School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering

AC Vector Controlled Drives Induction Motor Drives

Greg Asher
Professor of Electrical Drives and Control Greg.asher@nottingham.ac.uk

Part IV Implementation of Vector Control

Direct rotor flux control Indirect Rotor Flux control Controller design Discussion

Fundamental structure of vector control

All vector controllers first transform measured currents to dq domain

Measured voltages can be transformed to dq if necessary (not shown below)

Vector controller controls the currents in the dq domain and outputs dq voltage demands Voltage demands are inversed transformed into 3-phase demand voltages for PWM The transformations need the angle at every point in time vsd* vsq* v*sabc 2/3
PWM IM

vs*

e j

vs*

Vector Controller

isd isq

is

isa 3/2 isb isc

is

Microprocessor Vector controller needs to calculate

Finding the Rotor Flux angle

q r

dq axis frame rotates at instantaneous speed e: d e (t ) = (t ) dt

(t ) = e (t )dt

DIRECT VECTOR CONTROL in which the rotor flux angle is derived from measured stator voltages and currents INDIRECT VECTOR CONTROL in which is derived from the vector controlled constraint equation

Vector Control using Direct Rotor Flux Orientation (DRFO)

Vector Control using DRFO Finding the rotor flux angle Consider the dynamic equations of the two stator coils in the frame:

vs = is Rs +

ds dt

v s = i s Rs +

s = (vs Rs is )dt
We want rotor fluxes

s = v s R s i s dt

ds dt

Remember the relation between rotor and stator fluxes:

s = Ls is + Lo ir
s = Ls is + Lo ir

r = Lo i + Lr ir
r = Lo is + Lr ir

L r = r { (v s Rs is )dt Ls is } Lo L r = r v s Rs is dt Ls is Lo

{(

Vector Control using DRFO Finding the rotor flux angle

r = Lr { (v s R s i s )dt L s i s } Lo L r = r v s R s i s dt L s i s Lo
is d q

{(

is

L s

Rs
vs
+ -

Lr Lo

tan 1

r r

Note: the above can be drawn as two separate diagrams one for and one for

is vs

Flux & flux angle calculator

R
1 Lo

imrd

Vector Control using DRFO The current controllers

v*sabc PI isd* PI

isq*

vsq* vsd*

e j

vs *

2/3

PWM

IM

isq

e j
isd
Flux & flux angle calculator

is 3/2

isabc

vsabc 3/2 vs

The PI controllers acting on the current errors are called the current controllers Real voltages are difficult to measure obtain from DC-link voltage & switching states

isq and isd are compared with demand values If isq* > real isq,then want more q-axis voltage to increase isq isq* means a torque demand, isd* means a flux current demand

Vector Control using DRFO The speed controller

v*sabc PI PI

r*
+ -

PI

isq* isd*

vsq* vsd*

e j

vs *

2/3

PWM

IM

isq

e j
isd
Flux & flux angle calculator

is 3/2

isabc

vsabc 3/2 vs

r is measured and compared with demand value If r * > real r ,then want more isq. But must limit isq* to e.g. 2x rated

The PI controller acting on the speed error is called the speed controller

Vector Control using DRFO The flux controller

v*sabc PI PI

r*
+ -

PI PI

isq* isd*

vsq* vsd*

e j

vs *

2/3

PWM

IM

isq

e
isd imd*
+ -

is 3/2

isabc

imd

Flux &

vsabc 3/2 vs

1 Lo

flux angle

calculator

imrd is derived and compared with demand value If imrd * > real imrd, then want more isd to increase the flux imrd * is derived from a field weakening block The PI controller acting on the imrd error is called the field or flux controller

Direct Rotor Flux Orientation (DRFO) Problem integrator drift DRFO is NOT used for high performance vector control is

L s

Ideal vs (similar waveform for vs )

Rs
vs
+ -

Lr Lo

tan 1

r r

Let e.g. vs contain (small) dc offset. This will be integrated to give increasing output Called integrator drift - situation is shown in diagrams below
Int i/p Int o/p With sin input Int i/p Int o/p

Direct Rotor Flux Orientation (DRFO) Problem integrator drift Blue line is frequency response of ideal integrator see that it has infinite dc gain this is what causes integrator drift

Must limit output. Do this by replacing 1/s by 1/(sc+1) Cut-off frequency fc (=1/2c) is about 1Hz Phase errors introduced below 1Hz This means that will be wrong But OK if e above 2Hz
0 -45 -90

1Hz

10Hz

100Hz

Direct Rotor Flux Orientation (DRFO) Problem Stator resistance is

L s

Rs
vs
+ -

Lr Lo

r
tan

r r

Remember: Vs proportional to frequency At high frequencies vs >> is Rs Below 2Hz, vs or even < than is Rs Since Rs varies thermally, it is not an accurate parameter Therefore signals and can be inaccurate below 2Hz

Integrator drift and poor knowledge of Rs means that low speed performance is poor. In fact, a DRFO drive often doesnt even start!

Vector Control using Direct Rotor Flux Orientation (DRFO)

Finds the flux angle from a Flux estimator with measured voltages and currents gives rotor flux estimation in coordinates Angle obtained using inverse tan function Flux and angle estimator doesnt use speed measurement Flux and angle estimator uses integrator and is dependent on RS Poor performance below 2Hz due to integrator drift and RS errors becoming important at low speed Main use is in speed sensorless vector drives due to lack of speed sensor for flux estimator; other methods used to overcome integrator drift and RS problem

Vector Control using Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation (IRFO)

Vector Control using Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation Getting the rotor flux angle Consider the vector control equations D-axis vector control equation :

Lr d imrd + imrd = isd Rr dt

imrd can be obtained from isd as follows:

r simrd + imrd = isd

( r s + 1)imrd = isd
sl =

imrd =

1 isd ( r s + 1)

q-axis vector control (constraint) equation : We will therefore derive as :

Rr 1 isq = isq Lr imrd r imrd

= e dt = ( r + sl )dt = ( r +
with imrd obtained above

isq

r imrd

)dt

Vector Control using IRFO Implementing the rotor flux angle calculator

= e dt = ( r + sl ) dt = ( r +
r*
+ -

i sq

r i mrd
vsq* vsd*

) dt

imrd =

1 isd ( r s + 1)

isq* PI isd* isq imrd

1 s r + 1

PI PI

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

e
sl
+ +

isd

3/2

isabc

isq r imrd

re r

P/2

Vector Control using IRFO Adding field weakening Demand isq* can be used for slip gain calculator (cleaner than isq) Field weakening added as shown If no field weakening action, isd* can be used in slip gain calculator
r*
+ -

isq* PI PI isd* isq PI PI

vsq* vsd*

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

e
sl
+ +

r
imd*

1 sr + 1

isd

3/2

isabc

isq *
irmd

r imrd

re r

P/2

Vector Control using IRFO Why IRFO works Proof for base speed when imrd = isd Let the real flux angle in the machine be Let the real flux angle in the controller be The current vector is the same since currents are measured The rotation speed e is the same But the angle error in the d-axis will produce different dq current components
e
is d q r is

e
d er

q
isd

sq i

isq

sd i

Situation in the real machine

What the controller thinks

Vector Control using IRFO Why IRFO works The rotation speed in controller e is the same as the real machine (imposed on PWM converter) The mechanical speed in controller is the same as the real machine Therefore we can say that sl = sl
isq*
PI
-

r*

PI

vsq* vsd*

isd* isq imrd

1 s r + 1

PI

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

e
sl
+ +

isd

3/2

isabc

isq r imrd

e re r

P/2

Vector Control using IRFO Why IRFO works

Rr 1 isq isq = q-axis vector control (constraint) equation : sl = Lr imrd r isd i Rr 1 sq isq = But in the controller we also have: sl = r sd Lr imrd i
We know that

sl = sl
1 r sq 1 isq i = sd r isd i

So the following is true:

If r = r then
is

=
d

2 2 2 2 i i But: is = isd + isq = sd + sq

q isq

Hence
But if

=
then

isd
sd i

r r

and

isq

Errors in

cause orientation loss

Unfortunately,

Rr

can change by 50% to 100% due to heating

Vector Control using Indirect Rotor Flux Orientation (IRFO)

Finds the flux angle by forcing the vector control constraint equation on the system. This is only true if q-axis flux is zero (ie. orientation) Needs to have speed measurement Performance is excellent and is an industry standard Only problem is variation of rotor time constant due to changes of Rr Rotor time constant also changes due to LR in field weakening For best performance, requires a r tuning mechanism Under field weakening common to have r a function of imrd (look up table)

Controller Design
(Either DRFO or IRFO)

Controller design - revision

k prop +

kint s
x*(s)

G( s ) =

ki k ( s + ai ) s( s + p)
kp s p + 1
plant

can be written as

k (s + p)

k i ( s + ai ) s
controller

x(s)

samp=2fsamp

Gcl ( s ) =

ki k ( s + ai ) k k ( s + ai ) x( s ) G( s ) = = 2 = 2 i x * ( s ) 1 + G(s) s + ( p + kki ) s + kki ai s + 2 n s + n 2

n is natural frequency in rad/s often called bandwidth chosen by designer is the damping - chosen by designer System is digital with a samp. Normally samp is about 10-20 x n [for s-plane design] n can be related to step response rise time 3/n ; or settling time 4/n
2 2

Given n and , know s + 2 n s + n ; therefore can find ki and ai

Controller speeds and sampling processes

Sampling synchronised to PWM sample e.g 5kHz PWM will give a system sampling time of 5kHz (symmetric PWM) or 10kHz (asymmetric) Voltage demand will be updated every samp (e.g. fsamp = 5kHz or Tsamp = 200s) Red signals are sampled at samp the fast sampling.

r*
+ -

isq*
PI PI PI PI

vsq* vsd*

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

isd* isq

r
imd*

1 sr + 1

isd

3/2

isabc

isq *
irmd

r imrd

sl
+ +

re r

P/2

d/dt

Controller speeds and sampling processes

Note update is fast motor position can be sampled at 200 s Motor speed doesnt change very fast - cannot be sampled at 200 s Seen by considering [r(k)- r(k-1)]/Tsamp - position will not have changed in 200s! r derived e.g 2ms (every 10th sample). Hence processing isq* imd* sl also at 2ms Slow sampling shown in black PI
-

r*
+

isq*
PI PI PI

vsq* vsd*

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

isd*

isq

r
imd*

1 sr + 1

isd

3/2

isabc

isq *
irmd

r imrd

sl
+ +

re r

P/2

d/dt

Control block diagram for the Current Controllers

The isd and isq P+I controllers will be identical one design for both Current loops are fast. Choose n as 2 x 100-200Hz e.g. 1000rad/s Need to find plant transfer function. Look at all delays in system (modelled by 1st order time constant)
I= 200s

controller

isq*

vsq*

inverter

k i ( s + ai ) s

1 s I + 1

usq*

plant

isq

Gp( s )

1 s f + 1
Anti-aliasing filter
f= 200s

Inverter delay: delay before demand voltage actually gets on to lines. Normally assume 1/fsamp. In our example, this is 200s Filter filters away PWM current ripple, cut-off < fsamp/2 e.g. 1kHz f 200 s What is Gp(s)?

Finding the plant for the current controller design

Consider the dynamic equations for the stator coils in dq frame

usd = Rsisd + Ls

L d d isd eLsisq + o rd dt Lr dt d L usq = Rsisq + Ls isq + eLsisd + e o rd dt Lr

It would be good if we had only the first two terms e.g. for the d-axis equation:

usd = Rsisd + Ls

d isd dt

usd = Rsisd + Ls sisd

usd

usd = ( sLs + Rs )isd

1 / Rs s s + 1
d isq dt
isq isd

1 isd = usd ( sLs + Rs )

And the 1st two terms of the q-axis equation: usq = Rsisq + Ls Giving:

1 isq = usq ( sLs + Rs )

usq

1 / Rs s s + 1

Idea of voltage compensation terms (also called feedforward or decoupling terms)

Of course we had:

usd = Rsisd + Ls

L d d isd eLsisq + o rd dt Lr dt d L usq = Rsisq + Ls isq + eLsisd + e o rd dt Lr

eLs
-

imd

sLo 2 / Lr

e Lo 2 / Lr

The terms in the red box are the demand voltages to overcome changing flux and the back-emf in the machine. We can add these as feed-forward terms into the controller

+ + +

eLs
isq* isd*
PI PI

vsq*+ vsd*

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

isq isd

e j

3/2

isabc

Current Controllers
The feedforward terms means that the PI control only supplies the voltages to increase or decrease the current The plant transfer function Gp(s) is now 1st order and given below The value of s is about 10-25ms and is much slower than the delays of filter and inverter
inverter
f= 200s

plant

f= 20ms

isq*

k i ( s + ai ) s

1 s I + 1

1 / Rs s s + 1

isq

1 s f + 1
Anti-aliasing filter
f= 200s

Current Controllers
The feedforward terms means that the PI control only supplies the voltages to increase or decrease the current The plant transfer function Gp(s) is now 1st order and given below The value of s is about 10-25ms and is much slower than the delays of filter and inverter
plant

isq*

k i ( s + ai ) s

1 / Rs s s + 1

isq

Control design is now easy. Let s = 0.02 and Rs = 1. Hence plant Assume wish for n = 1000rad/s with =0.75 Then we have: s 2 + ( 50 + 50 k i ) s + 50 k i a i = s 2 + 1500 s + 10 6 From which PI parameters are derived

50 s + 50

Control block diagram for the Speed Controller

The machine will develop torque Te and this will cause a speed response The response will be defined by:
J = moment of inertia Bv = viscous friction coefficient Ba = aerodynamic friction coefficient

Te = TLoad

d + J r + Bv r + Ba r 2 dt

Tload is associated with the application it is unknown and is treated as a disturbance Bv and Ba may be included as part of Tload if they are not known J is that of the motor and load Ba normally neglected to make design linear (but can be significant at high speeds)
Writing using Laplace operator and ignoring aerodynamic friction:

Te = TLoad + Jsr + Bv r
TLoad Te
1/ J s + Bv / J

r =

1/ J (Te TLoad ) s + Bv / J

Often Bv very small and put to zero

Control block diagram for the Speed Controller

kt called the torque constant derived from

P Lo 2 imrd isq T = 3 2 L r

3/2 x peak convention)

(replace 3 by 2/3 for

We can now put a torque demand isq* on to machine. The machine will develop torque according to isq this will be within 2-10ms of the torque demand fast.

isq*

f= 5ms

isq Te

TLoad

plant

r*

k i ( s + ai ) s

kt

1/ J s + Bv / J

Speed Controller Design

kt called the torque constant derived from

P Lo 2 imrd isq T = 3 2 L r

3/2 x peak convention)

(replace 3 by 2/3 for

We can now put a torque demand isq* on to machine. The machine will develop torque according to isq this will be within 2-10ms of the torque demand fast.

plant

r*

k i ( s + ai ) s

isq*= isq

kt / J s + Bv / J

Current loop effectively neglected since it speed will not change much in a few ms! Combine kt with plant, and control design follows in same way as before n difficult to chose generally a few Hz for machines 5-50kW In practice, J and mechanics of plant not known, PI is normally a PID and is set by trial and error by the commissioning engineer

The field or flux controller

Field controller takes error of imrd (or flux) and outputs signal isd* Plant will take isd* and outputs imrd . Must identify all delays between isd* and imrd Know that isd* follows isd with delay 2-10ms (like q-component)

r*
+ -

isq*
PI PI PI PI

vsq* vsd*

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

isd* isq

r
imd*

1 sr + 1

isd

3/2

isabc

isq *
irmd

r imrd

sl
+ +

re r

P/2

d/dt

The field or flux controller

Field controller takes error of imrd (or flux) and outputs signal ids* Plant will take isd* and outputs imrd . Must identify all delays between ids* and imrd Know that isd* follows isd with delay 2-10ms (like q-component)

isd* imrd*

f= 5ms

isd

plant

k i ( s + ai ) s

1 s r + 1

imrd

To choose n: note imrd* comes from the field weakening function driven by speed. Thus imrd* cannot change by more than the CL speed bandwidth (a few Hz). Choose CL flux n as e.g. 8-10 times that of the speed. Eg let r = 100ms, n = 20Hz, damping factor = 0.8 Require: s2+200s+15800; have s2+10(1+k)s+10ka k=19, a =83 BUT in field weakening r increases slower plant. Do not try for too much n

Understanding Closed Loop responses 1. Current Loop

Assume no speed or flux loop see below vsq* isq* PI vsd* + isd* PI isq isd

e j

2/3

PWM

IM

e j

3/2

isq isq* 2-10ms

isabc

A torque demand or flux producing current demand may be applied. The actual isd and isq will track the demands within milliseconds.
(i)

If a step isq* is applied to a machine in Bv is zero or very low, then machine will accelerate in an uncontrolled manner (see right) The acceleration depends on the difference between ktisq* and TLoad

isq isq*

dr kt isq = dt J dr kt isq TLoad = dt J

(ii)

(i) idq applied with no load torque (ii) idq applied with constant Tload but < Te

Understanding Closed Loop responses 1. Action of Speed loop

t=0: step speed demand (e.g. 1000rpm); isq* hits limit at 2 x rated value (2x rated Te) t1: isq reaches demand current (after a few milliseconds); motor accelerates constant rate t2: t3: speed approaches final value; isq* leaves limit speed settles at demand value; isq drops to low value (e.g. because low Bv) rated Tload applied; speed drops; isq* responds to error

t4: t5:

r reaches r*, output of speed PI is constant

isq

Current settling - n_cur Speed settling - n_speed

r* r*
+

PI

isq*
IRFO current control
IM

imrd *

Tload = 0, then rated at t4

0 t1

t2

t3

t4 t5

IRFO Vector Control

Nearly all vector controlled commercial drives are IRFO All will have field weakening and voltage compensation terms All will have rotor time constant tracking similar to the scheme used in the reference section of Worked Example 3 No products use DRFO for sensored drives Sensorless drives (no speed sensor on shaft) may use DRFO or IRFO structures but speed/torque/flux control performance is poor for f<2Hz Main competitor to IRFO Induction Drive is Direct Torque Control or DTC this is a sensored DSFO Main competitor to vector IM drive is the IM Permanent Magnet Drive which is the 2nd part of this course Uses same principles as the IM vector drive, but is simpler!

What you need to know

As Masters students should know the physics of IM operation Understand V-f drive and why their dynamic performance is not good Be able to derive machine parameters from manufacturers data Understand the concept of high-performance drive and servo performance for speed, torque and flux Understand the concept of space vector applied to AC machines Understand how a 3-phase machine can be transformed into a 2-phase one, and the transformations used to do this Understand how a rotating measurement frame can measure the rotating vector as DC quantities and the concept of field orientation and torque and field current components Be familiar with two scaling conventions (3/2 time peak and rms) and be able to derive rated values of isd and isq from machine data

What you need to know

Understand in principle how the dq-axis field orientated equations are obtained (but you will not be asked to derive these) Understand DRFO and IRFO as the two ways of tracking the angle of rotor flux in real time Know the structure of DRFO and IRFO controllers and be able to reproduce them; understand their advantages and disadvantages Understand the IRFO slip and torque equations and be able manipulate them to find speeds, torques, currents etc when machine is driving known loads Understand orientation errors in IRFO and why the dq current components in the machine and controller may be different. For the 20-credit course, you should also understand how the rotor time constant is tracked in real time Understand how to design current, field and speed controllers given the machine and load parameters Understand how the machine speed and currents behave when step changes in speed and load torque are applied