa continuous of compressor delivery. type of air The mostcommon industrial machine, compressor stillthe reciprocaling is although screwand vanetypsartinding increasing favor. R COMPRESSOR ATING

( Drive (

Flg 4.6 Scr6wComprossor Principle

volume, 'Theoretical as or lntakeVolume", may alsobdescribed displaced a litors/min. Thcapacity pistoncompressor is basedon: it tigure.For a theortical = lengthin dm) x (# ot tirststagecylinders) (rpm) x areain dm') x (stroke Q (Umin) (piston x x x areain in'?) (strokelengthin inches) (# ol lirsi stagecylinders) (rpm))/ 1728 O (cfm)= ((piston only shouldbe considered. compressor, the firstsiagecylinder In the caseof a two-stage and is The effective delivery alwayslessdueto volumetric thermallosses.

VolumsFlow,givenin m3yy's /min,dm13/s or as or or capacity outputis stated Standard A compressor

P N E U u a r r cT E c H i r o L o c v The volumeloss is inevitable, it is not possibl discharge of lhe compressed tromthe cylinder as to all air at the end ot lhe compression stroke,thereis somespacelett,the secalled "deadvolume". Thermallossoccursdue to the lact that duringcompression air assumes very hightemperature; a the therelore volumeis increased decreases its and (seeCharlesLaw whencoolingdownto ambienttemperature in section3). Volumetrlc Et clency .. treeair delivered I ne ratlo: expressed a prcentage knownas lhe volumelric as is etficiency, will vary and -Eii;;;ft;with lhe size,type and makeot machine, numberof stagesand ths tinal pressure.The volumetric efficiency ot a two-siage compressor lesslhan that of a singlestag6typas boththfirstand secondstagecylindeis is havg dadvolums. Thermal and Overall Etficlency Besidethe lossesdescribed above,thereare also thermalefiects,whichlowerthe tticiencv the air ot compr6ssion. Theselossesreduce overalletficiency the furtherdepending thcompression on ralioand load. A compressor workingat almosttull capacity greatheatandioses efficiency. a two srage accumulatgs In compressor, compression the ratioper stageis lessand thair, partlycompressed a firststagecylinder, in is cooledin an inter-coolr beforecompression tinalpissure a secondstagecylinder. to in Example:lf the atmospheric takenin by a firsl stagecylinder, compressed a thirdof its volume,the air, is to absolulepressur its outletis 3 bar.The heat,developed this relatively compression, al by low is correspondingly The compressed is then led to a secondstagecylinder, low. air throughthe intercooler,and then againreduced a thirdof its volume.The linal pressureis then 9 bai abs. to The heatdevloped compressing sameair volumein a singlestagedirectty by the tromatmospheric pressure 9 bar.!.,wouldbe muchhigherand the ovrall lo efficiency severelyreduced. The diagramin fig. 4.7 compares typicaloverall the efficiencies singlsand two of stagecomprssors with 901" varioustinalprssures. I 8O7o Totall For low final pressures, a Etlicienw70% singlestagecompressor is I 6o% better,as its purevolumtric I efticiency higher. is With increasing final pressure Final Pressure however, thermallosses becomemoreand more importantand two stagtypes, Flg. 4,7 Overallefficiency Diagram havinga higherthermal etficienry, becompreterable.

The specltic energy con3umptlon is a measure of.theoveralleflicienryand can be usdto stimate the genorating cost of compressed As an average air. figure,it can be assumed that one kW of olectrical energyis ymin(= 0.12...0.15 neededfor the production 120-150 of mgn/ min/ kW),tor a workingpressure Z bar or 1 of HP ot electrical energyis neededto produce 4-5 cfm at a workingpressure 100 psi. of Exactfigureshaveto be established according the type and size of compressor. to

P N E U M A T I CT E C H I { O L O G Y

R roM P R E S S OA C C E S S O R I E S
AIR RECEIVER or inslalled horizontally vertically vesselot weldedstelplateconslruction, An air r@iver a pressure is the air,therebydamping initialpulsations ihe to lrom the aftercooler receiv compressod direc y downstream in lhe air llow. in heavydemands excessof compressor air Its main,unctions io storesutticient to meettemporary at 'loading'and 'unloading'ot lhe compressor, il also provides additional but fr6quent capacity, minimize and further' To beforethe air is distributed cirded ovrfromthe aftercooler, to oil cooling precipitate and moisture in to this end it is an advantage placethe air receiver a cool location. gauge,drain,and inspection coversfor checking The vesselshouldbe fittedwitha safeg valve,pressur inside. or cleaning Slzlng a tecelver the output,sizeof thsyslemand whlher demandis to Air receivers sizedaccording the compressor are rlatively constanl variabl. or plants,supplying network, normally swilched and otf on a are in Electrically drivencompressors industrial pressuro. This is Thisaontrol called"automatic". needsa certain btween minimum a maximum a and switching. minimum receiver volumeto avoidoverfrequent pressure reachd, bul is whena maximum arc ngine notstopped Mobilecompressors a combustion with withoulbeingcompressed. valvesare liftedso thatlhe air can freelyflowin and out of the cylinder the suction idle compressing running is quitesmall.ln this caseonlya small and The pressure difference belween plants, rulof thumbfor the sizeof the reservoir is: For induslrial the

is I receiver needed. J

'

Air recelvercapaclty > comprssoroutput of compressedair pcl minute, (Not FreeAlr) tor and as muchas x3 for small Somewouldsuggest factorof x1.5whensizinga receiver a largesystem, a comoressors. is of Exampletcompressor delivery cfm (freeair)and an outputpressure 100psi,Whatsize reciver 600 rquired? t P"v=l p1+ 147 Where V = capacity rceiver of outpul(clm) Q = compressor plsssurc Pa = atmosphric P1 = compressoroutsul pressure =77lf as a minimum number, prudent a suggestion mightbeginwith 120ft". V = (600'14.7y(10O+14.7) INLET FILTER

40 i.e. solidparticls, dust,dirt,pollen,etc.per m".ll this air A typicalcityatmosphore contain million can wouldbe 320 millionpartsy'ms 7.8 millionparts/ff, An or werocompressed 7 bar,lhe concentration to ol is and witha suitable important condition th6 roliability durability a compressor that it mustbe provided tor pistonrings,tc.whichis causedmainlyby the prevent wearof cylinders, excessive filterto . and efficient eftectof thesimpurities. I abrasive

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

The lilter mustnot btoo tine as the compressor to due and etticiency decreases to highresistance airflow,. so vrysmallparticles (2-5y) cannotbe removed. The air intakeshouldbsitedso that,as lar as possible, cleandry air is drawnin, with intakepipingol sufticionlly largediameter avoidexcessive pressure to to drops. Whena silenceris used,it may be arranggd includethe ah filter,whichwill be locatedupstram the silencer position, that it is subjectd minimum to ot so pulsalion etfcts.

AIR DEHYDRATION
AFTERCOOLERS Atterfinalcompression, air will b6 hot and whgncooling, deposit the quantities the will waterin considerable in airlin system, whichshouldbe avoidBd. The mosteftective way to remove maiorpartof this condensate the is to subieclthe air to aftercooling, immediately aftercompression. Aflercoolers heatexchangers, are beingeitherair-cooled watercoold or units. Alr cooled Consisting a nestof tubes of throughwhichthe compressed air flowsand over whicha lorceddratt of cold air is passedby meansol a fan assembly. typicalexample A is shown fig.4.8. in The outlttemperature the of cooledcompressed shouldbe air approximately 15"C (60oF)above the ambientcoolingair temperature. Water cooled Essentially, stelshellhousing a tubeswith watercirculating onsideand air on the other,usually on arranged that the llow is in opposite so directions through cooler.The the is shownin fig. 4.9

Flg. 4.8 Principle an Air CooledAttercooler of

Air Input

AirOutsut

Cooling WaterOUT

Fig.4.9Principle a Water ol Cooled Aftercooler A water-cooled aftercooler should nsure theairdischarged that would approximately (50oF) be 1ooo above temperature thecooling the of water. An automatic attached or integral theaftercooler drain to with removes accumulated the @ndensation.

PNEU ATtc TEcHt{oLoGY

that gauge, it is recommended pressure and valve, with should equipped a satety be Attercoolers are lempraturs included. to air themometers sensors monitor andwater or

PitEU ATlc TEcHNoLocY AIR DRYERS

Aftercoolers the air to within10-1socof the coolingmedium.The conlroland operating cool elements ot thpneumatic systemwill normally al ambient (approx. 20cC). This may suggestlhat no be temperature lurthercondensate be precipilated, that the remaining passesout withthe exhaustair will and moisture released almosphere.However, tomperature the air leaving aftercooler to the the may be higherthanthe of sunounding passes, example lemperalure throughwhichthe pipeline duringnighttime.This situation for cools the compressed turther, air thus condensing moreof the vaporintowater. The measure employed lhe dryingot air is lowering d6w point,whichis the temperature whichthe in the at air is fullysaluratd (i.e.100% with moisture humidity). lowerthe dew point,the lessmoisture The remainsin the comoressed air. Thereare threemaintypesof air dryersavailable, whichoperateon an absorption, adsorplion, or refrigration process. Absorptlon (dellquescent) Drylng The compressed is forcedthrougha air dryingagentsuchas dehydrated chalkor magnesium chloride whichremainsin solid form,lithiumchloride calciumchloride or which reactswiththe moisture form a solution to whichis drainedfromthe bottomof the vessel. The dryingagenlmustb replenished at regularintervals the dew pointincreases as as a functionof consumption the saltduring of operation, a pressure but dew pointof soc at 7 bar is possible oFat 100 psi). (40 The mainadvantages this methodare of that it is of low initialand operating cost,but the inlettmperature mustnot exceed3OoC, thchemicals involved highlycorrosive are necossitaiingcarelully monitoredfiltefing to ensurethat a fine conosivemist is not canied ovrto the pneumatic system. Flg. 4.10 Principle the Absorption Dryer of Air

PNEU$ATIC TECHNOLOGY

ldsorptlon (deslccant)Drylng
A chemical suchas silica gel or aclivaled in alumina granular in form is containd a to vertical chamber physically tromthe adsorbmoisture compressed passing air is throughit. Adsorption a physical process a liquid of to ol adhering lhe surtace (a certainmaterials sponge retaining moisture absorbs, -intErnally adsorbis a surface etfect). Whenthe dryingagentbecomes by saturated is regenerated it drying,heating, by a flow or, of previously driedah as in fig. 4.11. Wet comoressed is air supplied through directional a controlvalveand passes throughdesiccant column1. The driedair flowslo the outletport, Between 10-20% the dry of to moisture tromthe desiccant rto air passesthrough orifice02 and column2 in reverse direction re-adsorb generate it, (dropping temperature furthr, The dry air entersthe saturated and expands the the chamber making dry process), The regenerating air ffectively evenmoredry to facililate regenerating the airllowgoesthento periodically a timeror a sensorto altemately Thdirectional controlvalveis switched by exhaust. allowthe supplyair to one columnand regsnrating other,to provide the continuous air. dry -40 Extremly dew pointsare possible low withthis method, example 40oC(whichis, oddlyenough, for "F). A colorindicator may be incorporated the desiccant monitor degreeof saturation. in to the Microlilteringis essentlal on the dryeroutleito prevent carryoverof adsorbent mist.Initialand operating costsare comparatively high,but maintenance costst6ndto be low. 1 Column 2 Column

Dry Output Air

Exhaust
InputWetAir

Air of Fig,4.11Principle theAdsorption Dryer

E U m A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

nel gerant drylng Thisis a mechanical incorporating unit exchangers. circuit a retrigeration andtwohat
Humidhightemperature air is Dre-cooled the tirsl in heatexchanger by O part translerring ol its heatto the cooledoulpulair. It is thencooledby the principle heat retrigerator of xtraction a resultol as evaporating Freongas in th6 refrigerator circuit,in heat exchanger At this time, @. moisture and oil mists condense and are automatically drained. The cold dry air retum pipepasseslhroughair heat exchanger and gainsheat @ tromthe incoming high temperaturG This air. pr6v6nts dew formingon the discharge outlet,increases volumeand lowersrelative humidity.

DryAir OUT HotAir lN

O Heat Exchanger inputair / outpulair @ HeatExchanger inputair / treon @ Freoncooler (tor @ Ventilator 3) @ Freon @ Thermostatic @ Airfilter @ Auto Drain .i> Heat Flg. 4.12 Principle the Refrigerated Dryer of Air

Anoutput temperature 2oC possible modem ol is by methods, although output temperature SoC an air of is sufficient most tor common applications compressed lnlettemperaturos be upto 60oC it is more of air. may but economical precoolto runat lower lo inlet temperaturs. As a general thecostof drying rule, compressed maybe 10.20% thecostof compressing air of air. Thecostof notdrying compressed is seenin increased air maintenanceall pneumatic of components usd plus in lhe system, lhe associated increased dowhtime, exceeding costs adding drying far the of a system.

EUMATICTECHNOLOGY

l l V l a i ni n e f i l t e r
after filtershouldbe installed A largecapacity oil the air receiver removecontamination, lo lrom the and vaporsfromthe compressor, watr to mustbe sizedaccording air. Properselection the systemflow.ln somcasesthereare lwo mainlinefillers(onein reserve sorying as change-- which backupduringthe filterelement scheduled mainlenance shouldbe a rgularly item). pressure Thisfiltermusthavea minimum dropandthe capability remove vaporlrom to oil in the compressor orderto avoidemulsitication (seenas a white,milkyliquid) withcondensation in the line. It has no deflector, whichrequires certain a pressur properly minimum dropto tunction as the 'StandardFiltei' discussed laterin the A sectionon Air Treatment. built-in an or aulo drainwill ensurea regular attached waler. discharge accumulated of type. The lilter is generally quick-change a cartridge not Notethat the propersystemposition this deviceis afterthe dryingsystem, iust atterthe compressor. for [IR DISTRIBUTION the systsmcarrying air to the various consumors. The air mainis a permanently installed distribution can installed the ceilinglev6l(where temperatures be al thirhighestlevels- whichfosters th6 Typically at process in and moisture), air maincan be a tremendous sourceof contamination the installation entrained the duringnormaluse. process the Duringthe installation cars mustbe takento reduce metalfilings,pipedope,and otherforeign thal The seem materials will be generald fromassembly. largesizof mostair mainsmakescontamination ( is to acceptable a question relalivity this point),yet whenthe contaminalion seenrelative the extremely of at gripprs.....) eflectcan be (valves, actuators, in the smalltolrances mod6mautomation components disastrous. (connecting buildings, prhaps two It the air maincomesin contact withoutside temperatures air being producer. routedunderground, it will serveas a moisture etc,) by-product. Careful xamination As manymainsare ironpipe,rustis the eventual shouldbe madewhen presents itselfand a new airlineis to be cr6ated, reusing olderpipesto createa new airline.ll the opportunity consider pipingconfiguration well. the as Thereare two mainlayoutconligurations: DEADENDLINEand RINGMAIN.Afterexamining 4.14and wouldbe prelerred bettersupplyflow.The 4.15it shouldbecome apparent the Ringmainconfiguration that for pip)but lhe advantages be enjoyed additional cost is a one-time can concem(lorthe additional everyday ot operation.

FillerCartridge

Bowl Glass

DrainValve Fi9.4.13 Typical LineFilter

Eu Atrc TEcHNoLocy

-^

-...

:.._

.\.:..

( \ .

Flg. 4.14TypicalDeadEnd LineMains To assistdrainage, pipework the shouldhavea slopeof about1 in 100 in the direction flow and it should of be adequately At drained. suitableintrvals maincan bbroughtbackto its originalheightby usingtwo th longsweeprightangleb6ndsand arranging drainleg at the low point. a RINGMAIN

t I
i

: ,
a ....'

Flg.4.15Typical RingMain

P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o G Y Thas In a ring mainsvstemmainair can be fdtromtwo sidesto a pointol high consumption. wlll reduce I pressur"diop. However drivescondensate anydirection sutftcient watertake-otfpointswithAuto and in this This limilsthe to valvescan be inslalled dividethe air mainintosections. lsolating Drainsshouldbe provided. periods mainlenance repaar. or of arathat will be shul downduring S E C O N D A R Y I NE S L pipework acts as the air Unlessan efficient aftercooler air dryerare installed, compressed distribution and its throughout length. a coolingsurface and watrand oil will accumulate into waterin the mainpipelrom running lhem, Branchlinesaretakenotf the top of the mainlo prevent instead intodrainage of whichare takentromthe bottomof the mainpipeat eachlow poinlof it. These tubes drain. shouldbe trequently or drained littedwithan automalic The Waterremains The Waterrunsintolhe Auto Drain

Fig 4.15Take-ofis air (a) and Water(b) tor Autodrainsare mor6xpensive inslallinitially, this is otfsetby the man-hours to savedin the operalion but problems to contamination the neglectleadsto compound of of the manual type. With manual draining due

the tubguidesthe float,and is inlernally connected atmoto spherevia the lilter,a reliefvalve, holein the springloadedpiston and alongthe stemof the manual operator. The condensate accumulates at the bottomof the housing and whenil riseshighenough lift to the floatfrom its seal.the prssure the housing in is transmittedto the pistonwhich movesto the righlto openthe drainvalveseatand expelthe water.The floal thenlowerslo shutotf the air supplyto the piston. The reliefvalvelimitsthe pressure behindthe pislonwhenthe floatshutsthe nozzle.This pre-setvalue pistonre-setting a tim6as the captured bleedsotf through tunctional ensures consislent air a leak in th reliet valve.

Pressure Relief Valve

Manual Operation Fig. 4.17 FloatTypeAuto Drain

P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y Fig4.18showsan electrically purgesthe condensate a rotating driventype,whichperiodically by cam wheeltripping lever-operated poppetvalve. a It otfersthe advanlag6s ot beingableto work in any orientalion and is highlyresistant to vibration, lending so ilseltto use in mobile compressors, bus and or lruck pneumatic systems. Fig. 4,18 Motorized Auto Drain S I Z I N GC O M P R E S S E D I R M A I N S A The cost of air mainsrepresents highproportion the initialcost of a compressed installation. a of air A reduction pipediameter, in although lowering investment the cost,will increase air pressure the drop in the potentially oprating system, the costswill riseand will exceedthe additional cost of thlargerdiameter piping. Also,as laborchargesconstitute largepartof the overallcost,and,as this costvariesvery littlebetween a pipe sizes,the cost of installing a 25 mm Dia borepipe is similarto that ol a 50 mm Dia pipe. Butthe flow say capacity the 50mmDia pipewill be tourtimesthat ot 25 mm pipe.This additional of volumemay equaltwo or thre(or more)receiver tank volumes, reducing compressor dutycycles. In a closedloop ring mainsystem, supplyfor any particular the take-otfpointis fed by two pipepaths. pipesize,this dualfeedshouldbe ignored, Whendetermining assuming that at any time air will be supplied throughone pipeonly. The sizeof the air mainand branches determined thlimitation thair velocily,normally is by of recommended 6 m/s,whilesub-circuits a pressure around6 bar and a few mete6 in lengthmaywork at at of at velocilis to 20mls. The pressure up dropfromthe compressor the end of the branchpipe shouldnot to exceed0.3 bar.The nomogram a.l9) allowsus to determine required (fig pipe diameter. th Bendsand valvescauseadditional flow resistance, whichcan be expressed additional (equivalent) pipe as lengthsin computing overallpressure the drop.Table4.20Oives equiva6ntlengths th forthe variousfittings commonly used. Example(a) To dettmine sizeot pip6thatwill pass 16800Umin free air with a maximum the pressure ol drop of not morethan 0.3 bar in 125 m ot pipe.The 2 stagecompressor switches at 8 bar and stopsat 10 on bar;the avrage 9 bar. is 3o kPa pressure dropin 125 m of pipeis equivalent to ffi =o.24 kpaI m.

Refening Nomogram to 4.19:Drawa linefrom 9 baron the pressure through0.24 kPa/ m on the line pressure drop lineto cul lhe referenc at X. line Join X to 0.28m3n/s and drawa lineto intecectthe pipesize linesat approximatly mm. 61 Pipewitha minimum boreof 61 mm can bused.a 65 mm nominalborepipe (seeTable4.21)has a boreol 68 mm and wouldsatisfythe requirements somemargin. with Example(b) lf th 125 m lngth pipe in (a) abovehas a numberof littingsin the line,e.g.,two elbows, of two 90" bends,six standard teesand two gatevalves,will a largersizpipe be necessary limitthe to pressure dropto 30 kPa?

P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O I O G Y

pipelength: equivalent In Table4.20,column"65 mm Dia',we findthe lollowing 2.8m 2. 1.4m twoelbows: two90obends: six standard lees: two gatevalves: 2'0.8 m 6 . 0.7 m 2 . 0.5 m Total = = = 1 . 6m 4.2m 1 . 0m 9.6 m

pipelength10 The twelvefittingshavea flow resistance equaltoapproximately m additional The "E rectiveLength" the pipeis thus 125+ 9.6 -135 m ot and the allowed I r, *#P m = 022 kPa/ m 4p r35 Relerring againto nomogram fig 4.19:The pipesize linewill now cut at almoslthe samedia;a in nominal ot borepipeot 65 mm,withan actualinnerdiameter 68 mm will be satistactory. Note: the Th6 possibility futureair demands shouldbe taien intoaccount whendetermining sizeof mainsfor a of new installation.

E u f r t A T t cT E c H t r t o L o c Y

2 1.5
1

2.O 1.75
1.5

0.5

o.4
0.3
6t

6 7 ..-8 9: 10 11 '12

1.0 0.9 0.8

1.5". 40

o.7 0.6 0.5 0.4

, , o . 1 . .25! 35
0.05 0.04 0.03 o.025 0.02 0.015 0.01

o.3
0.25

o::.
0.15

"p kPa/m = bar/100m PipeLength

Flg. 4.19 Nomogram Sizingthe MainsPipeDiameter for

P N E U M A T I CT E C HN O L O G Y

Type of Flttlng Elbow 90' Bend(lono) 90' Elbow 180' Bend GlobeValve GateValve Tee Standard SideTee Materlels for Ptplng

Nominalplpe 6lze (m!n) 65 40 50 30 1.4 0.8 l.l 0.5 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.8 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.3 0.1 2.6 3.0 1.6 1 . 8 ?.2 1.0 1.2 t.1 2.0 t.2 l.l 0.8 0.5 0.6 4.0 3.4 2.0 2.4 l.l 0.8 0.4 0 . 5 0.3 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.5 0;l 0.4 0.4 o.2 0.2 0.1 2.7 1,6 2.1 1.4 0.5 0.7 0.9 tor PipeLengths lhe mainfittings Table 4,20 Equivalent

t5

20

25

80
1.8

0.9 5.2 0.6 0.9

100 2.4 1.2 5.4 0.9

125 3.2 1.5 7.1

4.1 9.4

t.2

t.5
6.4

t.z

4.1

Standard Gas Pipe (SGP) lorm, which in iron The air mainis usually steelor malleable pipe. This is oblainable blackor galvanized a pipingcan be screwed acceptthe rang proprietary of malleable to is lessliableto corrode.Thistype of to fittings. over80 mm Dia,weldedflanges oflenmoreeconomical installralherthancut threadsinto For are largepipes.The specifications the CarbonSt6elStandard Gas Pipe(SGP)are: ol
Nominal Width B 6 l/8 8 v4 Outside Dia. mm 10.5 Thicknesc mm

l0

3/8 3t4

13.8
I t.J

2.0 2.8 2.8 3.2 3.5 3.5

3.65 3.65 4.05 45

25 3? 40
50 65

20

l5

tn

21.7

27.2
34.O 48.6

Iv4 2 3

I ltz

75 100

2|n

60.3

Mass ks/m 0.4t9 0.652 0.851 1.310 1.680 2.430 3.380 3.890 8.470 12.100
5.100 6.510

76.1 88.9 114.3

T a b l e 4 . 2 1 P i p eS i z e S p e c i t i c a t i o n Stainless steel pipes Thseare primarily in usedwhenvery largediameters longstraight mainlinesare required. Copper Tube Wherecorrosion, heatresislance highrigidity required, and ar coppertubing to a nominal up diameter of 40 mm can be used,but will be relatively costlyovet28 mm. Dia. Compression fittingsusedwith annealed quality tubingprovide easyworking installation. tor

P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

FlubberTube ("Air Hose") Rubber hose reintotced plastic most or is tor suitable airactuaied hand loolsas it otters tlexibility tor treedom movement theoperalor. dimensions pneumatic of tor The of Rubber Hose are:
Nominal Width, inches OutsideDia. Mm lnside Dia. mm Inner SectionalArea mm2 8.04

3/8 5/8 3t4

v8 v4

tn
I

9.2 10.3 t8.5 2t.7 74.t0 29.0

35.4 45.8

3.2 6.3
9.5

t2.7 t5.9
19.0
a<A

31.2 70.9 t99 284 507

r27

1u4 I ltz
1 3t4 2
2lt4*

52.1
60.5 66.8 8 1 l. 90.5

31.8
38.1 44.5 50.8

2 v2*

*Rubberhoseis mainly recommended toolsand olherapplications for wherethe tubis exposed to mchanical wear. Plastic tubing

63.5 3170 fable 4.22 RubberhoseSpecitication. Ctorh-wrappd hose

57.r

2030
25ffi

794 I140 1560

Commonly usedfor the interconnection pneumatic of components. Withinils workingtemperature limitations hasobviousadvantages installation, it tor allowing asycuttingto length,and rapidconnection by eithercompression quick-fit or finings. greater tlxibility tighterbendsor constanlmovement required, softergradenylonor polyurethane for is a . lf is available, it has lowermaximum but safeworkingpressures, awarethat its o.D., nofits intemal Be dimension, callsout tubing.A %"tube hasa typicall.D. of only0.12S".

T PNEUl,taTlc EcHNoLoGY

Flttlngs ln Systems methods by pneumatic are componenls connected various In systems,

a The INSERT type provides reliable forceinsideand oulsideof the retaining the The sleevepresses tubewhen tub. in thcap nut. The tube (inserl) screwing its into entering the tube reduces inner a and thus represenls diameter extraflow resistance. considerabl Insertsleeves not reusable. are of Fig. 4.23 Example an lnsertFitling.

The PUSH- lN connection a large has forceand the useof a special retaining profilesealensures positive sealingfor pressure vacuum. and Thereis no additional has as flow restriction, the connection the the inner sameinnerflowsectionas of diameter thfittingtube. of Reusable hundrds inserlions. lor elbowtype of Flg.424 Example a Push-inFitting,

The SELF-SEALING fittinghas a builtin so mechanism that air doesnot exhaust of atterremoval the tube and is also for applicable copperfree applications. in, a. lf no tube is pushd a check valveshutsotf the fitting. it b Whena tube is inserted, opens th6 lhe air flow by pushing chec*valve from its seat. Flg. 4.25 Example a Self-Seal of Fitting.

T EUrrATtc EcHa{oLocY

5 AIRTREATMENT
moisture previously, atmospheric carriesbothdustand moislure.Aftercompression, air all As described that will be caried over. but and condenss in the aftercooler receiver therewill always bo some out of oil, Moreover particles carbonized pipescaleand otherforeignmatter,suchas wornsealingmaterial, tine by equipment increased effectson pneumatic All tormgummysubstances. of this is likelyto haveinjurious valves. and wear,seal expansion, corrosion sticking sealand component (tiltered) nearas possible the point to as the thesecontaminants, air shouldbe furthercleaned To removB Lubrication' and also includes Pressure Begulation occasionally Air treatment ol use.

FILTERING
S T A N D A R DF I L T E R and waterseparator lilter. It the air has not beende-hydraled The standard tilteris a combined such quantity waterwill be collected the lilter will holdbacksolidimpurities and of beforehand, considerable a as dustand rustoarticles, CleanAir PilotValve

Baffle Plate DrainValve QuietZone Bowl BowlGuard

-.'i\.7
DrainValve Symbol SymbolFilter/Separator Filter/Separator with Auto Drain Fig. 5.1 TypicalFilter/Water and Drainas option Separator an Automatic of occursmainlyby a rapidrotation the air,causedby the detlector at the inlet. The The waterseparation particles did, walerand oil arelhrownoutwards impaclon the wall of the ftlterbowlbetore to heavier ot The liquidcanthenbe drained through manualdraincock or an off a running downto collectat the bottom. th a the liquid automatic drain.The baffle plate creates quietzonebeneath swidingair, prventing separated into frombeingre-entrained the air stream.

P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c v The filterelementremoves tinerparticles dust,rust scaleand carbonized as the air flowsthrough lhe of oil to the oullel. The standard element removo contamination will all downto 5 micronsin size. Some Darticles eloments be easilyrmoved, can cleanedand re-used numberof timsbetoreneeding be rplaced to a because excessive pressure of drop. The bowlis normally madefrom polycarbonate. satetya metalbowlguardmustprotectit. For For chemically hazardous environmenls mustbe used.Wherethe bowlis exposed heat, specialbowl materials to sparkselc, a metalbowlshouldbe used. lf the condensate accumulates a highrateit is desirable provide at to draining. automatic The righthandside of Fig.5.1 showsa floattype of autodrainunitbuilt-in standard ,ilter. for Micro Filters or Coalescrs Wherecontamination by oil vaporis undesirable, a micro-tilter used.Being is a Dure filterit is not equipped with a detlector ptate. The alr tlows from the inlet to the center of th fllter cartridge then outwards through the outlet. Dustis trappedwithin the microfilterelement, the oil vaporand watermistis convrted liquidby a into coalescing actionwithin the lilter material, torming dropson the filtercartridge lo collecl at th bottomof the bowl. Sub-microFiltfrs A sub-micro filterwill removevirtually oil and all waterand alsoline downto 0.01of a Particles micron, provide to protection pnumatic maximum precision for measuring devices, electrostatic spraypainting, cleaning and dryingot electronic assemblies -- the principle operation the sameas a microlilter,but its fifur etc of is elementhas additional layerswitha higherliltration efficiency. Filter Selection The sizeof air filterlhat is requhd a particular tor application dependent two factorsi is on a) The maximum flow of compressed usedby the pneumatic air equipment. pressure b) The maximum acceptable dropfor the application. provide Manufacturers flowpressure diagrams enablecorrectsizingto be done. to

Filtring Tissue 0.3 pm

PNEU$ATIC TECHNOIOGY

because of as mightnot separate etficiently filtertor the application , lt shouldbe notedthat usinga standard I a lowerflowvelocity.

A ! FO U A L I T Y
:ILTEBINGLEVELS levelsof purityfor variousapplications. Fig5.3 illustrates ditferent As passesthroughan aftercooler an autodrainto removecondonsate. the air with Air froma compressor moreoondensale. Additional on an coolslurtherin the air receiver, autodrain,installed the bottomremoves drainsmay be tittedto all low pointson the pipeline. The svslemdividesintothreemainparts: (1 Branches and 2) provide directlrom the air (3 air receiver.Branches useair conditioned a by 6) type retrigerated ot dryer. an Branch7 incorporates dryerot the additional type. adsorption

Refdgerated

AirDryer

filtersin sub Standard Compressor I branches and 2. withautodrains equipped remove subcondensate: branch2 beinghigher of buritybecause th a MicroFilter microtilter. Subbranches - 5, use refrigerated dry 3 b Sub-micro Filter air.Thus.branch3 c OdorRemoval Filter requires autodrain, no branch4 needsno pre d Adsorbtion Air lihe ng and branch5 givesan improved levelot air purityusinga micro filterand sub microfilter, havingbeen the moisture removed a refrigerated by typeof air dry6r. Delinition 7 Degrees Filtration Flg. 5.3 Schematic of of

3 4
5 6 7

filter.An adsorption an typedryereliminates risk of all Sub branch6 incorporates odor rmoval at in condensation lowlempratures sub branch7. Typical applicationsare listed in Table 5.4.

P N E U M A t I cT E C H N O L O G Y

Number

Removalof: Dustpanicles>5F Liquid oil >99%Sarurated humidity 46%. Dustpanicles >0.31r misr Oil >99.9% Saturated humidity99%. Humidityto an aunospheric dewpointof -l7'C Funherasin (l ). Dustpanicles >0.3uOil mist >99.9%Humidityup to an atmospheric pointof dew

Application Wheresomesolid impurities, humidityandoil canbe acceDted. Wberetheremovalof dustand bui oil dominaaes, a cenain can amount condensation be of risked. Wherethercmovalof humidily is imperative traces fine but of dustandoil areacceDtable. fine dust Whereno hurnidity, andoil vaporareacceptable.

-t7"c.

Typical Examples Workshop for clamping, air blowing,simplepneumatic drives. industrial equipment General pneumatic conirolsanddrives joints, air metallic Sealless toolsandair motors. Similarto (l) but asthe air is dry additionally generalspray Daintins. Process control,measuring equipment, high qualityspray painting, coolingof foundry andinjectionmoldingdies.

Dust particles >0.01U Oil mist >99.9999% Humidity as(4).

Where purc air, practically free Pneumaticprecisionmeasuring from anyimpurityis required. devices,electrostaticspray painting, cleaningand drying of electronicassemblies. as(5) with additional Whereabsolutelypurc air, as Pharmacy,food industdesfor odor removal. packaging,air transportand in (5), but odor freeair is air. brewing.Breathine reouircd. all impurities in (6) but with Whereevery risk of Drying electroniccomponenb as an atmosphericdew point s condensation duringexpansion Storageof pharmaceutical below-30" C. Marine measuringequipment and at low temperatures must be avoided. Air transport powder. of

Table 5.4 Definition typicalapplications the sevenqualities air and of of

T PNEUT/tATIC ECHNOLOGY

bnessune EGULATToN R
wilh rapid optimum, wearwilltakeplace above at is becausa pressures Regulation pressure necessary o{ it in because results poorefficiency. pressure is toolowis uneconomical little noincrease output. Air that or in
STANDARD EGULATOR R havea pislonor Pressure regulators to lhe diaphragm balance outputpressure againstan adiustable springforce. pressure set by lhe is The secondary adiusling lhe screwloading settingspringto llow from holdthe mainvalveopen,allowing pressure inlelportlo the pl the primary pressure outlotport.Thenthe pz secondary pressure the circuilconnected the outlel to in risesand actson the diaphragm, creating a littingforceagainst springload. the Whenconsumption starts,pAwill initially dropand the spring,momentarily stronger than the liftinglorce {rom p2 on th diaphragm, opensthe valve. Adiusting Knob Adjusling Spindle SettingSpring Diaphragm PI p2 alve Spring Fig 5.5. Principle the Pressure ot Regulator

against lf the consumption drops,p2 willslightlyincrease, increases forceon the diaphragm this the rate again.The airflowthrough the springforce-- diaphragm valvewillthen lift unlillhe springforceis equaled and untilit matches consumplion and the outputpressure maintained. rate is the valvewill be reduced th6 p2 the lf the consumption increases, will slightly rate decrease. This decreases forceon lhe diaphragm against springtorce,diaphragm valvedropuntilthe springforceis equaled the again.This increases lhe and rate. airflow lhroughthe valveto matchthe consumption Withoul air consumF tion the valvis closed.lf pressur the secondary risesabovethe set valu by virtueot: . re-setting the regulator a loweroutlet to pressure, or . an eliemal rverse thrustfroman actualor, the diaphragm liftto will openthrelieving seatso thal excessoressure can be bledoff through the vent holein the rigulator body. P1 a

Believing

b
Fig. 5.6 Relieving Function

DoNOTrelyonthis orifice anexhaust as flow Path. I

P N E U M A T I cT E C H I t o L o G Y

Wilh vryhighllow ratesthe valveis wide open.The springis thertore elongated lhus and p2 weakerand the equilibrium between on th diaphragm areaand the springoccursat a lower level.This problem be corrctd creating can by a thirdchamber witha conneclion lhe outout lo channel. thischannel flowvelocity high. In the is As xplained section the staticpressure in 3, is then low (Bemoulli). pOis nowat a lowerstatic As pressure, balance the againstlhe weakened springal highflow ratesis compensated. The etfectcan be improved inserting tube by a in the connection, at an anglewiththe opening cut oriented towardsthe outlet(fig 5.8). Thereis stillan inconvenience the regulator in pl of fig. 5.7: if the inletpressure increases, a higherlorce is actingon the bottomof the valve, tryingto closeit. That meansthat an increasing inputpressure decreases outputpressur the and vice ve6a. A valvehavingequalsurfaceareasfor bothinputand outputpressure bothdirections in can eliminate this.This is realized the regulator in of fig. 5.8 parlsar: The mostimportanl (O Adiusting spindle @ SettingSpring O Relieving Seat @ Diaphragm @ FlowComoensation Chamoer (D FlowCompensation Connection Tube O vatve @ O-Ringlor Pressur Compensation 0 ValveSpring @ O-Ringfor FtowCompensation

p1

Fig. 5.7 Principle a FlowCompensated of Regulator

Flg. 5.8 Fullycompensated Pressure Regulator

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

R ILOTOPERATED EGULATOR acrossa largetlow rang6' regulation of accuracy pressure The piloloperated regulator oftersgreater lrom a with pilotpressure regulator the Thisaccuracy obtained replacing seningspringot a standard by is smallpilotregufdorsit6don the unit. of pilotair onlyduringcorrections the oulput or The pilotregulator top ol the unitsupplies exhausts on ke6psthe settingspringlenglhto a pressure. very highllow ratesbut to Thisenables regulator achieve the minimum.

SettingSpring

Relief Pressure PilolDiaphragm PilotValve

Diaphragm

P1
MainValve MainValve

Main Secondary Pressure Reliel

Flg 5.9 PilotPressure Regulator

PNEUMATTc EcHNoLocy T

FILTEF.REG LATOR U Air filleringand pressure regulation combind the is in singleliltrregulator provide compact to a spacsavingunit. Charccterlstlcs A regulator sizeis selected give the flow required the to by application a minimum prssure with ol varialion acrossthe tlow rangeot the unit. providegraphical Manufacture6 inlormation regarding the tlow characteristics theirquipment. mostimportant ol Th is the Flow/ pA diagram. showshow pA decreases lt with increasing flow.(Fig.5.11).The curvehasthreedistinct portions: 1. the inrush,witha smallgap on the valvethat doesnot yel allowrealregulation 2. the regulation rangeand 3, the saturation range;lhe valveis wideopenand further rgulation impossible is
p 2 ^ (bar)o

(bar)

2000

4000 >

6000 O (l/min)

Fig 5.10 Typical Filter Regularor

Flg.5.11 TypicalFloWPressure Chancteristics:

a: Regulator, Filter b:

P N E U M A T T CT E C I I N O L O G Y

A S I Z I N GO F B E G U L A T O R S N D F I L T E F S I lhe For flowcapacity. Regulalols, average with FRLelements haveto be sizedin accordance the required (ll in ti9.5.11 Thesizeof lhe tilteris a). range ot be volume llowshould theonein the middle the regulating pressure drop " (nota Line Filte0,a minimum drop,For a'StandardFilter/Separator definedby the pressure deltap) or flow,AAp (allowable desirable With maximum to functioning. of about0,2 bar is required nsure shouldhowever keptbelow1 bar. b Modular size flow,not by the connection of the component. The sizeis theretore detined the required by lube size. lhe available givethe capability adaptthe connection threadto lo systems

A }OMPBESSED IR LUBRICATION
preare components available of for Lubrication no longera necessity the majority modernPneumalic is for lubricated life. of are The life and performance thesecomponents tullyup to the requirements modemhighcycling of processmachinery. ol systemsinclude:The advantages "non-lube' oil lubricating and maintaining levels. oil equipment, a) Savings the cost ol lubrication in importance foodand pharmaceutical in of b) Cleaner morehygienic systems; particular induslries. environmenl. for saferworking c) Oilfree atmosphere, a healthier, lubricated, certainquantity a of To Certainequipment r6quires lubrication. 6nsurethey are continually still is addedto the compressed by meansof a lubricalor. oil air 'ROPORTIONAL UBRICATORS L proportional lhe flow rate, directly to inletand outlet, ln a (proportional) lubricator pressure a dropbotween is crealedand littsoil fromthe bowlintothe sightfeed dome. pressure flow ratewouldcreatean excessive dropand With a tixedsizeot restriction, greatlyincreased a produce air/oilmixture pneumatic the system. an that had too muchoil,{looding prssure dropresulting a mi)dure in whichis too a flow ratemaynol createsufficient Conversely decreased lean. crosssections produce conitant lo a To overcome problem, this lubricators musthaveself-adiusting mixture. (as two paths:it llowsovrthe damper vaneto the Air enlering lubricator shownin Fig 5.12)follows a bowlvia a checkvalve, outletand also entersthe lubricator Wh6nlhereis no flow,the samepressure existsabovethe surface the oil in thbowl,in the oil tubeand ot the sighlteeddome. Consequntly thereis no movement oil. of causesa prgssure dropbtween inletand Whenair llowsthrough unit,lhe dampervanerstrictor the the the drop. outlet. The higherthe flow,the greater pressure by holeto the low-pressure zonimmediately Sincethe sightleed domeis connected the capillary afterthe vane,the pressure the domeis lowerthanthat in the bowl. damper in the This pressure ditference forcesoil up the tube,through oil checkvalveandJlowregulator the into dome. holeinlo the mainair streamin the areaof the the Once in the dome,the oil seepsthrough capillary particles, atomized mixedhomogeneously the and highest velocity. air The oil is brokenup into minuscule with air by the turbulence the vortexcreatedby the dampervane. in

EU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

Fletlll Plug SightFeedDome

Capillary Connction
Oil Thronb CheckValv

Damoer Vane

Oil Tube

BowlGuard Sintered Bronze Oil Filler

Fig 5.12 Proportional Lubricator The dampervaneis madelrom a flexiblematerial allowit to bendas flow increases, to the widening tlow path,to proportionally adjustthe pressure dropand thus maintain constant a mixture throughout. The oil throttle allowsadjustmnt the quantity oil tor a givenpressure of ot drop. The oil checkvalve retains oil in the upperpart ot thtubewhenthe air flowtmporarily the stops. The air checkvalveallowsthe unitto be refilledunderpressure, go whileworkcan normally on. The conectoil feed ratedepends operating on c-onditions; a gneral gude is to allowone or two drops but per cycleof th6 machine. A pure(no-additives) minoral of 32 cnti-stokes oil (lSO standard viscosity recommended is VG32).Some oil companies havea specialoil tor compressed lubrication, a highcapacity absorbmoislure air with to without properties. lossof lubricating

P N E U I , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

IF.R.L. '

UNITS

Lub.lcator

regulator lubricator and Modular tilter,pressure elements be combined a serviceunitby can into joiningwithspacers and clamps.Mounting can and brackets olheraccessories be easilyfitted in morerecenldesigns. SlZE AND INSTALLATION The combinalion muslagainbe sizedfor unit tlow rateof the system. the maximum provide this Manulaclurers generally will information. shul-otf or Mostsystems requirean approved lhat lockoul valve.ln addition, thereare dovices allowan Emergency and a slowslart Stoptunction at whereair is introduced lhe systm a to option, rate. reduced Flg. 5.13 TypicalFBL Unitin a modular design

For instruclions. the of Forconectplacement operalion thesedevicesconsult manufacturers' and the threshouldbe a way to stopair flowatterthe F.R.L.unitand belorethe unit,isolating F.R.L. maintenance bacKlowing o{ for repair.In mostcases,the Emergency Slopshouldbe downslream the F.R.L,to prevent (diaphragm couldbe damaged), (reverse collapse), regulator the flow)the filter(whichcouldcauseelement (driving mistinsidethe tilterelement). andthe lubricator oil

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLocY

6 ACTUATORS
by is movement obtained piston Linear or can Theworkdone pneumatic by actuators belinear rotary. typeactuators and up reciprocating motion anangle to 270' byvaneor rackandpinion rotary wilh rylinders, continuous rotation airmotors. by

I N E A RC Y L I N D E R S
usedin pneumatic Pneumatic cylinders varyingdesigns the mostcommonpowercomponents of are are derived: Thereare lwo basictypesfromwhichspecial conslructions automation. . Singl-acting cylinders a withone air inltto produce powrstrokein one direction . Double-aciing powerstrokes extending relracting and cylinders wilh two air inletsto produce I N G L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E F A singleactingcylinder thrustin one direction only.The pistonrod is retumedby a fittedspringor develops by external forcefromthe loador spring. It maybe a 'push'or 'pull"type(lig6.1) Sintered Bronze Filler Stoo Spring

Fig. 6,1 TypicalSingleActingCylinder, SpringRetracted or'Push" type Singleactingcylinders usedlor clamping, marking, eiecting are etc. Theyhavea somewhat lowerair consumption compared withthe equivalent ot doubleactingcylinder. size However thereis a reduction in thrustdue to the opposing springforce,and so a largerboremay be required.Alsoaccommodating the springresultsin a longeroveralllengthand limited strokelength. O U B L E A C T I N GC Y L I N D E R Withthis actuator, thtustis developed bothelitending retracting in and directions air pressure applied as is piston. The thrustavailable the retracting alternately opposite to sidesof a on strokois reduced due to the pislonarea,but is onlya consideration the cylinder to 'pull' the sameload in both smallerettective if is dirctions. Rod Seal/ Rod ISOSymbol:

Fig. 6.2 Double ActingCylinder

EU ATtc TEcHNoLocy

Cyllnder Constructlon

The conslruction a doubleactingcylindr shown. The barrelis normally ol tubewhich is madeot samless may be hardcoatedand super-finished ths innerworking on surfac minimize lo wearand friction.The end caps maybe aluminum alloyor malleable castingsheldin placeby tie rods,or in the caseot smalle!' iron fil cylinders, intothe barreltube by screwlhreador be crimpedon. Aluminum, steel brass,bronzeor stainless may be us6dtor the cylinder bodyfor aggressive unsafeenvironments. or Frontor RodCover Seal Guiding PislonMagnetic or Wear Cylinder Ring Barrelor Seal Ring Backor Head Cover

Scraper Ring/ Bod-Seal

Tube

Rod End

Blind End

PistonRod

1 (

ISO Symbol

Cushion Seal

Flg. 6.3 the component partsof a doubleactingcylinder withair cushioning Varioustypesof sealsensurethat the cylinder airtight. is Cushlont ng Pneumatic cylinders capable very highspedand considerable are ot shockforcscan be dvlopd on the end of the stroke.Smaller cylinders otlenhavefixedcushioning, rubberbufters, absorbthe shock i.. to and preventinternal damage the cylinder.Oh largercylinders, impactetfectcan babsorbd an air to the by cushion that decelerates pistonoverthe lastportionof the stroke. This cushion the trapssomeof the exhausting nearthe end of the strokebeforeallowing to bleedoft moreslowlythroughan adjustable air it nedle valve(fi9.6.4).

Cushion Barrel

Tie Rod

Tie Rod Nut

Fig. 6.4 Principle the Air Cushion of

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

airto the outletportis closedoft as the cushionpistonentersthe 1 The normalescapeof the exhausting air fcushion restriction Thetrapped is me through adjuslable Port. seal,so thattheair canonlyescape piston. whichbrakesthe inertiaof the to highpressure, compressed a relatively to sealacts as a checkvalveto allowairflow the piston.lt howover Whenthe pislonreverses, cushion lhe be strokeshouldtherefore as of the piston.The cushioning restricts air flowand delaysthe acceleration the possible. shorlas It is an To decelerate heavyloadsor highpistonspeeds, extemalshockabsorber required. the piston whichis alsothe casewith stop mustbprovided, mechanical speedexceeds about5OO mrn/san external built-in cushioning. S P E C I A LC Y L I N O E R P T I O N S O ,ouble Rod

ISOSymbol of Fig. 6.5 Principle lhe doublerod at A doubl makesa cylinder rod stronger againstside load,as it hastwo bearings the widestdistance possible. itselfmoving displace to a Thistypeof cylinder ottenmounted withthe rodstixedand the cylinder is oart. ton Botatlng Rod this.Therefore is not it The pistonrod of a standard rotates slightly thereis no guideto prevont as cylinder possible directly to mounta tool,e.g.a cuningblade. Forlhis kindof application, whreno considerable torqueis exercisd the tool,a on with cylindGr non-rotating can be used.The rod the torque. suppliers specity maximum allowable As tig. 6.6 shows,lwo flat plans the rod and on a fittingguideprevent rotation. the It showsalso howa torquecrealesa high forceon the edgesof the rod profile, whichwill damageit in the longrun.

P N E U $ A T r cT E c H N o L o c Y

Twln Rod

Thistype o, cylindgr has a highlateralload resistance highnon-rotating Thesecompactdual accuracy. and rod cylinders of highprecision idealfor pickand placeoperations. not assumethatthe dual are and Do cylinders qualthetheoretical forceof ong largercylinder's theoretical force,,9.two 25 mm.boresin a dual produce the torceol one 50 mm borecylinder rod cylinder half (provethisto yourselt). Sectlon A-A Symbol; Unofficial:

rso:
A -'-+i

Fig. 6,7 Twin RodCylinder FIet Cylinder A cylinder normally squarecoversand,generally, roundcylinder. stretching pistonto a has a By the relatively long rectangular shapewith roundends,it achieves sameforceas a conventional cylinder.The the advantage, course,is the savingin spaceachieved they are to be stacked of if for togethr. Suitable mostnon rotating applications.

Sectlon A-A

rsosymbor,Fll

Flg. 6.8 Principle a FlatCylinder of Tandem Cylinder A tandemcylinderis two doubleactingcylinders with a commonpistonrodto form a single ioinedtogether unit. ISO Symbol:

Fig. 6.9 Principle the TandemCylinder of pressurizing By simultaneously bothcylinder chambers outputforceis almostdoublethal of a standard the cylinder the samediameter.lt oflersa higherlorce froma givendiameter cylinder, of ol it theretore can be usedwhreingtallation spaceis restricted.

PNEU ATIc TEcHNOLOGV

Multl Posltlon Cyllnder provide fixedpositions.lf morethantwo positions are The two end positions a standard ot cylinder two requird, combinalion two doubleactingcylinders a of maybe usod. Thereare hvoprinciples: Forthreepositions, assmbly the lett is required; enablesusersto tix the cylinder. is very the lt on it suilable verticalmovements, in handling tor e.g. devices. The secondis to mounttwo independent together cylinders backto back.This allowsfour ditferent positions, the cylinder but cannotbe tixed.A combination threecylinders diflerent wilh of strokelength gives8 posilions, withlour 16,but a ratherexolicstructure required one is and the movement, when cylindersrun in oppositedirections,is very unstable.

Stroke Lengths

Positions

100 200 300

ISO Symbols:

Fig. 6.10Thiee andfourpoiition cylinder

P N E U i t a t t cT E c H N o L o G Y CYLTNDER OUNTING M To ensurethal cylinders correclly are mounted, manutaclurers oftera selection mountings meetall to ot requirements pivoting including movement usingswiveltype mountings.

BearClvis

Flg. 6.11The variousmethods Cylinder of Mounting Floatlng Joints To accommodate unavoidable between "misalignment' the cylinder movement the rod and drivenobiect,a lloating ioint must be fittedto the pistonrod end. The investmnt thes in deviceswill insur longercylinder -life and morereliable operation lar exceeding cost of the the deviceitselt.

3(
joinf Flg 6.12"Floating

P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

f,uckllng Sttength Whenan excesslhrustis applied lo a cylinder buckling the slrenglh This mustbo takenintoconsideralion. itselfwhen excessthrustcan manifest lhereis -: 1 -: Compressing Strss. part,i.e.a 2 -: lf lhe stressed cylinder, longandslender. is The buckling depends strength greatlyuponthe mounting method. Thereare four maincases: 1. Rigidly fixed onesideand on looseat the opposite end. 2. Pivoting bothends. on fixedon one side, 3. Rigidly pivoiing the other. on 4. Rigidly tix6dat bothends.

2f\

's
'&

.h ,M

Fig.6.13 Thefourmounting

lifts lo The above-mentioned applyif a cylinder or pushesa load;it is lhen sub.iected conditions and strokelengthis exceeded, cylinder "brak sideways the can out' compressing stress.lf a certainspecified loss the useless. avoidunnecessary of timeand money,checkwiththe To seizethus rendering cylinder above catalogue. generalruleof thumbis if the strokeof cylinders Th length lable"in the supplier's mm boreis threetimesthe diameler in the caseof smaller or, cylinders, strokeis tive timesthe bore the the cylinder pushing load. is a

Y L I N D E RS I Z I N G
Y L I N D E RF O R C E heoretlcel Force Linearcylinders standard diameters rcommended ISO: as havethe following in 50, 8, 10,12, 16,20,25,32,40, 63,80,100,125,140,160,200,250,320 mm The forcedeveloped a cylinder a function the pistondiameter, operating pressure the by is of the air and pislon,the frictionis neglectd. forc, thruston a stationary the resistance. the theoretical For This, force,is calculated usingthe tormulae: Force(N) Force(lbt.)

' (N/m2), Piston area1m2) airpressure or (lbf./in2) Piston area(in2). airpressure

Thustor a double acting cyllnder:

Extending FE= + strcke:

.d- A

p9 (gauge) pressure) Where(D = pislondiameter, = Working

Retracting stroke:Fg =

. tB - &l . n

(d= where piston diamerer) rod

E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

lor a singleactlngcyllnder: FEs= =

4

' d 'p

- Fs (Fs = Springforceat the end of stroke)

It may be quicker use a diagram lo the forcetor 10,7and 5 suchas lhe one in fig. 6.14,showing theoretical bar , or any similarsuppliers information selecta cylinder to size.

rooozj
500 400 300 ?50 200 150 r25 100

10

---,7

p : (bar)

lq - 7. -t-

5.

-.-71--Z

1 -

I 2
../

-;,2.

7-, ---------_

15{)00

40 30

-4i -2

=:v7-

.z
z. 5000 4m0 2500 2000 1500

m
12.5

.44
===-rt=='-t

-.4

10

.zx.
:2.

- - r - /

-.2-_L-2.

{Ed--6 (mm)

Fig.6.14 Theortical Forceof pneumatic cylinders, trom 2.5 to 30 mm (leftand top scales) and from32 to 300 mm (rightand bottomscales)for 19,.1-a"ng,5 workingpressure bg!. Example: Determine theoretical the sizeof a cylinder operating a pressure 6 bar that wouldgeneralea at of clamping forceof 1600N.
ttf

Assuming extending an stroke:-

Fe=

G'p
= 0.0583 = 58.3mm. m

Transposing:

D=

4'1600 N

r'600000N/m2

A 63 mm. Dia.cylinder wouldbe selected, largersize providing the extratorceto overcome frictional resisiance. By usingthe diagram, lookfor 1600N on the ForceScaleat the rightside and find 1500as a dashedline. we We followit to the left untilwe reacha poinlbetween Pressure lhe Linesfor 5 and 7 bar and find an intersection botween and 63 mm Dia.on the Diameter 50 Scaleon the bonom.Thereis no doubtthat the samediameter correctfor 1600Nas well as 1500N, is

o P N E U M A T TTcE c H N L o c Y

.lequlred Force the lhe or on The required forcedepends lhe massol lhe load,the angleof movement elevation, triction, pislonarea, workingpressure the ettective and by The loadconsists the Weightof the mass(Fig.6.15a), the ForceB represented the trictionlacior of (Fig.6.15c). The re-partition theselorcesdependg of acceleration timesmass(Fig.6.15b) and the requird plane(elevation) shownin tig' 6.15d. as on the angleof the cylinder axiswiththe horizontal F= G. (sina+

l'-;l
@

F=G

F=y.G

W6 --tn , v2 2.

@6.15Thecomponentforcsof the LOAD @ Fig

= Friction definedby the friction is (elevation 0") has onlyfriction overcome. to A horizontal movement on coetficient whichvariesbetween about0.1 to 0.4 for slidingmetalparts,and about0.005for iron,rolling U, entersthe formulaas a cosine,whichvaries iron(0.001for ballson the ring in a ballbearing). Thiscoetficient from 1 tor horizontal 0 for vertical. to

The weight whenth6 movemenl vertical(90'elevation), is weight, The massreprsents load,equalto itrs a equals, a lalitude on of is thforc6creatodby the earth'sacceleration the mass.The earth'sacceleration on Witha horizontal movement the m.s'"or 32.17ft sec?. 450(Standard Europe lor and N. America), 9.80629 for The thrustis thenavailable weightis a zero loadas it is fullybornby the construction. entirecylinder withthe inclination trom 0 to 1000/". valueas a factoris lts The loadof the massvariestherefore 1 sineof the inclination angle,0 for horizontal, for verlical:

PNEUiTATTc cHNoLocY TE LOAD RATIO This ratiois generay referred as "Lo' and equab to ## . 100%

A cylindor shouldnot havea highr loadratiothan about85%. It an accurale or speedcontrolis requird -loadlorcesvarywidely,60-700/0 shouldnot be exceeded perhapsno morethan soyoin vertical applications. Table6.16givsthe Load Ratiofor cylinders from25 to 1OO dia.and variouselevations two mm and trictioncoetficients rolling(0.01)and slidingsteelparts(0.2). tor Cyl.Dia

Mass(kg)
100 50 25 12.5 180 90 45 22.5

0.01

60"

po.2

45' p It 0.2 0.01

30' p p 0.2 0.01

25

(87.2) (s6.7) 71.5

51.8
.+o.o

48.3

84.9 50.9 342.5 25.4

67.4
aa7

0,01 4 2.2 '|

4.4

tr

It 0.2 80 40 20 10

32

(s5.6)
54.9 47.8 53

2.2
78.4 39.2
/oa ll

ls.s
22 11
78 39 20.3 10.9 79.9 40 20 0 81.8 37.8 18.9 9.4
74.1 ov 19.5 9.8

46.6

55.8 27.9

73.9 37

1.1 0.55

40

250
125 oc .tc

(ee.2)
54.6
47.6

3.9 2
68.3 36.8
1

52.4

72.4 39

(86) 46.3

51.6 27.4

0.5
4

50

400 200 100 50 650 300 150 75 1000 500 250 't25 'r600 800 400 200

EA

(87) (e6.5) 71.3 43.5 48.3 35.7

84.8 42.4

50.8 25.4

o/.J
J5.O

63

(e4.4) 47.2

82.3 (s1.2)67.4 41.1 45.6 33.7

80.1 40.1

4A 24

31 .8

80

(e7.6) 48.8

85 (s4.3) 69.7 42.5 47.1 34.8

82.8 41.4

49.6 24.8

65.7 32.8

100

CU

(87) (vo.c, 43.5 48.3

71.4 35.7

84.4 42.2

50.8 25.4

67.3
itJ.o

4.1 1.9 0.9 0.5 3.9 2 1 0.5 4 2 1 0.5

79.9 40 20 10

Table 6.16 LoadRatiosfor 5 barworkingpressure and trictioncoefticients 0.01and 0.2 of

P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c Y I ' wouldbe to knowlhe allowedloadunder diameter A morepractical helptor findingthe correctcylinder variousconditions, table6.17showsthmassol the totalloadin kg that resultsin a LoadRatioot Therelore, 0,01tor prssure the cylindr againlhe two frictioncoefticients and on 85%,lt is basedon 5 barworking massol the totalload. Thesevaluesare the maximum rolling(lttcolumn) and 0.2 for sliding(rightcolumn). 30" e 0.01 o.z 0.01 n t 106 42.5 25 3 t . 5 2t23 25 24.5 77 196 40.5 46.2 45 54.8 58.2 3920 32 39.2 107 80.9 76.3 64.2 5450 272.5 40 54.5 62.5 56.4 100.2 t67.3 126.4 8500 50 97.7 88 Il9 85 155 t39.8 r 8 9 t59.2 265.5 200.5 13500 675 63 135 428 80 323.5 21775 1 0 8 9 zl7.'l 250 225.5 305 256.7 100 340.2 390.5 390.8 352 476.2 669.2 505.s 34020 l 7 0 l wilh Table.6.17Massin kg tor cylinders trom25 to |00 mm Dia.for a LoadRattoot 85olo 5 bar pressure. working
?

CYL. Dia

u: 2t.2

60' 0.01 0.2

0.01 30

0.2

P E E DC O N T R O L The speedof a cylinder delinedby the extraforcebehindthe piston, by is abovethe torceopposed the load.The loadratioshouldnvarexceed 85o/o approx.The ,owerlhe loadratiothe benerthe speedcontrol, whenthe loadis subiect variations. positive especially A speedcontrolis obtained throttling exhaust to by the ot the cylinder meansof a peed Conlrollef,whichis a combination a checkvalve,to allowfreeflow by ol the (needle towards cylinder, an adjuslable throftle valve).An example speedcontrolis shownin the and ol sclion valvesin the chaptr Auxiliary on Valves. get a conslant on To speed,the Load Ratioshouldbe apprcx.75"/". Forc mass(Wg) timesacceleration. unitsarefor torce:kg . m . s'"and for acceleralion: . s'. In is The m English unitsW = lbs and g = 32.17tvsec". pressure bar,Cylinder 32 mm, horizontal Example:Massof the load 100 kg, working 5 Dia movement witha friclion coefficientot 0.2. The theoreticalforce is 401.2 N Table6.16showsthis caseand 90 kg massa load ratiool43.9 "/..

oh. Thus 1oo ns.s.$ = 48.8 for xg:

The Forceof the load is 48.8% of 401.92N = 196 N. Witha cylinder etficiency 95%,95 - 48.8%= of 46.2o/o the torceis lettfor the acceleration the load.This is 185,7N. The acceleration therefore: of of is 185.7kg . m . s-2/ 1OO = 1.857 s-2.Without m' kg control, pistonwouldthoretically the approach m/s 2 afterone second. "Theoretically" meansif threis no limiiation the accessof compressed behind to air and no backpressure fronl of lhe piston. in The limitation the exhaust of airflow creates pnumatic load,whichis definedby the pistonspeedandth a volum tlowthrough restriction the speedcontrollr. incrase the pistonspeedincreases the of Any of th6 opposing toroe.This limitsand stabilizes pistonspeed.The higherthe pneumatic of the toial load is, the part the stronger can stabilize pistonspeed. it th Witha loadratiool 8570 efficiency 95%, 10 prcent the torceis stabilizing and a cylinder of of the pneumatic load.Whenthe mechanical showsa variation * 5olo load of thereis a compensation haltthe of influence. Witha load ratioof tor example 50%,thesevariations no longerhaveany visibleetfecton the will soeeo.

P N E U A T T cT E c H N o L o c y Nole that tor a subtlespeodcontrol, flowcapacity the tube has to be muchhigherthan that of the the of speedcontroller setling.With a tubewhichis too smallin diameter tubelor a greatpart,limitsthe flowand the changing needleposition the has littleefiect. AIR FLOWAND CONSUMPTION Thereare two kindsof air consumption a cylinder pneumatic tor or system. The. is the average first per consumption hour,a tigureusedto calculate energycost as partof the total the cosl priceol a product and to estimate required the capacity compressor air main. of and The secondis lhe peakconsumption a cylinderrequired ascertain conectsizeof its valveand of to the connecling tubes,or lor a wholesystem, properly to sizethe F.R.L.unitand supplytubes. The Air Consumption a cylinderis defined ot as: Pistonarea ' Strokelength number singlestrokesper minute' absolute of pressure bar, in Explanation; Whenthe pistonis against cylinder the covr(fig.6.18a), the volumeis zero.Whenwe pull the rod out unlillhe pistonis on the opposite end,the cylinder filledwith atmospheric pressure lOlg25 is of Pa- (fig.6.18b), Whenthe pressure tromthe supplyenters,the sweptvolumetimesthe gauge pressure bar is added,in addition lhe atmospheric pa. in pressure 10132S to of

dfn
K
--+'
F-b--'tl

A-

l= /.- s -!-E

P.19-z Y = D 2 ' ! .s.PP'

nres nm2 {

rft

Frtn

rrnqfte

Fig 6.18Theoretical Consumption a cylinder Air ol Withthat,the theoreticalair consumptionof a cylinderis fqrthe extnding strokeas indicated fig. in 6.lSandlortheretumstrokeAB.s.(p+patm).WithA=D2.n/4wegetforoutstroking D (m) . D (m) . rd4.(p + 1.013). Stroke(m) . n (stroks min) . 103(l / min),or / . D(mm).D(mm).nt4. (p+ 1.013)Stroke (mm). n (srrokes / min). 10(t/ min). (Where = th6gsuge p pressure n = the number srhglo and ol stokes). For lhe returnstroke,D is replaced (D-d). by The consumption ot the tubes bet\ een valveand cylinder equals: InnerTube Dia.(mm.).InnerTube Dia.(mm). Tube Lngth (mm). Gaugepressure Mpa (0.1 bar) in Table6.19 givesthe thoretical consumption 1OO stroke,for variouscylinder per air mm diamete6and workingpressures:

P N E u f iA T t c T E c H t i l o L o cY in Working Pressure bar 5 6 4 0.217 0.186 0.155

Pistondis. 20
7<

3 0.124
0.194

0.746 l.t)J r.359 1.165 t 0.97 50 2.158 2.465 r.850 t.542 63 3.4't9 3.975 2.983 2.487 EO 4.661 5.436 6.2t1 3.III 3.886 100 from20 to 100 mm dia, ot Table6.19Theoretical Consumption doubleactingcylinders Air per 100mm stroke in liters
40

32

0.3r9
0.498 0.777 |.235 t.93

0.243 0.398

0.291

o.622

0.477

0.340 0.557 0.870

0.248 0.388 0.636 0.993

with cylinder an 80 mm.dia.anda 400 mm. Example 1. Findtheenergy acting costperhourof a double of strokewith t2 doublestrokesper minuteand a workingpressure 6 bar per In table6.19we see that an 80 mm dia.cylinder consumes liters(approx.) 100mm strokeso: 3.5 ot O /100 mm stroke. 400 mm stroke. number strokesper min . forwardand retumstroke = 3.5 ' 4 . 24 = 336 Umin. 'Thermaland OverallEtliciency" section4, we tindan electrical In the paragraph in consumption 1 ot

pressure 7 bar.To produce1 mgn/ minwe require kw tor 0.12- 0.15m3/min witha working of power. therefore approximately Kw of electric I We assumea currency whichone kW hr (kilowatl-hour) in costs5 c6nts.

The ofproducing cost flow a volume of .| r3"hin isthen ffififW

0.336m3ry'min . 40 cents/ hr = 13.4cents per hour. In ourexample: 1mg/min

= 40centshr. /

The sum of all the cylinders a machine, represnts air consumption energy on calculated vvay, lhal the as cosl, It shouldhowever notedthat, be . the consumption ligurs the abovetabledo not include 'dead volume" eitherend ot the in the at tubes. stroke,il any, northal for the connecting . the transfer energyis notwithoutlosses(seefurtherbelow). of Forsizing the valve ot an individual cylinder needanother we figure:the peaktlow. lt dpends the on highest cylinder sped. The highest sum of the peakflowsol all simultaneously moving the cylinders defines tlowon whichthe FRL unlt hasto be sized. We may no longerneglct thermallosses.In the sectionon the property gaseswe discussed the of 'adiabatid'change, whichmeansthatthereis no timeto exchange heat.Boyle'sLaw,?.y= constanf is any no longerapplicable, changes ?.lf = constant". xponent (kappa) air is 1.4.The tableot the to, The but K for ratio compression tablefrom page7 is reproduced belowwithan additional for p.t^ = constant row and one withthe ratiolsothermic adiabatic comoression, / 1 2 4 5 6 tl 10 I Pabs crisothermic 0.987 1.987 2.974 3.961 4.948 5.935 6.923 7.908 8.895 9.882 cl adiabatic 0.991 1.633 2.178 2.673 3.133 3.576 3.983 4.38 4.749 5.136 factor I 1 . 2 1 6 1.365 '1.482 1.579 1.66 1.738 1.80 1.873 1.924

PNEU ATIcTEcHNoLoGY To compensate the phenomena the ,or related this change,withoutmakingthingstoo complicated, to theoretical volum in tlow has to be multiplied a ,actor1.4,whichrepresents fair averagecontirmed a a by high number practical ot tests.This tigureis lessthan in theory,but the changeis generally 100% not adiabalic. Table6.20showsthe liguresof table6. 19,but withthiscorreclion factor. WorkinePrssure bsr in ! 4 6 o.2t7 0.260 0.304 0.340 0.408 0.476 0.557 0.668 0.779 0.870 !.044 1.218 1.360 1.631 r.903 2.t59 2.590 3.021 4.t76 4.870 3.482 5.440 6.525 7.6t1

Piston dis.

40 50 63 EO 100

32

20 25

3 o.174 0.446 0.697 t.088 1.729 2.790 4.355

o.272

0.347 0.543 0.890 2.174

L391

3.45r

Table6.20AirConsumptiondouble per of acting in cylinders liters 100 stroke corrected losss adiabalic tor by change

5.565 8.696

Example2:A cylinder 63 mm dia.and 500 mm slrokeworksal 6 bar.Whichis the realair consumption of for per 15cycles min?

. O= 1.4. (63mmr2nr4.500 . sotrin. ffiff mm

.16-6 = 453.19s 6634;1s1 Umin

By usingthe table,we find 3.021yminper 100 mm skoke.This ligurehasto be multiplid 150,tor 5 by .3.021liters 453.15 times100mm stroke = and30 timesperminute: 150/min l/min.

PTIEU ATIC TECHNOLOGY

horanv C T U A T O R S A
R A C K A N D P I N I O NT Y P E angles to piniongeardrivenby a rackanached a doublepiston. Standard The outputshatthas an integral of rotation 90" or '180'. are

Rack

Pinion

ISOSymbol:

Fig 6.21 Backand PinionRotaryActuator VANETYPE BOTARYACTUATORS: Air oressure acls on a outputshaft. A titiedrubbr coating , seal or lastomer sealsthe vaneagainst leakage.
vane, which is attached to the

Elastomer Damper

A specialthre dimensional sealsthe seal the stopperagainst shaftand the housing. The size of the stopperdelineslhe rotalion angle 90, 180or 270'. of Adjustable stopsmay be provided adjustany angle to ot rolation the unit. of

,rOar*$
I Z I N G R O T A R YA C T U A T O R S orque and Inartia

180'
Fig 6,22VaneTypeRotary Actuator

900

havea cushion reduce impactwhenlhe pistonhitsthe cover.The capacity the to the Linearcylinders of f ' This6nrgy quaV! ' vZ.lt is mostimportant cushioning the kineticenergyit can absorb. is whena loadis propelled with littletrictionand highspeed.

P N E U M A T I T E cHN o L o c Y c Thesedynamics evenmoreimportant understand the caseof a rotaryacluator. tree stopof a are in A to rotating masswithoutcushioning overloading energy or risksbreaking pinionor vane,The allowable the published the manutacturer by muslbe caretully respected.

J=m.r

6 J=m. VI

J=m.

rl 2+122

+I
d
J' = m .

v
I

ri

r 2 4

J=m.

,#,*,

!-::-!.d - -'
t mb= n, r

a 'ilEa+b
-

y r=m".**'o.F

ll 2 . ^ '2 ta2+c2 +lho'oo#" i ' Ti1 J = na 12

Fig. 6.23 Formulae the moment inertiaof variousbodyshapes for ol To definethis energywe needto knowthe inertiaof the rotating mass.Thinkol its material being part,multiplied the squareot its composed extremely of smallparts;the sum of the massof eachindividual by tromth6 rotation distance axis givesthe tolal inertia. The basiccaseis a cylinder, inertiaquals masstimesthe squareof the radius: lts its

J = m. f.

(kg.m2)

P N E U M A T I C T E C HN O L O G Y

shapes'Fig. with The inertia morecomplicated formshasto be calculated the helpof tormulator specific ot lor of 6.23showsthe formulae a number basicshapes. a toialed.For example and has A rotating construction to be splitup intobasicelements the parlialinertia multiplying masswilh the squareol its chuckon an arm as in fig. 6.23k is addedto the ineriiaof the arm by axis. the distance its centerof gravitytromthe rotation of a stop,prferably shock possible, againsta mechanical rotating Whenever masseshaveto be stopped as lt absorber. shouldbe placedas far fromthe axisas possible in tig. 6.24a.Any closerto the centerwould it see stopon the arm itsellis not possible, can be donewitha createa reaclion, fig. 6.24b.lf an xternal forcesand shouldbe doneonly to end of the shaft.This is subiect highreaction stopperleveron the opposite withthe consenlof the supplier,

Stopper Leveron souareShaftEnd

c
Absorbers Shock Stops
a arm Fig. 624 Stopping rotating tor The inertia rotating obiectsis whatlhe movingmassis to a linearmovement. energyis dofined The by per its speed.For a rotation, speedis definedby the ?ngular Speedaf. lt is expressed radians second. the in Fig.6.25illustrates theseexpressions.

o-- |

rao

o '=7

1 rad:o= 57.3'
of speed Fig. 6.25 Definitions angular As for the cushioning capacity linearmovements, the maximum tor tor allowedenergyto be stoppedby a we rotaryactuator haveto consider tinalspeed.An acceleration compressed if not limitedby a the by air, may The movement stabilizing back-pressure, be considered be almostconstant. to startsat zeroand per reaches aboutdoublethe average speed(Stroke time)at the end of stroke.

P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

Fortastpneumatic movemenls, calculations to bebased twice average have on the sped fig.6.26 as
Low Speed Hlgh Speed .- FinalSpeed - AverageSpeed

Flg. 6.26Averageand tinalspeed

SPECIAL CTUATORS A
L O C K I N GC Y L I N D E R A cylinder can be fitted witha lockingheadin placeof the standard end cover. It will holdthe pistonrod in any position. The locking actionis mechanical, so ensuring pislonrod is the securely held,evenin the caseof pressure breakdown. Fig. 6.27TypicalLocking Cylinder R O D L E S SC Y L I N D E R S With magnetlc coupllng, ungulded Magnetic Ringswith polarity opposito lron Discs

StainlssSteel

fig 6.28.TypicalRodless pistonand caniage Cylinder with magntic coupling between A conventional cylinder say 500 mm.strokemay havean overalloulstroked of dimension 11OO of mm. A rodless cylinder the samestrokecan be installed a muchshorterspaceot approximately mm. ll has of in 600 particular advantages whenvery longstrokesare required. The magnetic retaining forcelimitsthe forceavailable troma magnetically couplodtype of rodlesscylinder. It equalsthat of a normalrodcylinder, to 7 bar workingpressure, withdynamicshocksa separation up but of the caniagefromthe pislonis possible. Verticalmovements therefor recommended, are not unlessa saletv marginspecified the supplieris obseNd. by

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

and the Whenthe coupling between carriage ol the loadcannotbe donein the centerline the (X cylinder, at a cerlaindistance in fig.6.29), but The drastically. the allowable torcedecreases has data,spocified lhe supplier to be by to respecled avoiddamage the cylinder. to

the Fig 6.29 SideLoadX reduces allowable load

Gulded types, wlth magnetlc coupllng of Depending the kindof guideused,lhe problem sideloadcan be solvedor madeworse.Withball on guideshowever and bearings the guide,a side loadcan be considerable alsothe slrokelength.Precision for types,the strokelenglhis a triction. Forthese increases detormation haveso littletolerance the slightst that orientation side load. and givedatator any possible mounling maintactorfor the allowable torce.Suppliers Fig.6.30shows a pistonand carriage' behveen guidd withmagnetic coupling rodless cylinder

withguides, and switches cylinder ShockAbsorbers cylinder Fig. 5.30 Rodless on is softlywithshockabsorbers bothends;in fig. 6.30 It is rcommended the carriage decelerated that to switches, operated a magnetbuill-in the carriage. by theyare builtin. A rail holdsadjustable Guided, with mechanlcal coupllng

Carrier
Cushioning Tube

Strip Covering SealBelt Piston Cushioning Seal

with mechanical Fig.5.31Rodless Cylinder coupling cylinder" typeexcludes riskot disconnection the carrier the For littingor movingheavier loads,a "slotted of pistonunderdynamic leakfree unlikethe magnetically fromthe coupled type. shocks,but it is nottotally

P r { E UA T r cT E c H N o L o c Y SLIDE UNlTS The slideunitis a precision linearactuator compact whichcan be usedon robotic of dimensions, manutacluring assembly and machines.

, f f i " 8
Fig. 6.32TypicalSlideUnit Precisely machined work mounting pistonguiderodsensureaccurate surfaces and parallel straight-line movement whenbuiltin as part of the construction a transterand position of machine. In one position, bodycan be tixedand the rodswith end barscan move(b). Upsidedown,the end bars the touchthe mounting surfaceand lhe bodycan move(c). In bothcases,the valvecan be connected the fixed to part,eitherby the portsA and B, or Al and Bl in fig. 6.32a. HOLLOW ROD CYLINDER This actuator specitically is designed .pickand place.applications. for The hollowrod provides direclcona nectionbetwen a vacuumsourceand a vacuumpad,attached to the rodsworking end.The connecting tube at the rearof the cylinderremains static, whilethe rod extends and retracts,

Vacuum Connection (stationary)

Fig. 6.33 HollowRodGylinder with a non moving vacuumconnection

P N E U U A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

| ' r n en R o r A T r N c Y L T N D E R l c
arm can be A witha rotaryactuator. rotating ot A so-called rotating cylinder an assembly a linearcylinder is pad to pickup wolk piecesand deposilthem or witha gripper vacuum attached the shattand be equipped to handling. "pick and place" uni or materials in another location the afterrotating arm.Thisgivesa

Cylinder Fig. 6.34TypicalRotating \ I R C H U C K( G R I P P E B ) An actuator designed to gripcomponents robotic in typeapplications. I The typeshownhas pistons, two opposing to openand closthe iaws. Secondary Piston SpeedControl Screw Opened MainPiston

TypeGripper Fig.6.35 TypicalPneumatic Fulcrum Fig.6.36 of showsthreetypicalapplications the lasttwo elements:

Flg. 6,36Typical Applications the of RotatingCylinder andAir Gripper

P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

C 7 D I R E C T I O N A L O N T R O LV A L V E S
V A L V EF U N C T I O N S
ils closingor changing its the A directional controlvalvedetermines tlowot air betwen portsby opening, ports,the numberof switching of in The internal connections. valvesare described termsot: lhe number The positions, normal( not operated position and the methodot operation. firsttwo pointsare normally its ) pilotports) lo elc. in expressed the trms5/2, 312,2!2 The tirstfigurerelates thnumberol ports(excluding gosilions. ol and the secondto the number The mainIunctions and
Symbol

are:
Principal Construclion Function Application

2y2 oN/oFF

Air motors and withoulexhaust. pneumatic tools

3/2 Normally closed (NC), pressurizing or exhausting the outDut A

Singleacting (push cylinders type),pneumaric signals Singleacting (pull cylinders type),inverse pneumatic signals

3/2Normally (NOl open prcssurizing or exhausting the A outDut

4/2 Switching betweenoutput Doubleacting A andB, with cylinders comrnonexhaust 4 2 5/2: Switching betweenoutput Doubleacting A andB, with cylinders sePaBte... exhausts. 5/3,Opencenter: Double acting As 5/2 but with cylinders, with the possibility deoulputs to pressurize exhausted in the mid-oosition cvlinder 5/3 Closed Double acting centenAs 512 cylinden,with but with rnidstopping position possibility fully shutoff 5/3 Pressurized Special applicenter: cations, i.e. Locking Cylinder

5 1 3

Table 7.1 ValveSymbols, Principles, description mainapplications and

P N E U M A T I T E c HN o L o G Y c PORTlDENTIFICATION The denominations the variousporlsare not uniform; of thereis moretradition than respecled slandard. 'P" Originally, codespreviously the usedlhe olderhydraulic equipment havebeenadapted. for the supply portcomesfrom"pump", hydraulic lh sourceot fluidnergy The outletof a 2/2 or 3/2 valvehas alwaysben"A",the s6cond,antivalent outputporl "8". The exhausthas initially been"R" from Return(to the oil tank).The secondexhaustport in 5,/2 valveswas thnnamedS, or the former"R1"and the lattr "R2". The pilolport initiating powerconnection portA hasoriginally the to beencoded"Z (thetwo elitreme bners in lhe alphabet belongstogether) the other.y'. and Afler20 yearsbargaining aboulpneumatic hydraulic and symbols, one ot the ISO workgroupshadthe idealhat porlsshouldhavenumbersinsteadof letters, delaying termination the standardISO 1219by the of anolher6 years.Supplyshouldbe "1",the outputs 2'and "4', the pilotportconnecting"l" with 2" is then"12" etc.Table7.2 showsthe tour mainsetsof port identifications use.Preterred now the numbers. in are Supply NCoutput NOoutput P P P
1

A
A

A 2

B B 4

Exhaust of NC R R1 EA

exhaust of NO

Pilottor NC Pilotfor NO

5 Table 7.2 Typicalportidentitications

R2 EB

PA 12

z z

Y Y PB
14

MONOSTABLE ND BISTABLE A

Springreturned valvesare monostable. prefenedposition whichthey automatically They havea defined to retum. A bistable valvehas no preferred position and remains eitherposition in untilone of its two impulsesignals are operated.

VALVE TYPES
The two principal mthods construction.are of Poppet and Slidewitheitherelastic.or metalseals,Fig.7.3 relates the variouscombinations. to

Directional Control Valves

MetalSeal

Flg. 7,3 The varioustypesof valvesand sealingmethods

P N E U M A T T CT E C H N O I O G Y

P O P P E TV A L V E S by Flowthrougha poppetvalveis controlled a discor pluglittingat rightanglesto a seat,withan elastic seal. valvescan be two or threeporl valves,f or a lour or five portvalvetwo or morepoppelvalveshave Poppet

Fig. 7.4 The maintypesot poppets force(spring) keepthe valve to a In a) the inlelpressure tendsto liftthe sealott its seat requiring sutficient the lorcevaries assistslhe returnspringholding valveclosed,butthe operating closed.In b) the inletpressuro pressures. to therefore withditfernt Thesetactorslimitthesedesigns valveswith l/8" portsor smaller.

ISO Svmbol poppt valv Fig.7.5.Mechanically operated

Fig7.5 a) showsa NC 3/2 poppelvalveas shownin fig.7.4 b. position (a),theoutletexhausls (b) the ln its non-operaled through plunger.Whenoperated the exhaust porl closesand the airflow's fromthe supplyport P to the outletA. poppetvalve.The inletpressure pistonareas. Design7.2 c) is a balanced acts on equalopposing

NC NO

ISOSymbol Fig 7.6 Balancad Poppet 3/2 Valve Thisfeatureallowsvalvesto be connected normally up closed(NC)or normally open (NO). Normally openvalvescan be usedto loweror retumsingleactingcylindrs are morecommonly and used in satetyor sequence circuits.

P S L I D I N GV A L V E S

E U M A T TT E c H N o ! o c Y c

Spool,rotaryand planeslidevalvesusea slidingactionto opnand closeports. Spool Valves A cylindrical spoolslideslongitudinally the valvebodywilh the air tlowingat rightanglesto the spool in movemenl. Spoolshaveequalsealingareasand are pressure balanced. Elastomet seal Common spooland seal anangemnls shownin tig. 7.7 and7,8.In fig 7.7 O-ringsare tittedin grooves are on the spooland movein a metalsleeve. Two of themare crossing outputports,whichare lhereforedividedin a greatnumberol smallhol6sin the sleeve.

Flg.7,7Spool Valve O-Rings thespool, with ports on crossing cylinder the Thevalvein fig.7.8hasseals fitted thevalve in body, which keptin position means sectional ar6 by of spacers

Flg. 7.8 SpoolValvewith sealsin the housing Fig 7.9 sho|s a spoolwith oval rings.Nongof th6m haveto crossa porti butlust to open or closeits own provides leakage seat.Thisdsign a free sealwith minimum frictionandtherefore xtremely an long life.

Flg. 7.9 Valvewithoval ringspool

P N E U M A T tT E c H N o L o G Y c Itetal Seal rapidcyclingand resistance, valvshavevery low trictional metalspooland sleev Lapped and matched leakagerate mm,a smallinternal ol clearance 0.003 long exceptionally workinglife. But 6venwitha minimal by not to be heldin a position has as of aboutone l/minoccurs.Thishas no consequence longas the cylinder a 5/3 valvewithclosedcenlertor sometime.

EBPEA EBPEA Flg. 7.10 Principle the sealless of Spooland SleeveValve ,lane Slide Valve The of Flowthrough portsis controlled the position a slidemadeol metal,nylonor otherplastic. the by air spool. sealed, operatd slideis movedby an elastomer

Flg. 7.11 5/2 PlaneSlideValve

PNEUtrtATtc EcH T

oLocY

notary Valves porled is manually A mlal disc rotated interconnect ports thevalvebody. imbalance is to the in Pressure employed force discagainst mating lo the its to minimize leakage. pressure The supply above is the surface disc.

tffi
P ISO Symbol F

A B rT--r] PEX

t-vt
A B PEX

t--lI IT T

A E T

PEX

ffi
PEX

Fig 7.12 Section througha RotaryDiscValveand a discfor a 4/3 tunction with closedcenter

P N E U U A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y
I

U A L V EO P E R A T I O N
MECHANICAOPERATION L machine, On an automated mechanically operaled valvescan parlsto detectmovingmachine provide tor the automatic signals conlrolof lhe working cycle. The maindirectmechanical operators shown 1i9.7.13 in are Cate when using Roller Levers this: Special caremustbe takenwhenusingcamsto operaterollerlevervalves.Fig.7.14 illustrates the portion the rollers The slopeot a cam shouldhavean utilized of totaltravelshouldnot go to the end ot stroke. on mechanical stresses the levr. angleof about30"; steeperslopeswill produce

:E l:Ez : : Plunger StraighlBoller Square Roller

=r

-e+

!ol/

nn tldt
t-l

Lever Roller

Operators Fig 7.13The mainMchanical

PT: Pre-travel OT.: Over Travel TT.:Total W Foller Stroke to beutilized

Fig. 7.14Carewith RollerLeversand Cams the when Thone way roller (or idle rturn roller)will only operate whenthe controlcam strikes actuator movingin one direction. the reverse In direclion rollercollapses the withoutoperating valve. the
U I A N U A LO P E B A T I O N

Manual is operation generally obtained attaching operator by an head,suitable manualcontrol, tor ontoa mechanically operated valve.

lry Flush

'

l-r-\ E] Baised

TfI ,ffi' Mushroom

Flg. 7.15The mainmonostable Manual Operators

(spring Manually retumed) valvesare generally operated, monostable usedtor starting, slopping and pneumatic unit. otherwise controlling a control For manyapplicalions is it moreconvnient the valve if fts marntains posi on. Fig.7.t6 showsthe moreimoortanl tvoes manual ol bistable operators Im l--r E Rotating Knob \ \ \ 1+r : Toggle Flg. 7.16Bistable ManualOperators : Key m t-, -1

P NE U I I I A T I T E c H N o L o G Y c AIR OPERATION. Directional controlvalves,usedas "PowerValves", to shouldbe located closeas possible ils aclualor as and be swiiched remolecontrolwith a pneumatic by signal. A monostsbleair operated valveis switched air pressure by actingdirectlyon one side ot the spoolor on a pislonand returned ils normalposition springtorce.The springis normally mechanical to spring,but is by a can also be an "air spring"by applying supplypressure the spoolend,opposite the pilol port,or a to to combination both.In the lattercase,the pilotside requirs biggeretfective of area,whichis provided a by a piston.

Air connection for spnng assistanc

Pistonwith twice the ara of th spoolal sping side

Fig.7.17 A2 Ait operated Valve,with ah assisted springretum Air assisted springretumgivesmoreconstant switching and characteristics, higherreliability. In fig 7.18an ak springis provided passage throughan internal from the supplyportto act on the smaller pislon.Pressure diameter applied pistonactuates valve. throughthe pilol portontothe largerdiameter the This methodof returning spoolis oftenusedin miniature lhe valvesas it requires very littlespace
A ISOSymbol
I

r
I

ir t4

ri

I !
I

Flg 7.18Ah operated Valvewith air springreturn 3/2 The air-operated valvesdiscussed far havebeensinglepilotor monostable so typs,but the more commonair operated valvefor cylinder controlhasa doublepilotand is designed restin eitherposition to (bisiable).

PA

EAPEB
NFPA labels

EB Fig. 7.19 Bistable,air operatd5,/2Valve

T PNEultATtc EcHNoLoGY lhe to pulsehaslastbeenapplied the pilotport"P8",shifting spoolto ihe dghl In tig,7.19,a shortpressure 'EA".Thevalve I andconnecting supply will through port'8". Port"A' is exhausted port"P'lo thecylinder the function'' to as a 'memory This is referred position signalis received. untila counter remainin this operated withthe spool positions ol because lriction,but shouldbe installed valvesholdlheir operated Bistable the In the caseot metalsealconstruction, positions to horizontal, if especially the valveis subiected vibration. are lockedby a delenl. Plloted Operation. movesthe spoolor to A directoperation occurswhena force,applied a pushbutton,rolleror plunger, poppet operaloracts on a smallpilotvalvewhichin Withindirect, "piloted" or operation, external the directly. tum switches mainvalvepneumalically. the JIS labls:

Fig 7.20 IndireclMechanical Operation Fig.7.20a showsa 5/2 Valvewilh indhect ?iloted" nchanical or operation its normalposition. in Th position (c). magnitied detailsin b and c showthe pilotpartin normal(b) and in operated

P S O L E N O I DO P E R A T I O N

EU ATIc TEcHNoLocY

Electropneumatically electronically and in controlled syslemsare discussd a laterbookin this seriesand it is sufficienl this stageonly to consider electrical at the operation directional of controlvalves. In smallsizesolenoid valves,an ironarmaluremovesinsidean airtight is tube.The armature finedwith an poppeland is liftedtroma supplyseat in the bodyby the magnetic elastomer coil. Fig torce ol the energized 7.21a.

ISO Symbol

--= D t:-_ FlgT,21 a:2J2,b: 3/2 directsolenoid, springretum,poppettypevalve. b) A 3/2 valvehas also an exhaustseaton top and the armature elastomer poppetin its top end (Fi9.7.21 an

Directly operated solenoid 5/2 valvesrelyon the electromagnetic forceof the solenoid movethe spool to (1i97.221. can only be a sealless lt lappedspooland sleevetype withoutfriction.

Flg. ?.22 Directsolenoid operated Valvewithspringretum 512 To limitthe sizeof th6 solenoid, largerand elastomer (piloted) sealedvalveshaveindirect solenoid ooration.

R2 JIS Symbol Fi$.7.23 5/2 monostable Valvwithelastomer Solenoid coatedspool

P N E U M A T I CT E C H I I O L O G Y

whenbolh solenoids position whichit will retum,by meansof springs, to , The 5/3 valvehas a third(center) rarede-energized.(lig 7.241

JIS Symbol Fig Z.24.Pilotoperated 5/3 Solenoid Valve with closed center and spring centeringvalve mounting

I R E C TP I P I N G portsof a into directly the threaded to method connection a valveis to screwfittings of The mostcommon piloland supplyportand one one so-called bodyportedvalve.This methodrequires fittingfor eachcylinder, types,exceptfig. 7,22' whicn are silencer eachexhaustporl,All the valvesshownpreviously body-ported tor is sub basemounted,. ANIFOLDS havecommonsupplyand exhaust Manifolds ior a givennumberof bodyported channEls to separately valves.The outputrs conncted are eachvalve, withtourvalvesof Fig.7.25showsa manitold and difterenl tunctions: 5,/3. bistable two monoa a stabletypesof the sameseries. lo A manifold shouldbe ordered accommodate is number valves,extnsion not of the requirod possible, usinga blanking can sealspare kit but positions. that With5 or morevalvesit is recommended mounted bothends, at and silencers air is supplied Cylinder Ports AandB

Common Supply

for Exhausts A andB Ports ' Manifold Fig.7.25Typical

Common

P N E u t , A ' I cT E c H N o L o G Y SUB BASES Valveswithall of theirportson one lace are designed be gasketmounledon a sub base,to whichall lhe to external the connections made.Thisallowsquickremoval are of and replacemenl a valvewilhoutdisturbing lubing.Generally, basemounted a valveof the valvehas a slightly than a body-ported betterflow capacity sametype.Fig.7,22showsa typicalbasemounted valve. M U L T I P L ES U B B A S E S In a similarway to lhe manifold, multiple sub basessupplyand exhausta numberol valvesthrough common channels. Alsothe cylinder portsare provided the sub base. in Multiple basesalso haveto sub be ordered the reouired lor number of valvesand are ableto be blanked otf in the sameway as manifolds. Fig.7.26showsa manitold with lour basemounttypes3ii2Solenoid Valves, The common exhaustports are to be equipped wilh Silencers, prelerably bothendsto avoid on back-pressure. is not only This recommended soundelimination tor but also tor dust protection, G A N G E DS U B B A S E S GangedSub Basesare assemblies ol individual bass, whichallowany reasonable number be assemblsd to intoone unit.This systemhasth advantage allowing of extension or reduction the unit if the systemis of altered, withoutdisturbing existing the comoonents. Thereis stillthe oDtion to blankotf positions, required. il Fig.7.27showsa typicala$sembly, equippd wilh one monostable two and bistable valvesand a blanking solenoid plate.The individual basesare sub holdtogether withclamps. Other constructions also haveboltsor tie may rodsfor the purpose. Rings,inserted O in groovesaroundthe channels, provide leakage a treeconnection of supplyand exhaust channels from end to end.

Valve Oulputs . (A Porrs)

Fig. 7.26 Multiple Sub Basewithtour 3/2 Valves

Fig. 7.27 GangedSub Basewiththreevalvesand one blanked oosition.

PNEU ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

V A L V ES I Z I N G t
I N D I C A T I O N SF O F F L O W C A P A C ] T Y ot of the Portdimensions not indicate flowcapacity the valve.The selection the valvesizewill depend do pressure dropacrosslhe valve' on the required tlowrale and permissible as provide of The manutacturers intormation lhe flowcapacity valves.Flowcapacilyis usuallyindicated on per minuteal an inletpressure 6 bar and an outlet ot tlow" On in litersof lree air the so called"standard "S". pressure 5 bar,or witha flowfactor,Cv or kv, or wilhthg equivalent FlowSection Thesefactorsrequire of conditions. lormulae diagrams definethe tlowundervariouspressure or to witha pressure dropof 1 psi. of The Cv faclor of 1 is a llow capacity one US Gallonol waterper minute, dropol 1 bar. of The kv factor of 1 is a llow capacity one literol walerper minutewitha pressure The equivalentFlow Section "S" of a valveis the flow sectionin mm2ol an orilicein a diaphragm, pressure flow. btween and creating samrelationship the Theyare as conditions. the All threemethods require formula calculate airtlowundergivenpressure a lo tollows: C=400'Cv' Q=21.94'kv
LtJ | ' tt-=---:-=-;;-. ; Q = 2 2 . 2 ' s .v ( D z + r u J . s , | . A' p'. 1 l\; t - -! + e sn

r_.013)

FlowSection mm2 in WhereCv, kv =Coefficients flowand S =Equivalent ol liters/min Q = Flowratestandard p2 = Outletpressure needed moveload(bar) lo pressure Ap or EAp = Permissible drop(bar) in 0 = Air temperature *C Withthis,the dimension 'a" O * of To lind the llow capacily, theseformulae transtormed follows: are as v
Cv=

. 400.JF2+1.013)Ap

k v =

2 7 . 9 4 . 4 @ 2 + l - 0 1 3 ). A p

. 222. l@2 + r-013) Ap

E U M A T I cT E c H i I o L o G Y
1 C v = l kv=

The normalflow Ontor othervarioustlow capacityunitsis: The Relationshio between theseunitsis as tollows:

981.5 68.85 54.44 1 14.3 18 1.26 o.o7 1 0.055 o.794 1

rs =

Note:The outcome this calculation of givesin fact not the flow capacity the valve,as we simplystated of above,but tor the assembly lhe valveand the connecting of tubesand tilling.To get as muchtlow capacity, of the valvehas to be higher.Howmuchhigher? thal Orlllces In series connectlon Beforewe can determine sizesot valveand tubing,we haveto lookat how pressure lhe dropsovera numberot subsequent orificesin series.The formulafor the resulting is: "S" s total= l t 1

s12*sl*"'sn,
To avoidunnecessarily dealing withsuchtormulae looktor a thumbrule.Fig.7.28.1and Fig.7.28.2 we showthe relationship between numberof orificesin.series a connoction the resulting and flow.
C"=l C'=l C;l C,=l C;l C;l C"=t

Flg.7.28.1 Seriescircuit,all deviceshavinga C" of 1 and the resulting In impacton the circuit,s ovsrallC,

\i_
--+
C,-=t

=.x-> ><+<_= _><_><_# -..>---.

c,=1.4 C,=1.4 C,=1.73 c"=1.73 C"=1.73 C"=2 C"=2 C,=2 Q,=2 G".v"=1'0 C,*=1.0 C,=3 C"-=1.0

c,=1

c,=4
C,"r.=0.84 C",l/|=0.89 C*=0.82

C-"=r

C*"=0.9g

C"*=o.06

Flg. 7.28.2Orifices seriesconnection resulting in and llow Retuming our topic,we can say that it is mostobvious haveaboutthsameflow capacity th to to for valve and the connecting tube withits fittings. consider We thesepartsas two equalflow capacities series in connection lo havethe calculated and tlowthroughbothparts,the required sectionhasto bmultiplied with

(\E 1.4 ).

NOTEthat eventhoughthe C, is largr reduces(whenaddedin series)the systemC, -- a chainis only it as strongas its weakestlink.The smallest oriticedetermines llow for the circuit. the

E U T , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

llow clplcrrY oF TuBEs

sectionot a tubeis: The formula,or the equivalent of is Stillunknown the tlowcapacity tubesand tittings.
r= Lrr S = s . .fr- where c is the tube cotlicient(se below),d the Pipe lD and L th tube length in mm. I L

in q a = 2.669' Q . d0.155 whre is thetubecoetlicientfr can Tubes.The two formulae be unitedto and Copper Rubber ct is 1.6tor gas pipeand 2.0 tor Plastic, a2.655 S = q , 2.669.:--lf vL For lhe that This tormulahas,however, inconvenience wilh very shorttubesit is no longervaluable. as example: tube8x6 mm with0.1 m lengthwouldhavean S ot 65 mmz.This is impossible, the effective a for the is areaof the innertube diamtr only28.26mm2.Therefore aboveformulafor Stotalhasto be applied correction. of usedfor Youcan by-pass thesecalculalions reading equivalent by the Section nylontubes,normally all pneumatics, fromthe diagram 7,29.

'i:

20 10
0.02

0.05

0.1

o.2

0.5

5 1 0 ube Lengthin m

FlowSection in mm2of the cunenttubesizesand length Fig. 7,29tho equivalent S

P N E U T T A TT E c H N o L o c Y Tc The FlowSectionol littingshas to be specified the catalogues. totalof a tublengthwith ils two in The you tittingscan be calculated the tormulaabove.To reduce needot its use to exceptions, can tind the wilh the sctions the mostcurrenttubeassemblis table7.30. for in Tube Material Dia, (mm) 4x2.5 N,U
6x4 8x5 8x6 l0 x 6.5 l0 x 7.5 Lenqth 0.5 m Fittinss Inserrype O n e ' lo uch elbow straisbt elbow sraight 1.6 1.6 4.2 5.6 6 6 l3.l t.4 (9.5)l l ll l8 t4.9 (t2) l 6 l7 2t.6 26.1 Total 0.5 m tube+ 2 stn. fittinss 1.48

l m

1.86 6.12

3.87 7.78
13.41

N,U

U
N

10.65 t6.& 20.19 28.U 33.18 43.79

20.28 24.50 33.38 39.16

U
N

35

(24r 30
(23)26 (24)30

3.72 5.96 6.73 9.23 10.00 r3.65

15.88 19.97

3.r8

30
J)

29.5
41.5 46.1 58.3

25 35.2 39.7

r2.70 22.t7 20.92 25.05

?9.45 32.06

12x8 12x9

U
N

50.2 Table 7.30 Equivalent FlowSectionof currenltubeconnections

5r.00

45

(27135

Table7.30showsthflow capacity currenttubesand fittings,basedon so called"push-in" ol or'On6 Touch"littings$tg.4.22),havingthe sameinnerdiametr the tube.Insertfittings(fig.4.21)reducethe flow as considerablyr especially smallersizes,and shouldbe avoidedfor pneumatics. in Valves wlth Cylinders We now retumto the cylinder consumption. is firstof all thp6akflow,depending speed. This on pressure Secondwe haveto definethe allowable drop,a maiorligurein calculating valvesize.An the assumption aveEge velocitymay be made,sincemaximum ol tlow is achieved a pressure at dropof -approximately pressure 46010 lor our purposes 23"/.is the maximum allowable drop (halfof 46%)-- the pressure NFPAstatesa 157o maximum drop is d6sir6d. The actualsizeol the valvehasto be muchhigherlhan the theoretical value,to compensate the for pressure additional dropin the connecting tubesand fittings, discussed as above. But if thmaximum flow is (limited) the finingsand tubingpart of the circuit-- changing valvefor a largerflow determined by the capability not havean etfect. E.g.il lhe valvehasa C" of 2 and thtubingand fittingscollectively will havea C, of 1 -- the systemwill not be improved a valvewitha C" 4); noie Fig.7 28.2. by To makethingseasy,all the calculations mentioned beforcon lhis subject, table7.31,givesyou the required equivalent sectionS tor the valvand tor the selection a suitable ot tubeand fittingsassembly lrom table7.30.Th6 tableis basedon a supplypressure bar (approx. psig)and a pressure 6 90 dropof 1 bar (15 psig)beforethe cylindr. includes pressure lt alsoth6 lossby adiabatic changeand thtemperalure coetficient 20'G. Usually will sufficefor mostrealworldapplications. for this

T PNEUT/|ATIC ECHNOLOGY

dla.mm 8,10 12,16 20 25 32 40 50 63 80 100 125 140 160

50 0.1 0.12 o.2 0.35 0.55 0.85 1.4 2.'l 3.4 5.4 a.4 10.6 13.8

100 0.1 0.23 0.4 0.67 1.r 't.7 2.7 4.2 6.8 10.8 16.8 21.'l 27.6

Averageplston speed ln mm/s 150 200 250 300 400 500 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.4 0.5 1 0.36 0.46 0.6 0.72 1.2 1.6 1 0.8 0.6 3.4 2.7 2 I 1.3 c.c 3.7 4.4 2.2 2.4 8.5 6.8 5 2.6 3.4 4.3 8.1 10.8 13.5 4 5.4 6.8 A E 8.4 10.5 12.6 16.8 21 10.2 13.6 1 7 20.4 27.2 16.2 21.6 27
za.z

750 0.75 1.8 3 5 8.5 12.8 20.3

1000 1 2.4 4 6.7 11 17 27

EqulvalentFlow Sectlon in mmZ pressure and a lor Table 7.31Eguiyalent SectionS in mm2for the valveand the tubing, 6 barworking pressure dropol 1 bar (OnConditions) pressure 6 bar and a dropof 1 bar are a quitenormal case (the Q^is basedon of Allhough assumed the a Thenthe figuresfrom table7.31 rquire conditions. thermightbe otherpressure the sameassumption), possible input ol The diagram 7.32givsthe percentage the tiguresin table7.31for any practically conection. pressures pressure and drop.
1.8 1.6

ct

1.4
P12

1.2

0.8 7 I o '10 1.25 1.5 ?p in bar

0.6

0.4

givenin Table7.31,for otherpressure Fig. 7.32Correction Factor"cf'for the Sections conditions

PNEU ATtcTEcHNoLocY The figuresbelowthe boldlineare values,whichar6 in gneral coveredwith 5/2 valves.Wherethese not sizesare not available, High Flow3/2 vatveswill do the iob. two Example1 An 80 mm Dia cylinder witha strokelengthof 400 mm has an average ol workingpressure 6 bar.The pressure maximum allowable required, what is the drop is 1 bar. lf a cylinder speedot 500 mm/secis minimum of the valve? Cv We find in Diagram 7.31 an equivalent section 34 mmz.To obtainthe Cv factorwe haveto dividethis of number 18:34 /18 = 1,89. by A Tubsizeof 12 x 9 mm.with"OneTouchFittings'is required get this speed. to Example2 A 50 mm Diacylinderhas to run witha speedof 400 mm/s,with an available supplypressure 7 bar ol pressure and an allowable dropof 2.5 bar.That meansthatthe cylinder is basedon an eflective size pistonpressure 4,5 bar. of Table7.31givesan S of 10.8mm2.This figureneedscorrection a supplypressure 7 bar and a ? of for ot 2.5 bar.We followthe line? bar fromthe rightto the lftuntilit interects the verticalline of 2.5 bar p. We find a "cf of 0.66.The required ot the valveand the.tube S connection therefore is 10.8. 0.66= 7.128mm2. Selecta valveof this size or bigger. tube of 8x5 or 8x6 mm Dia is suitable. A

PNEU

ATtc TEcHNoLoGY

AUXILIARY ALVES V
NON.BETUFN ALVES V and valveallowstreeaidlowin one direction sealsil otf in lhe opposite.Thesevalvesare A non-return tittings and in valvesare incorporaled speedcontrollers self-seal also referred as checkvalves.Non-retum to etc.

ISOSymbol

Flg 7.33 Gheckvalve

b p e e oc o N T R o L L E B s I
I

throttlein one housing. is also correctly lt A "speedcontrolle/'consists a checkvalvand a variable of will speedcontrols calleda Flow Control (baseduponits symbol). Manytimesmanufacturers cali devics and,in fact,theyare reallyneedlevalves, veriiywiththe symboltobe certain.

of they posea restrictonin bolhdirections Keepin mindthat flow controls onlyslowdowna cylinder; can of on air flowand therelore slowthe response the cylinder boththe extendas well as the retraclstroke.In flowot a cylinder. Thiswill provide better mostcasesflowcontrols shouldbe usedto meterthe exhaust conlroland a smoother cylinder stroke. In in withthe flow indicated. a), air flowslreelyto the cylinder, b) it flows Fig.7.32showsa typicalexample tlow. backto the exhaust Dortof lhe valvewitha restricted

ISO Symbol

Fig 7.34TypicalSpeedController FlowControl / S H U T T L EV A L V E inletsand onoutlet. The outletis connected eithr This is a three-ported valvewithlwo signalpressure to the signalinput.lf only one inpulis prssurized, shuttleprevents signalpressure the trom escaping through the exhausted side.(Fig7.35) signalporton lhe opposite

E U A T T cT E c H N o L o G Y

ISOSymbol

Fig. 7.35ShunleValve

P N E U i , A T I CT E C H T { O L O G Y

UICKEXHAUST ALVES V directlyat its porl pistonspeedby exhausting cylinder the permilsa maximum outstroking Thiscomponent valve. witha grealllow capacity, instead throughlhe tube and of porton the bottom the supplyair tlowsto the cylinder.Whenthe as The rubberdiscclosesoff the exhaust and the to direclional control valve,connecled the inletporton top is reversed, supplytube is exhaustd the opensthe wideexhaustport. pressure. thencloseslhe inletportand automatically lt discliftedby the cylinder

CYL

ISOSymbol

pressure cylinder b: underpressure, Fig 7,36.Quick Exhaust Valve;a: Connection, Without or c: tlowto cylindr, exhausting d: quiteeasilythal the volumeof the tube betlveen valveand cylinder is With miniature cylinders, happens it ln thal case,lhe air in the tube is onlycompressed and as big or evenbiggerlhan that of lhe cylinder. decompressed, nevercompletely and can in but evacuated moisture condensate the tubesand disturbnormal possible, quickexhausl valvecan be usedto solvethe problem. a operation. a shorter lf tube is not

P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

I B A S I CC I R C U I T S
NTRODUCTION
numberot Th tunctions. ere area limitd certain are ol BasicCircuits asssmblies valveslo pertorm circuitsare composed. sophisticated tunclions whicheventhe most elementary of Theselunctions havethe abilityto: can . Control a cylinder,or . Operateanothervalve - for remolecontrol froma Panel, - to changeone valvefunctionintoanother, - for safetyinterlocks etc. functions: funclion". Thereare four basiclogical lo The lattertypeof lunctionis also relerred as a "logical .tdenttty ("YES") . Negatlonor Inversion ("NOT') . AND .OR here,but we will usethe lermsas theyclearlydescribe We will not dealwith logicalmethods switching ot in functions a singleword.

:LEMENTARY UNCTIONS F
FLOW AMPLIFICATION needsa largeAir Flow.One A largecylinder can avoidhavingto manually operate large a flowcapacity usinga valvewithsutficient by largeair operated valveand operating witha it is manually oporated valve.Thistunction smaller called"FlowAmplification". is oflen This with remotecontrol: largevalveis combined the clossto the cylinder the smallone can be but builtintoa panelfor easyaccess.

Fig, 8.1 Flowamplification indirect or control of

S l G N A LI N V E R S I O N The method shownin fig. 8.1 cen alsobe as the ot usedto change function a valvefrom normally closedor vic6versa. opento normally It valve@ in tig. 8.2 is operated, the pressure the outputof valve@ disappeaF on whenO is released. and reappears

Fig.8.2 Signal lnversion:valve is operated, it @ thepressure theoutput valve disappears on of @ andre-appears @ is releasd when

PNEUl|ATtc TEc HNOLOGY

SELECTION Selection achieved converting is by from a 3l2 to a 5/2 function. The initiating valveO is a small3/2 manually operatod valve,thindirctly opraled valve@ is a 5/2 valveof a sufticienttlow capacitylo actuatea doubJe actingcylinder. UsingthislunctionFlow Amplification also per{ormed. is One position the toggleswitch"lightrs" of lhe greenindicator, othef lights"th rd. the The samefunctionis also usedtor selection between circuits: two one of the portsol th5/2 valvesupplies example for an automatic circuit, other,valvesfor lhe manualcontrol. This makessurethat no automatic actioncan take placeduring manualoDeration. M E M O R YF U N C T I O N A regular type of lunctionreouirement to is perpetuate momentary a valveoperation by holdingits signalon, until anothermomentary signal it switches permanently otl. The red indicator is "memorizing" that valv Flg. 8.4 Switching trom redto greenby tripping valve@ and from green @ was the last to be to red with valve @ operated and the green indicator valveO will that give the signalto change over. Flg. 8.3 Selection between circuitswithone two manually operated monostable valve 312

P N E U $ A T t cT E c H t { o L o c Y

ME FUNCTIONS
in to A pneumatic delayis basedon the time required changethe pressure a fixedvolume,by the airflow in to condilions supplyair,certain subject changing function, )ughan orifice, this is a metering As inconsistncies shouldbe sxpected. of indication In addilion, not relyon Timealonetor circuitsatety-- e.g.thereneedsto be somepositive do anct beingcompleted, so on. a partbeingpresent, process a lt, witha givenvolumeand orificewe get the prssure^ime a a in fig.8.5.Either volumeor a smal16r orifice changeit to b. In the caseof characteristic a, timedelavto switcha valvewith ps pressure will be lt, switching lo b it will be increased t2. In praclice, pressure the the ot is connected the pilot to oi a spring retum valve and a speedcontroller usedto varythe is ils orifice, built-in checkvalve an unrestricted in the tlow direclion and therefore a rest time.

of Fig. 8.5 The pressure time relationship compressed / air, flowinglhroughan orificeintoa volume
ON

Thereare tourditferent time related functions: 1. The delayof switching a pressur ON signal 2. The delayof swilching OFFa prssure signal 3. A puls switchON a pressure to signal pulseto switchOFF, 4. A pressure

Initial SignaloFF . a) delayed at'ON' b) dlayed 'OFF" at c) Pulseat "ON' d) Pulseat "OFF' Fig. 8.6 The four timefunctions

P N E U tA r t c T E c H N o L o c Y

DELAYED SI'YITCHtNG N O Fig.8.7 showshow a pressur signalcan be delayed. The signalon the outputport (A) of valve@ appears E variable timatteroperation the of valve@. This is due to the flow restriction valveand the reservoir (whichmay be nothingmorethan a largediameter sectionof tubing). For a veryshortdelay,the reservoir be omitted. can Flg. 8.7 Delayed switching on D E L A Y E DS W I T C H I N G F F O The delayedreselof a valveis achieved lhe sameway as btore, in but insleadof limiting air flow the towardsthe pilotportol valveb, its exhaustis restrictod. Fig.8.8 showsa delayin switching signalott. Atteroperating a valve(Dthe indicator immediatly goeson, bul after releasing the valve,the indicator slay on for an will period. adjustable Flg 8.8 Delayed switching off P U L S E O N S W I T C H I N GO N lf a signalfrom a valveis passing a normally openvalve,whichis operated with the samesignal,therewill bno pressure at the outputof the latlervalve,However its if operation delayed, pressure pass is the can untilthe operalion takesetfectafterthe delay. pulseof adiustable The resultis a pressure duration the outputof the normally on open valve. In fig. 8.9, a pulseappearsat the outputot the normally openvaNe@, whenthe vatue(D is switched on. Fig. 8.9 Pulseon switching on

P N E U M A T I C T E C H NO L O G Y

A P U L S EO N F E L E A S I N G V A L V E , ' pulsehasto Whnthe pressure appear atlerlhe initialsignalhas been switched lhe pressure produce otf, lo it mustcomfromanolhersource. The methodis lo simultaneously Valve@ operate normally a open3Y2 and pressurize volume@ withthe a initialsignal. WhenvalveO is in released, vafue@ switches its the normalposition, connecting volumewithils oulput.The prssure lrom the volumewill ebb awayaftera shortperiod,adlustable meansof by the soeedcontroller.

signal Fig. 8.10 Pulseon a disappearing

PNEU ATIc TEcHI{OLOGV

CYLINDER ONTFOL C
M A N U A LC O N T R O L Slngte Acttng Cyllnder Ditect Operation and Speed Control lf a singleactingcylinder connected a is to manually oprated valve,it will extendwhen 312 lhe valveis oDerated retumuDonrelease. and 'directcontrol.'ln the caseot This is the so-called a largecylinder, tlowamplificalion shownin fig. as 8.1 is applied. The only way to regulate outstroking piston the speedof a singleactingcylinder to throttle is the flow intoit. The speedol the returnstroke,by meansof the spring,is seldomlimitedin practice. control a single ot acting cylinder .Fig.8.11Direct

Control from two points: On Function A cylinder a valvemay or be operated two ditfrent in ways,lor example, manually or via a signalfrom an automatic circuit. lf the outputsoI two 3/2 valvesare interconnected with a Tee, the air comingtrom one ol the valveswill escape throughthe exhaust the of olher. A shuttle valve type application avoidsthis Droblem. ShuttleValve

Flg. 8.12 Operation a single of tromtwo points actingcylinder

EU

ATIC TECHNOLOGY

tntetlock: AND Function couldbe A to haveto be fulfilled allowa certainoperation. typicalexample ln somecasestwo conditions pressmay onD operate a satetydooris closedand a manualvalveis operated.To control it thata pnumatic valveis operated 3/2 operated valve,the inpulot the manually the safetydoorit tripsa mechanically to connected its output,so thereis an openflow pathonlyif bothvalvesare operated' in as In caselhe signalsfromthe h/vo valveseachhaveanolherpurpose, illustrated circuilb by the two it, perform AND Function: of the signalssupplies lhe other One the valvecan indicators, air operaled312 an operates it.

AND Function Fig. 8.13Satetyinterlock: NOT Function lnverseOperction: Mechanical locks,stopsfor products a conveyor on and similarsituations mightrequire a cylinder be energized to lor locking. Unlocking occursby operating valve.For this a typs of application normally a valvecan be used, lf oDn however, samesignalfor the mustalsostartany unlocking otherdevice,as symbolized (D by the indicator in fig. 8.14, a signalinversion to be has used,by operating separate a air operated normally open valve@, witha normally closedvalveO. the Flg, 8.14 SignalInversion: cylinder retracts whnvalveO is tripped

T EUMATTc EcH|toLoGY

Double actlng Cyllnder Dirccl Conlrol The only diflerenc between operation a the of doubleactingand a singleactingcylinder that is a 5,/2 valvehas to be usedinstead a 3/2. In its of (notopsrated), "8" is port normalposition connected withthe supplyport "P". lt hasto be connected the rod sideof the pistonif the to cylinderis naturally the negative in position. For independent speedcontrolin both directions speedcontroller attached both the is to connections. Theirorientation opposite that is to of a single acting cylinder the exhausting as air is throttled. This givesa morepositive and sleadiermovement thanthrottling air supply. the Insleadof supplying enoughpowr get the to iust pistonmoving, additional an loadis addedwitha backpressure, whichincreases with increasing speed,thus compensates variations the load. in Holding the end positions In mostcases,a cylinder has to maintain its position, evenafterlhe operating signal has disappeared. This requires the "Memonf functionot fig. 8.4.A bistable valvewill stay in position untilswitched trom the opposite end. In Fig.8.16,the outgoing strokeot a doubleactingcylinderis initiated withvalve @ and retumedwithvalve@. Valve@ maintains position its and therefore alsothat of the cylinder. Valve@ will onlyoperatewhenonryone of the manually operated valvesis depressed. both pilotportsare lf pressurized the sametimthe spool at maintains primaryposition an equal its as prcssur an equalareacannotoverrid on the primarysignal. In circuitry phsnomenon knownas ihis is 'ovrlapping commands' and is one of the maiorproblems circuitdesign. in Fig. 8.16 Maintaining positions a doubleacting the ot

i i i I

.Flg.8.15 Directcontrolof a doubleactingcylinder

PNEU

A'IC

TECHI.IOLOGY

b e r e c r r N c Y L T N DP o s t r r o N s C ER
^utometlc Return valve,trippedat the positive by Valve@ in the circuitof fig. 8.16can be replaced a rollerleveroperated valveO backby itseltand thus returnsautomatically. Th; cylinder thenswitches stroke. end of the cylinder of This is reterred as reciprocation a cylinder. to
I I I

Valve@ here siluated

returnot a cylinder Fig. 8.17SemiAutomatic reaches end ol its stroke,th6 cylinder whenthe cylinder the A problem arisEil valve@ is not released will signallrom valveO to doesnot retum.Valve@ is unable switchvalve@ backas longas the opposing pilotinputhas ben whenthe opposite witha pilotpressure remains. bistiable A valvecan only be switched exhausted.

P N E U M A T TTcE c H t { o L o c Y ll the cylinder lo returnunconditionally soonas it reaches end of stroke,a simplesolution would has the as be lo transform signalof lhe manually the ot valveintoa pulse.This is a combination the two operaled elementary lunctions fig. 8.9 and 8.17. ot

ValveO situaledhre

I I I

F19.8,18 Automatic retumof a cylinder 6venwitha remaining signal

P \

EU ATICTECHNOLOGV

|}epeattng Slrotes valvesand usingthemto switchthe main By sensing bothendsof the strokewith rollerleveroperated of ln will valve@ bact-andlorth,the cylinder rciprocate. orderto stopthe motionwe applyan ANDfunction valvethe in valveconnected serieswilh the roller-operaled fig. 8.13.Witha bistable manually operated position cylinder ceas6to cycleif switchO is tumedotf, butas beforeit willalwaysreturnto the negative will

Fig.8.19 Repeating strokeas longas valve@ is operated

SEQUENCE ONTROL C
H O WT O D E S C R I B E S E O U E N C E A in A few ruleshelpus in describing cycleof movements an extremely a shortbut precisemanner. Nomenclature Eachactuatorassumesa capital lettr. is as Its position rest,in whicha circuitdiagram drawn,is defined "ZroPosition". opposite ot The end posilion the "1" posilion. is controlvalvesare called"commands" distinguish Pressur signals switchdirectional to themfrom other ,to for a fromthe "zero"to the "1" position signals, from leverrollervalves.A command moving cylinder e,g. is in ?', caltd 'posilive"command; the caseof cylinder ils codeis simply'A+".Accordingly, command a th to refumcylinder is ?-". A As the restposilion called'zero",it is logical codethe valvethat sensesthe rest position cylinder is to of position thencalled"a1".Forclarity, is signalsaralwayscodedwith lowercase wim 'a6". The opposite J"A" letters. The sensedposition designated an index. is by

P N E U A T T cT E c H i r o L o c Y In Fig.8,20thsecodesar6 reproduced a schematic in This setupis calleda "Functional setupfor clarity. Unif , as it provides everything required perform machine to a tunction and to conlrolit.

Direction

lSignals: as

aoG

Fig. 8.20 Functional with all codes Unit SEQUENCE F TWO CYLINDERS O Withthesecodes,we can writea sequence two cylinders example of lor with: A+, B+, A-, BThe sequence evenlsnow becomes of patently obvious. Nowcomesthe queslionof wh6r thesecommands comefrom.The answeris quitesimple:lrom the roller levervalvesthat sensethe endsof the stroke.They alsoneeda cod,againquiteself-explanatory: lhe terminalion a command of (A+, B+)will alwaysbe signaled the roller/lver by valvewiththe same letterand an indexnumber: "at", "bt", a Zero Command A- by ao, etc. Withthesecodeswe can writethe solution thg abovementioned for sequence tollows: as A+ -) al .+B+-)bf-+A--+i0+B-*bO We also neda manually operated valvetor starting and stopping sequence, is placedin the lin6 the it priorto the firstcommand, Shouldthe sequence A+. needto conlinuethenthe startvalveshouldbe lettopen, but it thcircuitis switched in mid-cycle will continue operateuntilall ot the movements the off it to in sequence havebeencompletd thenthe cyclewill cometo rest.This meansthatthe lastsignalbo has and appared it is unableto passthroughthe startswitch(coded"sf). This is anotherapplication the but ol 'AND" function fig. elemntary of 8.13.The command needsbothsignals:bg and"sf. In switching A+ algebra this is writtenas a multiplication normalalgebra: . b0'. in "st

PNEU ATIcTEcHNoLoGY is of The sequence signalsand commands lhen as loop' circuit. This may be referred as a "closed lo lollows:

Slgna,s

Commands
circuitwith ISO aboveis drawnin Fig8,21as a pneumatic The samesequence in the blockdiagram as thereis no needto draw lo Symbols. we havenowcodedthe rollerlevervalvesaccording theirposition, As them or shownnearthe cylinders, indicate valvestopographically the circuitas a mapwiththe end-of-stroke withnumbers in figures 8.18and8.19. as themlheir powervalvesand below at The standard to drawall the cylinders the top, dhectlybeneath is circuits theremay be some thosethe valvesproviding end of strokesignals.ln moresophisticated the 'sf in fig. the additional valvesin a levelbetween mainand signalvalves.This is the casewiththe startvalve 8.21. SIngle Cycle / nepeatlng Cycle between two cycles:if it is a the makesthe ditference the The type of valveusedfor starting sequence pertormed. the caseof a bistable In valve,the cycle monostable valvand we trip it, one singlecyclewill be the it. No matterwhenwe do it, the circuitwillalwayscomplete cycle will repeatcontinuously we reset until andthen slop.

A+, Fig. 8.21Circuit the sequence B+,A-, Blor

P N E U i I A T t cT E c H N o L o G Y

OPPOSING OMMANDS C Ellmlnatlon wlth a Pulse Clamping: Pressure Control

Shorlslrokesingl actingcylinders oftenusedtor clamping. are Although thycan havebuilt in switches tor electrical control, thereis no secudly,ls the parl to be machined sutficiently clamped withstand to the lorcesexeriedon it duringmachining? only reliable pressure The signalis one that indicates sufficient behind lhe piston.For this a "Sequence Valve"is used.lt allowsthe operator adjustthe minimum pressure to required lor secureclamping. The pressure hasto senseis that of the clamping it cylinder, ils pilotinputhas to be connected so witha Tee to the cylinder port; its outputsignalwill then startthe machining (cylinder operation, "8").The cylinder haslo relurnimmediately aftrthe operation tinished, the end of the stroke,valve"b1" will provide is i,e. this intormation. Herewe face a problem: is unableto relurnas longas the clamping B cylinder is pressurized, also il A but musl not relumand un-clamp betorethe machining deviceis backin the rest position. can againusethe We basiccircuitof fig 8.9 to solvelhis problem transforming remaining by the signalfrom lhe sequence valveinto a pulse'The cycleis startedmanually in practice,lhe but operator inserta component machining will for and thnkeepthe buttondepressed untilthe work is completed. lig 8.22for clarification. See

Flg. 8,22Circuitfor clamping and machining, singlerycle Thereis however imperfection: the operator an if relases buttonafterthe machining started, th has the clampwill open.We haveto prevent that.The solution to "memorize" manualstartingsignalwithth is the circuitof fig. 8.16.For the tunctionol valve1 in that circuitwe useda valvetor sensingthe rstposition of cylinder a valve"bo'. But that valveis operated the restposition, B, in whenclamping has beendoneand B has to outstroke.

PNEUMATIC TEC'II'IOLOGY

whichwe haveto get rid of -- by makinga pulseof ilr command, This meansthereis another opposing t t That resultsin the circuitof fig. 8.23:

T-I

Fig. 8.23Clamping machining addilional with locking and Cascade System You mustadmitthatthe way in whichopposing commands havebeenliminated the previous in example cannotbe lhe bestone.Theremustbe a morestraighttoMard reliable and solution. The trusolution to switchoverlapping is signalsofi, nol by timingtricks,but by switching selector a valve as in the circuitFig,8.3,The problem to knowwher6sucha valvehasto be put in and how it is to b6 is switched and connected. Thereis a simpleprocedure drawing tor squential circuits, called'The Cascade System". The cycleis dividedintotwo or moregroups.For furtherexplanation assumethatthereare onlytwo groups.Eachone we has a supplylinetromthe selector valve. The division the groups, example of tor cycle"A+, B+, B-, A-" is doneas follows: Looking eachcommand at from lettto right,we can sub-divide commands groups, rule being the into the in that you mayonly have1 command eachgroupbe it either + or - e.g.:

A+, B+ groupI

lB-, A-.1 groupll

The principle remains samewith longercycles,whenit hasthreeor moregroups.lt is not necessary the thal the cyclestartswitha new group;the end-of-cycle be in the middleof a group.The "starustop" may valve is simplyput in the lineto lhe firsl command the cycle.Sometimes hasto try untilthe leastamountot ot one groupshasb66nfound.

P N E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c Y

Furtherrulesare explained the following in blockdiagram: in all turlhercommands groupll all furth6rcommands groupl in tirstcommand in groupI firstcommand in groupll

line groupI linegroup

FirstCylinder Valveto be switched group t . in

@ All end of strokevalvesin group l, exceptthe last in sequence. to lrom @ All the commands the mainvalvesin group I are supplied " line group 1". The valve the @ the lineof sensingthe end ol the laststrokein groupt switches selector; groupI is exhausted that of groupll pressurized, and
rR\ Mainvalveof the cylindermakingthe firststrokein group ll , \g/

@ All end-ofstrokevalvesgivingthe commandsin groupll ,excplthe lastone, @ All end-ofstrokevatuesgivingcommandsin groupll are suppliedfrom 'line groupll". the @ The valvesensingthe laststrokein groupllswitches selectorback.
lg. 8.24 BlockDiagram the Cascade of System The steps of the circuit are now quite easy. The start switch is alwaysinsertdin the line to the first command the cycle.ln the example ol above,lhe cycleendsat the end ot a group;this is not alwaysthe case and,as mentiond abovenol necessary. This will be demonstrated one xample: givencycleis: A+, B+, A-, C+, D+, IL B- Gwith the lf we dividethe sequence frcm the trontwe get the resultas belowa 3 GroupCascade: lA+, B+,1 C+, D+,1 B- C-. A-, Dlf we dividethe sequence frcm lhe rearwe lind lhal we now haveonly2 groups,as the movements A+,Dwiththe samegroupair: ,B-,C-can all be performed A+,1B+, A-, G+, D+,1 B- C.. IL The cascade valvewill be switchd with al and b6 switched on backwith dt. The start/ stopvalvewill be in the connection tromcOto lhe command inputA+,

P N E U I , A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

Remember bothrollerlevervalves,coded wilha zero index,haveto be drawnin the opelaledposition, that A+, youcan sein the diagram fig. 8.25for the seguence B+, B-, A-. of as

zK

r.

T-l
t#

r-ll

9K

r-1

Flg. 8.25 Two cylindercascade-

P N E U M A T I CT E C H N O L O G Y

APPENDIX
SYMBOLS
A A T H E S Y M B O L SF O R F L U I D P O W E RS Y S T E M S N D C O M P O N E N T S R E A H C THE STANDARD OMBTNES YDRAULIC ND S T A N D A B D T Z EID I S O 1 2 1 9 . N O S H O WT H E F U N C T I O N F A C O M P O N E N T P N E U M A T I C O M P O N E N T SS Y M B O L S C . T A T B U T D O N O T I N D I C A T E H E C O N S T R U C T I O N . S A N E X A M P L E :A C C O R D I N G O A I I S O , T H E R E I S N O D I F F E R E N C EN S Y M B O LB E T W E E N C O N V E N T I O N A L , A D O U B L EA C T I N GC Y L I N D E R N D A T W I N B O D C Y L I N D E R A L T H O U G HS O M E T M A N U F A C T U R E RH A V E I N T R O D U C E D H E I R O W N S Y M B O L SF O F S CLARIFICATION. AIR TREATMENT OUIPMENT E withthe inpuland output is The basicSymbol Air Cleaning Air DryingComponents a diamond and lor with a few insidethe diamond lunctionis indicated The specific drawnas a linefromthe lettand rightcorners. furthr symbols. The tablebelowwillxplain itself. is The basicsymbolfor pressure regulators a squarewiththe inputand outputdrawnin the middleof the leftand rieht.lide. withan anow,the settingspringwitha zigzag,crossedby an arrowtor Airflowis indicated Th6 adjuslirbility. rirainsymbols are: for ISOSYMBOLS AIR TREATMENT

Multistage Lubricator MicroFilter

+ + +
,A
\I/
Air Heater

Heat Exchanger

Pressure Reoulation

Basic Symbol

Ll s fr-++tJ:
Adiustable Pressure Regulator Regulator with rlief Setting Spring

-Z-

E-

,--E_ A

Diftrenlial Pressure Pressure Gauge Regulator

Units

FRL Unit.detailed

FRLUnit, simplitied

lor ISO Fig. A.1 Symbols Air Treatment Components 1219

P N E U t r t a r l cT E c H N o L o c Y

ACTUATORS piston other A linear cylinder drawn a simplitied is and as is between cross section. difference made No types cylinders. rolary of A with actuator itsownsymbol; also,it applies all kinds, rackandpinion has for here or van tc.

Singl ActingCylinder, pushtype

SingleActingCylinder, pulltype

t-n t
T-T

l
DoubleActingCylinder with adjustable air

Double Acting

Double ActingCylinder, withdoubleend rod

RotaryActuator, doubleActing

Flg. A-2 ISOActuator Symbols VALVES The basicsymbolfor a directional controlvalveis a groupof squares. The inputand exhaust(s) drawn are on the bottom, outputson top. Thereis one squarelor eachfunction. valveshavetwo or moredifferent the As functions, squaresare linedup horizontally, ruleof thumbis thal eachfunctionis represented a square: the by

Insidethe square, flowpaths indicated anowsV are by portsare shownwiththe symbolT. shut

mt \

\ between interconnected ports,intemally the

Externally, the bottomot lhe square,air supplyis shownwitn6 anAexhausts on withV. A supplyline is drawnas a solidline, a pilotline is dashed exhaustlinesare dottod Symbols the operatoraare drawnon the endsof the doubleor triplesquare. lor The following operator symbolsare shownfor thleft-hand side,exceptthe spring,whichis alwayson the opposite side of an operator it is a res6tmechanism, is technically as bul termedas an oprator.ll operators are placedon the righthandsidethey will be in reverse(flipped horizontally).

PNEu Atlc TEcHNoLoGY

are: The mainopeEtorsymbols ReturnSpring(in facl not an operator, a built-inelement) bul BollerLever: M CE (plunge0: Mechanical Lever: one'wayFloller -. qr-

\cE
i--

general: Manual oPerators: PushButton:

= F

Lever: Button: Push-Pull

(F-

I I I I I

valve (makesa monostable operators and Delenlfor mechanical manual D& bistable): line signalpressure to is the ni, Operation shownby drawing (dashed) by ---D--' of rtreside of the squareithe direction the signalllow can be indicated a trianole: witha triangle. l-El is o,, oplration for pilotedoperation shownby a rectangle operator. withanother alwayscombined Thissymbolis

I I

operatio on"o solenoid "

piloted operation l7T1 solenoid

these symbollemenlsare put togetherto lom a completevalve I The table A-3 below explainsho\r,, symbol.

I
, |

+m f,'ffi'-ffik" s&ia
|-f-l l\ \
/ \ fT-T-|.

^t lWoR tr, AJ LI-l ry T\ rrrr Al i \ T \ \ t /

t
\ . \ \ / Manuallvooerated, \ \ Open valve, 312 i ,Normally ITTFI

fi'ffi' d:?Hfl" -d*h" s;li;l

\ \ t
/

' Exhaust"='z V

O --"'.-6!

ffiil#,iilf';i'"";J\Jffi wirhsprinsRetum
^na,*ry

/ ^ ^',

"--t#

lnput dosd, Inpul Mochanical conftictdto OutDut Operation exhaustd O.rtout -

H NM
\o.,n"r.

Rlum Spnng

lnDut dosd. Input 'Ouput Fetum Mchanicel connctedto gxhaustedDpnng Output Operalion

o R =

rr|

lT\ |

M
I

Mechanically Operated, closed312 normally (non-passing) ValvewithSpringReturn

ainsrpptv 6/

Fig. A-3 Howto combine ValveSymbols

E U M A T t cT E c H N o L o c v

ctRcurTs
B A S I CR U L E S

A circuit diagtam drawn therestposition thecont.olled is in pressure, ol machine, thesupply with under bu in lhecaseof mixed circuits, power. components bedrawn thepositions without electrical All must in resulting fromlh6se assumptions. A- 4 illustrates Flg. this:
fhis cylinder chamber andthe rod sideot pistonarundsroressure: rod

Thisline is in connection with lhe supplylhroughthe valve: il is oressurized

Feat cylinder chamber this line and are exhausted

In resttheE is no solenoid nergized: operator inaclive andvalveposition definsdby the spring

As springdefinesposition, thissquareis in function

Flg. A.4 BasicRulesfor composing circuitdiagrams REST POSITION

Mechanically operated valves,controlling restpositions the cylinder the ol drivenparts,are operated rest in and haveto be drawnaccordingly: the external with connections drawnto the squareon the operator sid.In a normally closed3/2 valv, outputis then connected the withthe supplyand theretore underpressure. Equally, the signallineto a monostablo operatd if air valveis underpressure, hasto be drawnin the ii position. operated Furtherrulesar6:

Manually operatedValves
no pEssut
| r-l

-----6-v-

| T

| \---t_ | \ I^^,

HJ

IT

-I_\ ]/VV

pressure I -l. ff. .

3/2,normally closed

(, 3i/2,normallyopen

monoslable valves nevet ooerated

ruru
delent, must correpond valve position wlth i/ noon,uun \ o*ur" 3il2,normally

possible. bistable valves: both positions

Fig. A-5 Bulesconceming valvepositions: ManualOperation

T Pr'IEU ,ATIC TCHNOLOGY

Valves operated Electrically pneumatically and

Alr operatedvalves may be operatedIn rest

jg_ejg:s_uP_+,_

Solenoldsare never operaledIn roat and air operated valves Flg.A.6Ruls restposilionol solenoid for

Valves Mechanically operated

No valvewlth lndex'1" ls

All valveswlth Index"0' ar

Fig. A-7 Ruleslor restposition mechanically of valves operated C I R C U I TL A Y O U T In a circuitdiagram, flowof the workingenergyis drawnfromthe bottom thtop and the sequence the to of the working cyclelrom th6 leftto the right.Consequntly, air supply(FRL)Unitis situatedin the lowerleft thd corner,lhe cylinder lhat pertorms firststrokeof the cycl, the upperleftcomeretc. the in The powervalvesare drawndirectlybelowtheircylinders; th6ytorma 'PowerUnit'thalis codedwitha capitaffetter(seeNomenclalure). purelypneumatic In circuits, rollerfiever 312 valves, controlling nd the posilions the cylinderdriven partrs, situatd a lowrlevel. of machine are in powervalvesand the powerunilsthremaybe additional Between valvesto nsure correclsequence the (memory lunction), and,somtimes, valvesto realize additional crtain interlocks logical by functions. Th6 bloc* diagram fig. 6 explains moreetfectively ot this thandescriptions.

P r ' r E U M A T r cE c H N o L o c Y T Laststrokeof th6 cycle

Firststrokeot the cycle

LOGICLevel
Memories, AND's, OR's, Timings etc.

,fsrll
*{I"il"ilqil
NOMENCLATURE

m
Codes: ar ,bo ,br ,% a9, andcl Flg, A The basiclayoutof.apneumalic.circuit diagram.

tI

SIGNALINPUTLevel

pneumatic Previously, circuitsweredrawn'topographically, the roller-operated with valvespositioned on top, drawnas beingoperated 'cams'on th6 cylinderrodends.This is the situation will haveon the by we trainingkit whensimulating machine a control.In modemmoresophisticated circuits, leadsto a muttitud this of crossinglines.The modemand only reasonabl methodis to linethe symbolsof theseroller-operatod valvesup, as in Fig.A-8, and posilion themto allowverticalsignallines,straight theirdestination. to Their placeon thmachine then indicated is with a selt-explanatory code. This selFexplanation achieved conslddng is by certainequipmnt form one functional The starting to set. pointis the "PowerUnit"whichis codedwith a capitallefter.This can be in alphabetical order,in the sequence of the workingcycle,or initialsot thoperation, exampbrc" fur clamping; for Drilling {or "D" etc. The (mentiond) lunctional sef includes actuator, powervalveand the two roller/lever the the valvesthat detectthe two end positions. The rest position codedwith an indexf0', the fuorkingposition" is with a "1". Notethat the restposition is partsand not that of the pistonrod.Only in simulation the real position the movingmachine of witha training kit do we considr'rodin" as the rest Dosition.

P N E U M A T I C T E C HN O L O G Y

signal and commands, valvs, by a between signal,produced lhe roller/lever W6 haveto ditferentiate . Thenthe codeof the a I pressures operate powervalvesilnsimplecircuits, signalcan be a command. lhe thai tells and actionon the machin), the codeof thcommand signaldelinesthe source(thenow completed the outpulof a valve will a circuits, command be will whichnextmovement be started.In morecomplicated tunclion. usedtor a logical havean indexzero.Those in valvesoperated the rest position is As thr6stoosition rc', all end-of-stroke witha littingiable havean index"1".Fig.A-9 showsa situation (\^,orkposition") end in opratd the opposlte sketch, as valvis switched in the threeversions: a situation on starvstop movingup and downas longas the kil withthe training and lhe circuitdiagram' lookswhensimulated an imDression howlhe circuit of

CIRCUIT

sketchwiththe simulation of set-upand the ckcuildiagram Flg. A-9 Comparison a situation

P EUxA'Ic TEcHNoLoGY S A M P L ED I A G B A M S We will lookat this in a samplediagram. Diagram A-10is the circuittor the sequenc: "A+, B+, B-, A-".

ll is dividedintothe threlevels,the powersectionon top, the signalinputrs the bottomand in between on the 'signalprocssing'. latlerterm means,thatthe signalstromthmachinenegdadditional This signals ancuor fogical interconnection gtthe rightsequsnce. this case,a memoryisrequired be switched lo In to by the commands "M+"and "M-".Youwill rcognize valyeas the cascadevalvain tig. 8.25,whichis of this coursea memory, Logical functions lhe seriesconnections (ANDfunctions) lor exampl start/stop are of the valvewiththe memory. The ellect is, that as longas the cylinder is not backin its rest position startis A the not effective. Onlyafteroperation the rollerlevervalvea6,the memorywill be resetintothe drawnposition of and supplyair to lhe startvalve.This allowsrepeating cyclesby switching starystop the valve"ON".Resetting it intothe drawnrest position causethe sequence stopaftercompletion the running will to of cycle.

POWERLevel

<A-_CommandAI I

co'Uand-Ll LOGICLevel
Signal Processing

staru$op M-l

Signalbl and i--CommangEEi I

- -1
.

Siqnalao and t I Command M+

lI

SIGNALLevel
the Checking machine

Fig. A-10 SampleDiagram

T PNEUMATtc EcxNoLocY

meansto automate pneumatics continue be a reliable, and costetticient, productive to will Industrial wayto storeenergyand processes. remains, an of applications, eflective lt aftera cenlury machines and work. worK. orovide orovroe

,=i,=&!i:il{:?rdtfi
machines will, on that smarterproducts; level,thinkaboutwhat an elementary to lhey'redoingand respond ever Pneumatic circumstances. changing lhe to will components continue provide powerto buildthe dreamsof emerging tuturetechnologies.

shownon The sectionof a machine that: the left shouldserveas a reminder

1 . lherewill alwaysbe a needlo

automale.....there so manyold are machines fixtures and that can be mademorefficient more and productive

general 2. simpler btter.....a is rule

o.

safestis notiust th6 bestway-- it is the ONLYway. Neverdesigna circuit,usea product, operatea or machine withoutsafetyas your primary conc6m. The tuturerestson the lundamentals.

your localSMCotficeor distributor additional titles, in To continue this fieldot study,consult tor t6rit and workbooks, courseoflerings.

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expertisein many other pneumaticcomponents SMCoffers the samequality and engineering

Valves Directional ControlValves ManualValves Mufflers ExhaustCleaners Quick ExhaustValves Valves Prooortional Valves Mechanical Valves Miniature Valves FluidValves Cylinders/Actuators CompactCylinders MiniatureCylinders RodlessCylinders RotaryActuators PneumaticGrippers

Vacuum Vacuum Ejectors Vacuum Accessories Instrumentation Pneumatic Positioners Pneumatic Transducers

Air Preparation Equipment Filters-Regulators-Lubricators Coalescing Filters Micro MistSeDarators Fittings Air Fiftings

P.O.Box 26640, Indianapolis, 46226 lN Tel:(317)899-4440.FAX:(317)899-3102 SMC Pneumatics, Inc.All RightsReserved. O 1978-1999 RevisedOctober1999

SMC Pneumatics Inc.