Entering students often think of a PhD as a 'magnum opus', a brilliant research project culminating in a great work.

This is rather a demanding model and few students win Nobel Prizes as a result of their doctoral studies. As one colleague phrased it, a PhD is less like hacking through the jungle with a machete, and more like crawling around on the ground with a magnifying glass - less major discovery of new lands, more painstakingly detailed investigation of familiar ones. More realistically, a PhD is a demonstration of research competence. There are certain things that you are demonstrating through your dissertation: Mastery of your subject Research insight Respect for the discipline Capacity for independent research Ability to communicate results and relate them to the broader discourse

These reflect competence and professionalism, rather than greatness. Importantly-, they are as much about comprehending others' work as about doing ones own. So, a PhD is research training leading to a professional research qualification. A PhD can be a deep, specific education in a discipline, preceding a postdoctoral period of on-the-job training (note: there is no implication that the PhD is the end of your education or training). It involves you doing a substantial chunk of research, writing it up and then discussing it with professional academics. You have a supervisor (or two, or more) to help and advise you, but in theory at least the PhD is something for which you take the initiative, and so it is a demonstration of your ability to do proper research independently. The process is rarely smooth; along the way you are likely to learn a great deal about how not to do research as well as about how to do it effectively. At a sordidly practical level, the PhD suggests that you are good enough at research to be appointable to a university post. A PhD is highly advisable for a career as an academic, or helpful for a career as a researcher in industry. PhDs are recognized around the world and tend to have pretty good quality control, MD a PhD from one country will be recognized in another without too much snobbery. Still at the practical level, if you have a PhD, you usually go onto a higher pay scale. There are other views of a PhD, as well. It can be viewed as an initiation rite, in which you undergo an ordeal and, if you come through the ordeal in a creditable manner, are admitted to membership of the academic clan. Continuing the analogy, having a PhD will not be enough to make you a Clan elder, but it will mark the transition to full adulthood. You are treated differently if you have a PhD - there is a distinct feeling of having become 'one of us'. The 'rite of passage' is not just a snobbery thing; the ordeal (and the education) gives you a different way of thinking about things. A PhD can be viewed as one's entry into the research discourse (which equates roughly to the research community's dialogue about what it believes it knows and has a good basis for knowing). What it should do is prepare you to consider and debate what you know and how you know it. This means that you'll have developed your critical thinking, which you'll have learned about weighing evidence and ques-tioning assumptions. You will gradually notice a different way of thinking about things - for example, when you start making administrative decisions in your subsequent career. A good example of this is undergraduate student projects: in many departments, staff with PhDs

typically want to use the projects as a way of teaching the students how to conduct research, and staff without PhDs typically want to use the projects as a chance to give the students an industrial placement. The PhDs' view is that the students need to learn critical thinking skills valuable for later life; the other view is that the students need to be equipped to find jobs. Which is right? This is a good question, and one which would take us on a lengthy diversion. The main point is that doing a PhD does change you. So, a PhD can be many things: research training, springboard for specialist expertise, rite of passage, job credential ... what it means for you depends on which opportunities you seize, whether you keep an eye on `the Big Picture', what sorts of relationships you form and so on. Terminology: a brief digression There are various types of research degree; what they have in common is that they involve research by the student as a core component. This is different from a taught degree where there may be a research project (for instance, an MSc project), but where this research project is only one component among many on the course. Strictly speaking, a research degree involves a thesis, which is the argument that you propose as a result of your research. Again strictly speaking, the disser-tation is the written document which describes your thesis. In common usage, the dissertation is often referred to as 'the thesis'. It's worth knowing about the distinction in case you have a particularly pedantic external examiner - it helps you get off to a better start.

What are the criteria for a PhD?

PhD students often worry about whether their research will be good enough for a PhD. It's useful to remember the criteria which most universities have at the core of their PhD assessment: 'original work' which makes 'a significant contribution to knowledge'. It is no coincidence that most refereed journals and conferences use similar criteria - such publications are notionally how the research community communicates and continues to build knowledge. Therefore, you can provide evidence of 'significance', 'originality' and 'contribution to knowledge' in advance of submission of your thesis by publishing your work in refereed journals or conferences. There is more on this at various places later in this book. You don't need to make a major discovery to get a PhD - you just need to show that you're able to do good enough research independently. Key dissertation ingredients A number of ingredients are essential for a satisfactory dissertation: A thesis: one coherent over-riding 'story' or argument that embodies a research insight Situation in existing knowledge: a critical review of prior research which motivates and justifies the research question Contribution of something new (the 'significant contribution to knowledge') Appropriate voice and argument: the provision of clear and explicit evidence, substantiation and chain of inference

More hangs on the student's ability to demonstrate intellectual maturity and critical depth - and through them to provide insight - than on the scale or scope of the research findings. A good PhD is based on an honest report of research that reflects sound practice and well-articulated critical thinking.

What is a 'significant' contribution? Most students, when they hear the phrase significant contribution, think in terms of a new theory, crucial experiments, technological breakthroughs- the stuff of Nobel Prizes. For a PhD, the truth is that 'significant' need not mean 'revolutionary' or 'major' or even 'large'. The phrase might be more accurately read as 'significant - albeit modest - contribution'. Characterizing your contribution means answering 'So what?', which means articulating: The importance of the question (Why is it worth asking?) The significance of the findings (Why should anyone care? Why do they matter?) Their implications for theory The limitations to generalization

Making a 'significant contribution' means 'adding to knowledge' or 'contributing to the discourse' - that is, providing evidence to substantiate a conclusion that's worth making. Research is not something done in isolation; it is a discourse among many researchers, each providing evidence and argument that contributes to knowledge and understanding, each critiquing the avail-able evidence. Research is about the articulation and analysis of phenomena observed and investigated through a variety of techniques. It's about 'making sense' of the world: not just describing it, but also analysing and explaining it. As more evidence is presented, the analysis and explanations are re-evaluated. Knowledge claims can be small and still have a role in the discourse.

What sorts of contribution are typically made in dissertations? Re-contextualization of an existing technique, theory or model (applying a technique in a new context, testing a theory in a new setting, showing the applicability of a model to a new situation): showing it works - or that it doesn't - and why Corroboration and elaboration of an existing model (e.g. evaluating the effects of a change of condition; experimental assessment of one aspect of a model) Falsification or contradiction of an existing model, or part of one Drawing together two or more existing ideas and showing that the combination reveals something new and useful Demonstration of a concept: showing that something is feasible and has utility (or showing that something is infeasible and explaining why it fails) Implementation of theoretical principle: showing how it can be applied in practice; making concrete someone else's idea, and hence showing how it works in practice and what its limitations are Codification of the 'obvious': providing evidence about what 'everyone knows' (possibly providing evidence that received wisdom is incorrect) Empirically-based characterization of a phenomenon of interest (e.g. detailed, critical, analytic account of the evolution of an idea; detailed ana-lytic characterization of a crucial case study or a novel chemical compound, or a new planet)

Providing taxonomy of observed phenomena Well-founded critique of existing theory or evidence (e.g. correlating the results of a number of existing studies to show patterns, omissions or etc.)

Definition of PhD
A bachelor's degree traditionally meant that the recipient had obtained a general education (specializing at this level is a relatively recent nineteenth-century development). A master's degree is a licence to practise. Originally this meant to practise theology, that is, to take a living in the Church, but now there are master's degrees across a whole range of disciplines: business administration, soil biology, computing, applied linguistics and so on. The degree marks the possession of advanced knowledge in a specialist field. A doctor's degree historically was a licence to teach - meaning to teach in a university as a member of a faculty. Nowadays this does not mean that becoming a lecturer is the only reason for taking a doctorate, since the degree has much wider career connotations outside academia and many of those with doctorates do not have academic teaching posts. The concept stems, though, from the need for a faculty member to be an authority, in full command of the subject right up to the boundaries of current knowledge, and able to extend them. As the highest degree that can be awarded, it proclaims that the recipient is worthy of being listened to as an equal by the appropriate university faculty. Traditionally the doctorates of British universities have been named for particular faculty, for example: DD (Divinity), MD (Medicine), LLD (law), DMus (Music), DSc (Science), DLitt (Letters, i.e. Arts). These so called 'higher doctorates' are awarded as recognition of a substantial contribution to the discipline by published work. In British universities Doctor of Philosophy degree is a comparatively recent concept an early twentieth-century import from the United States. Some universities abbreviate the title to DPhil (e.g., Oxford, Sussex, York) but most use the designation PhD. Whatever the abbreviation, the degree is the same. It represents a more restricted achievement than the higher doctorates since it envisages a limited amount of academic work (three years or so), but it still embodies the concept that the holder of the PhD is in command of the field of study and can make a worthwhile contribution to it. There are a number of exceptions to these descriptions of the meaning of the degree titles, since British universities pride themselves on their independence. Traditionally, once an institution had become a university there were no laws that specified which degrees could be awarded, by which institutions, to whom and on what basis, as was the case in Continental Europe. This has now changed, as the Government has decided to designate certain Higher Education Colleges as `Teaching Universities', without giving them the right to award research degrees. Historically this independence has allowed, for example, the arts faculties of traditional Scottish universities to use the MA title for their first degree, but the science faculties use BSc. Traditionally there was no extra examination for an MA degree at Oxford and Cambridge, only a requirement to continue attendance at a college for a further two years. Nowadays this has been reduced to paying a registration fee after two years and obtaining the degree without attendance. In medicine the practice is even stranger: general medical practitioners are given the honorary title of Doctor although they do not have a doctorate from their universities. Indeed, on the basis of their university course they are credited with

two bachelor's degrees, although having a licence to practise they exemplify the concept of a master's degree.

A guide to PhD research in computing

This guide is aimed at those involved in PhD research into computing, but much of what is said here applies to all PhDs. 1. What are the aims? Although a successful PhD is commonly judged by one having (1) completed a written PhD dissertation (the thesis) , and (2) successfully defended it in ones oral examination (the viva) , it is usually not clear how these two objectives can be achieved within a given time (typically 3 years). Where to start? The path to a successful PhD is necessarily a hard but rewarding process of conscientiously developing and mastering the skills for independent research and leadership. It is important that one must pay attention to the following basic skills: Formulate plans to meet short-term and long-term goals, learn to meet deadlines under difficult circumstances (nothing is absolute, timing is the essence). Be able to identify the underlying reasons for changing plans and goals of research. One must learn to tell the difference between goals and approaches taken and not to be easily distracted by the latter. Learn to communicate by formulating "a message" through presentations and publications to which peers are interested in listening and reading. Have initiatives to make a novel contribution to existing work. Be able to draw conclusions from what one sets out to achieve (even from apparently negative results)! Keen to learn the skills to evaluate peers work through reading groups, literature search, and publication reviews. Keen and be able to demonstrate the importance of ones research to both expert and nonexpert audience.

2. The role of a supervisor: Essential for making progress Help a student to define a small project in the first year with a definite deadline, say before April of the second year (for September start). This will highlight problems in approach and if conducted to conclusion can lead to a conference paper. Establish a supervision committee (typically the supervisor plus another two academic staff) at the beginning of first year in order to advise and review the student's progress throughout the following three years.

Make sure the student is familiar with the professional standards of published work by suggesting at least one good PhD dissertation to read and regular reading groups to attend. Ensure that the student understands that original research can only come about after extensive review and analysis of existing work (published or otherwise), and requires dedicating time! Help the student to write concisely and logically. Graphical illustrations can lead to dramatic improvements in the effectiveness of writing. Ensure the student has a professional attitude to research : Present legible written work at mutually convenient deadlines. Attend weekly supervision meetings and research reading groups with notes on research in progress, methods attempted, and papers read. Treat research like a job and maintain average though flexible working hours (minimum 8hrs per working day). Encourage the student to give informal seminars and "dry-runs" of conference presentations. Help the student to learn how to face criticism and acquire presentational skills. Arrange first year progress review for the student with the supervision committee to make sure that the student who fails to make adequate progress by time of first year report (June-July) is encouraged to resubmit by September. Failure again will lead to termination of the PhD program. Encourage independence after the first year and make sure a student is able to set ones own goals and meet deadlines. Help the student to understand underlying problems when one fails to meet deadlines. Ensure that second and third year students help in the training of first year freshmen and that a student makes active contributions to research group activities, such as organising seminars and reading groups. Encourage final year students to give group seminars before writing dissertation and to help organise story line and the structure of ones thesis. Encourage a student to read as widely as possible outside ones discipline and to discuss ones research with friends and non-experts. 3. What is expected from a good PhD Student? PhD dissertation of quality on time (3 years) and successfully defending the dissertation in the oral exam. Average 1 publication in journals (e.g. IJCV, PAMI, IVC , CVIU or PR for computer vision) and 2-3 at conferences (e.g. ICCV, ECCV, BMVC, ACCV, FG or ICPR for computer vision). Actively seek to meet and express ones views to experts in the field at workshops, seminars and visits.

Be able to stimulate the supervisor with novel findings and directions of new research. Be resourceful and be able to benefit from peers in ideas, implementations, proposals or demonstrations (do not try to reinvent the wheels all the time)! Keen and can pass on the research and knowledge to the next generation of research students. 4. Writing up A PhD dissertation must not be merely a record of all the work one has carried out over three years! It is essential to appreciate that a PhD thesis is not a report of everything one has attempted and experimented . It is about formulating "a story" to convey a message(s) that presents novel contribution(s) to the chosen field (no matter how small the contributions may appear to be) . The dissertation should be structured to include: Problem statement - Identification of unsolved problem and reason for solving it: The nature, purpose and motivation for the investigation should be clearly stated. The thesis approach and whether the aim(s) was substantially achieved should be made clear. Background review (the context) - Status of research in direction of solution: The relevant background material and limitations of existing methods. The candidate must show that one has adequate knowledge of the subject and of the literature and can critically place ones work in a wider context. The literature survey should not be encyclopedic and be more critical. Find solutions - Development of ones own ideas and theoretical framework supported by mathematical analysis. Demonstration of the solutions - Implementations, justifications for assumptions, evaluation and analysis of results. Assess the suitability and limitation of ones solutions, evaluate the importance of the contribution (comparative evaluation against other methods, both analytical and experimental). Directions and summary of future work. Appendices (if any). Bibliography.

MPhil or PhD
The MPhil is a less advanced qualification than the PhD in which the student is expected to master a content area and can be completed in two years' full-time study. The MPhil dissertation is normally shorter than the PhD thesis. It is often used as a training course in advanced research work, and can be a preliminary stage for the PhD where it is necessary to learn the fundamentals of research and acquire new techniques, although more and more the newly introduced MRes is being used for this purpose. The MPhil is also a legitimate higher degree qualification in its own right. As with the PhD, it is not possible to spell out in bureaucratic detail what is required to obtain the MPhil in your subject now. You need to read successful dissertations in order to discover the standards

expected. Here, but only in very general terms, are some ways in which the MPhil has been held to differ from the PhD. A candidate for an MPhil must undertake an investigation but, compared to the PhD, the work may be limited in scope and the degree of originality. Considerably more emphasis is put on original work in the PhD and the PhD thesis involves greater depth than an MPhil dissertation. Greater synthesis and critical ability and also a more detailed investigation of any practical illustrations are expected from doctoral candidates. The MPhil can be limited to the replication of research already published. It is also acceptable for secondary sources to be used. This means that for an MPhil it is legitimate to quote some authority quoting somebody else, for example, `Francis gives several definitions of originality (Phillips and Pugh 2005)'. This would not be acceptable for a PhD thesis where the candidate for the degree would be expected to have read and evaluated Francis in the original publication. In addition, although a full summary of literature is required, it does not have to be an evaluative review as in the PhD. The difference here is in the breadth and depth of the review as well as in the amount of critical appreciation that is expected. In a high quality MPhil, evidence is required of the ability to test ideas; understand appropriate techniques; make use of published work and source material; and show familiarity with different theories and empirical studies. Each university will have its own regulations concerning the MPhil degree and you must study carefully those which apply to you.

Why study a PhD in the USA?

The USA remains the top graduate destination in the world, and its not hard to see why, says Lauren Welch, head of advising at the US UK Fulbright Commission. The first major attraction is the wide range of institutions there are over 1,700 which offer a wide range of choice and flexibility. It is the quality of these US institutions which is also a great pull, says Welch. The US comes out on top time and time again, no matter what ranking system you use, and the US is home to 75% of the top 20 institutions in the world. International experience Of the 2.6 million graduate students in the US, over 10.5% are international. Numbers have been rising recently there was an 8% increase for overall enrolment by international students in 2009, so figures are back to pre-9/11 levels. Another of the great pulls for international students, according to Welch, is the value employers place on international experience whether through study or work. And international students are important to the US as well. During the 2008-09 academic year, NAFSA estimates that international students and their dependents contributed approximately US$17.6 billion to the US economy. US higher education institutions are divided into private and public. Private institutions are funded by endowments and by their alumni. They tend to be the smaller institutions, with more of a close nit community, says Welch, so may be more appropriate for international students worried about adapting to life in the US. All the Ivy League institutions are private, but Welch is quick to point out that

the Ivy League was based on a sports league, not an academic league, so there are other institutions which are of a similar high standard such as Standford University and Berkeley in California, and the University of Chicago - for international students to explore. Public universities tend to be much larger. They offer low cost education for residents of the state the institution is in and for all other students, whether from another state or international, the rates of fees are the same. They tend to be more diverse and offer international students a lower cost. Degrees in the US offer a range of flexibility and graduates can choose to specialize or do interdisciplinary research. Welch says that although the sticker price for US degrees looks higher, there are a lot of funding opportunities on offer. In total over US$49 billion is invested annually in research and development, so there is a lot of funding available, she says. Funding your studies The average sticker price of US graduate education is US$21,000-34,000 per year, which covers both public and private institutions. For PhD students, this rises to US$28,000-40,000 per year. But as Welch points out, due to the amount of money invested in research, the majority of PhD students in science and engineering will get significant amounts of funding and roughly half of students doing an arts-based qualification will. One of the best ways of earning funding is through assistantship schemes. In exchange for funding the students provide service to the university for between 15 and 20 hours a week,says Welch. This can include teaching, or helping with research. It is a real benefit to the student, for not only are they earning money but they are also building up their CV as they go through their course. The work helps the students to network. Combined with Fellowships, where students receive funding with no strings attached, over 43% of international students receive the main chunk of their funding from the institution, compared with just 3% of students who receive their funding from their home government or university. For students looking to top up their funds 20 hours a week paid employment is allowed on campus; during vacations, this allowance increases to 40 hours. They can apply to work off campus, but this is only for students for whom this will be essential, says Welch. For instance, some students will need to do an external internship, but for the majority there are a lot of opportunities on campus. Applications The first rule of applying for graduate study in the US is the more time you can give yourself the better. With all the choice of institutions on offer, it can be hard to find the right institution to apply to, Welch says, but it is important to look beyond the brand name of a university and work out which one is right for you. There is no central processing, so you have to apply to each institution individually, and as each institution will have an application fee of between US50-$100 Welch recommends applying to between four to six institutions. I would recommend applying for your dream institution, some you are on the mark for and a couple of insurance institutions. It is worth spreading your choices around. For the application, each institution will have different requirements, but most will require three letters of recommendation, a personal statement, perhaps a research statement and a transcript from your original university. There tend to be two sets of deadlines, says Welch. The earliest deadline can be in December, which can be for the more prestigious institutions. The regular admissions deadline is March, but apply earlier if possible. The deadline for funding can be as early as December or January.

The deadline for institutions to get back to you to tell you if you have been successful with your application is 15 April. When applying to study in the US, international graduate students will have to take one or more entrance tests as well as complete the institutions own application process. The bulk of students will have to take the Graduate Record Examinations (GRE) test. Other tests include the GMAT for MBA admissions; MCAT for medical and the LSAT for law. For international students looking to apply for a visa, the process has now been simplified. The hardest part of coming to America is getting a place on a graduate course, says Welch. Once you have done that, the visa process is relatively straightforward. You have to prove that you have won a place on an accredited program, you have the money or the funding to cover your costs and that you are planning to leave the US after you complete your studies. For details on funding options: www.fundingusstudy.org Fulbright Commission: www.iie.org/fulbright Education USA: www.educationusa.info

Why study a PhD in Canada?

In the past, Canada has lived in the shadow of the US as the North American destination of choice for prospective PhD students worldwide, but the country's universities are now emerging as an increasingly attractive option for those who want to reduce costs without compromising the quality of their graduate education. With highly developed systems of graduate programs and world-class universities, reasonably priced tuition fees and cost of living, and strict quality-control of its PhD programs, all located in one of the most open and enjoyable countries in the world, Canada could well be your first choice too. Canada's universities and graduate schools are very outward facing and open to receiving international students, yet many of these institutions are not overwhelmed with students from outside of the country. In the last ten years Canada has become an increasingly popular choice for international students wishing to study at the graduate level, but numbers have yet to exceed 75,000 throughout the country. Universities Along with other top Canadian universities, McGill University in Montreal is an established destination for top graduate students worldwide. Isabelle Daoust, director of recruitment and retention at the university, says McGill is home to more than 6,000 international students, who make up nearly 19% of the university's student population. ?At the graduate level, close to 2,000 international students are registered in various programs and they make up nearly 21% of the graduate student population. We hope and expect to see a consistent growth in international graduate students over the next decade,? she says. Daoust believes that although academic renown is a major factor behind the increased influx of students from abroad in recent years, the dynamic and multicultural environment of major Canadian cities such as Toronto, Montreal and Vancouver plays an equally important role. ?I believe that international

students who pursue their studies in Montreal have an exceptional cultural experience since Montreal is, with Boston, among the cities with the most students, and that includes international students,? she says. ?The city is vibrant, French and English intertwine, and the fact that there are four universities in Montreal make for an exceptional living experience.? Like the UK's Russell Group and Australia's Group of Eight, Canada has its own group of leading universities known as the Group of Thirteen (G13). These institutions are among the most researchintensive in the country and specialize in offering joint research programs. G13 institutions are: University of Alberta University of British Columbia University of Calgary Dalhousie University Laval University McGill University McMaster University University of Montral University of Ottawa Queen's University University of Toronto University of Waterloo University of Western Ontario A range of other Canadian universities are equally well known and offer taught and research programs across a broad range of academic subject areas. A Canadian PhD Like the UK, a Doctoral or PhD degree in Canada requires the successful completion of original research and the defense of a thesis that makes a substantial contribution to the advancement of knowledge in a student's chosen field of study. The doctoral degree usually requires two or three years of full-time residency, although a longer period of directed research and writing is often required to complete the doctoral thesis. Quality assurance As one of the largest systems of higher education in the world, Canada has an extremely robust quality assurance and accreditation process ensuring that degree-level studies are recognized internationally. Most Canadian institutions subscribe to the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada principles of institutional quality assurance. Adherence to these principles is renewed every five years. Within the Canadian structure, universities also have to be in compliance with provincial or regional authorities for quality assurance, thus creating a double guarantee for students. All institutions and programs subscribe to a regular cycle of reviews by the appropriate authority. These tend to be peer-led and involve an element of self-evaluation and external review by subject experts. The results are made public for the sake of transparency. Funding and graduate scholarships Graduate scholarships are available to offset some of the costs of studying in Canada. The best source of funds tends to be individual universities and colleges, many of whom offer a range of different scholarships that cover tuition costs or living expenses and sometimes both.

Many awards are based solely on academic merit and therefore financial aid is not taken into account through the application process. The Canadian government also offers a range of awards for graduate students, as do a large number of individual universities. A free service coordinates most scholarships and is available at www.scholarshipscanada.com. A number of scholarships that offer funds to cover tuition fees and living expenses are administered by the Association of Universities and Colleges of Canada. Work abroad All international graduate students are given permission to work while studying full time. In order to be eligible for the program, foreign students must have a valid study permit and have studied full time at an eligible public, postsecondary institution for at least six months of the 12 months preceding their application. Institutions must sign an agreement with the province or territory in which they are located in order to participate in the program. www.aucc.ca/scholarships

Whats it like to do a PhD?

In undergraduate education a great deal, in academic terms, is organized for the student. It may not have seemed like that to you at the time, because you were required to do a considerable amount of work, but, for example, syllabuses were laid down, textbooks were specified, practical sessions were designed, the examinations were organized to cover a set range of topics in questions of a known form, and so on. You could quite reasonably have complained if asked about an extraneous subject, `But no one told me that I was supposed to learn that topic (or methodology or theory or historical period).' For the most part you were following an academic course set by your teachers. In doctoral education, you have to take responsibility for managing your learning and for getting yourself a PhD. Of course, there will be people around to help you: - your supervisor(s), other academics in your department, fellow students and so on. Some of them will even tell you what, in their opinion, you have to do to obtain the degree, but the responsibility for determining what is required, as well as for carrying it out, remains firmly with you. And if it turns out that you need a particular topic or theory for your work, then it is no excuse to say, `But nobody told me it was relevant.' It is your responsibility. So you will not be traversing a set course laid out by others. You will be expected to initiate discussions, ask for the help that you need, argue about what you should be learning, and so on. You are under self-management, so it is no use sitting around waiting for somebody to tell you what to do next or, worse, complaining that nobody is telling you what to do next; in the postgraduate world these are opportunities, not deficiencies. The overall university framework for research students ensures that there is a basic similarity for all doctoral candidates as they progress through their studies. But there are also some notable differences between the research cultures of university disciplines, particularly between the culture of the laboratory-based sciences and that of the humanities and social sciences. To a considerable extent they stem from the large capital investment in equipment and materials required in scientific research.

Supervisors in science have to take the lead in obtaining the physical resources and the research personnel required. A studentship may be allocated and a doctoral student recruited specifically to work on a designated line of research. In this situation the `apprenticeship' aspect of being a doctoral student is emphasized. The student's research topic will be clearly defined to fit in with the innovative thrust of the supervisor's research programme, and this will set limits to the level of research creativity that can be shown. The student will be required to do `dogsbody' work in the laboratory or on the computer as part of professional training. In these situations there develops what might be called a `joint ownership' of the doctoral research between supervisors and the students. Supervisors will have a strong interest in getting the research work done and using the results obtained. Joint papers will be the norm. The danger to watch for in this culture is the exploitation of the student, leading to the feeling of being just an extra pair of hands for the supervisors' research. It must be remembered that there has to be a sufficient amount of autonomy for the student to be able to make an original contribution. It is this which justifies the award of the PhD degree. In contrast, in the humanities and the social sciences students often come with their own topics within the field in which the supervisor is expert, and academics give a service of research supervision. Being busy people, supervisors often have to ration the amount of attention they can give. Research supervision has to compete with the supervisor's own current research (which can be considerably different), undergraduate teaching and administration. Supervisors will have only a general interest in the results of the student's research, and will act more as role models than as apprentice-masters. The danger to watch for in this culture is the neglect of the student for long periods of weeks, months, even years. It must be remembered that students need the regular support of supervisors if they are to develop sufficiently to achieve the PhD degree. These descriptions are of extreme situations; there are many shades of grey in between. There are scientists who give an individual service to their doctoral students and social scientists who build up a team of students all working on related aspects of the same topic. You must work to understand the situation into which you are entering. In recent years universities have found that it is not in a student's best interest to rely on only one supervisor for each student. Supervisory teams with two or three members are being established in many departments, with a lead (or main) supervisor and one or two associate supervisors. This team must contain a subject specialist and someone responsible for pastoral support. The team system can allow for new supervisors to learn how to supervise more effectively under the guidance of an experienced member of the department. Others involved in supervision, perhaps at times of upgrading or controversy, might be the departmental head and the research tutor. The Psychology of Being a Research Student New research students enter the system determined to make an outstanding contribution to their subject. By the time they start the final stages of thesis-writing for the degree they are determined to `get it and forget it!' During the intervening years their enthusiasm has been dampened by the demands of having to concentrate on a specific topic and conduct routine and repetitive tasks in an atmosphere where nobody seems either to understand or to care about their work. They come into the university or college knowing precisely who they are: successful and intelligent holders of well-earned qualifications. It is not long before they lose their initial confidence and begin to question their own self-image. This is the result of contacts (no matter how sporadic or from what distance) with academic discourse. Such contacts could come from members of staff, postgraduates

who are further into their research than the first-year students, and papers published in journals or presented at conferences. These challenge the assumptions and conceptions that the young graduates had accepted as inviolable. From this period of self-doubt and questioning, the successful postgraduates emerge with a new identity as competent professionals, able to argue their viewpoint with anybody regardless of status, confident of their own knowledge but also aware of its boundaries. This new identity permits them to ask for information when they are aware that they don't know something and to express a lack of understanding when this is necessary, instead of pretending that there is no difficulty for fear of being thought stupid. To arrive at this point is what being a postgraduate research student is really all about.