Strength of materials Page 1

Chapter one
Stress and Strain
1.1. Mechanical Properties of Materials

A rigid body is an idealization of a solid body of finite size in which deformation is neglected. In
other words, the distance between any two given points of a rigid body remains constant in time
regardless of external forces exerted on it. The course in applied mechanics 1 (statics) considers
the equilibrium of rigid bodies, however, in reality structural parts deform under the action of
loads and failiure may occur at certain points thus the calculation of the deformations of various
bodies under a variety of loads will be one of our primary concerns in the study of strength of
materials.

1.1.1 Defination of terms

1. Deformation: is a change in the shape or size of an object due to an applied force or a
temperature change.
2. Strength: is the ability of a material to resist stress. In material science, the strength of a material
is its ability to withstand an applied stress without failure.
3. Stiffness: is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is the resistance of an elastic body to
deformation by an applied force.
4. Toughness: is the ability of the material to absorb energy before failure and plastically deform
without fracturing.
5. Hardness: is the measure of how resistant solid matter is to various kinds of permanent shape
change when a force is applied.
6. Resilience: is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed elastically and
then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is the maximum energy
per unit volume that can be elastically stored.
7. Brittleness: A material is brittle if it is liable to fracture when subjected to stress. That is, it has
little tendency to deform (or strain) before fracture. This fracture absorbs relatively little energy,
even in materials of high strength, and usually makes a snapping sound.
8. Ductility: is the ability of the material to absorb energy before failure. It is a mechanical
property that describes the extent in which solid materials can be plastically deformed without
fracture under tensile stress. It is a solid materials ability to deform under tensile stress
9. Malleability: a similar property as ductility, and is a materials ability to deform under
compressive stress; this is often characterized by the materials ability to form a thin sheet by
hammering or rolling.
10. Homogeneity and heterogeneity: are concepts relating to the uniformity or lack thereof in a
substance. A material that is homogeneous is uniform in composition or character; one that is
heterogeneous lacks uniformity in one of these qualities.
11. Isotropy: is uniformity in all orientations/ directions.
12. Orthotropic: is different in all or some directions.





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1.1.2 Material failure modes

13. Buckling: sudden failure of a structural member subjected to high compressive stress at the point
of failure is less than the ultimate compressive stress that the material is capable of withstanding.
14. Corrosion: disintegration of an engineered material into its constituent atoms due to chemical
reactions with its surrounding. Example rusting of steel, microbial corrosion, high temperature
corrosion.
15. Creep: the tendency of a solid material to slowly move or deform permanently under the
influence of stresses. It occurs as a result of long term exposure to high levels of stress that are
below the yield strength of the material.
16. Fatigue: is the progressive and localized structural damage that occurs when a material is
subjected to cyclic loading.
17. Fracture: is the separation of an object or material into two or more pieces under the action of
stress.
18. Impact: is a high force or shock applied over a short period when two or more bodies collide;
such force of acceleration usually has a greater effect than a lower force applied over a
proportionally longer time period of time.
19. Mechanical overload: excessive overloading of structures causes failure in the mechanics of the
structure due to combinations of other failure modes at once. Failure may occur because either
the product is weaker than expected owing to a stress concentration, or the applied load is greater
than expected and exceeds the normal tensile strength, shear strength or compressive strength of
the product.
20. Thermal shock: Cracking as a result of rapid temperature change
21. Wearing: the erosion of material from a solid surface by the action of another surface.
22. Yield: the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically;
23. Cleavage: resistance to splitting. Usually in timber
24. Excessive deflection: deflection that exceeds certain limit can also be considered as a material
failure mode.

1.1.3 Types of loading

1. Transverse loading: Force applied perpendicularly to the longitude axis of a member.


2. Axial loading: the applied forces are collinear with the longitude axis of the members.



3. Torsion loading: Twisting action caused by a pair of externally applied equal and opposite
directed couples acting in parallel planes or by a single external couple applied to a member that
has one end fixed against rotation.

4. Eccentric Loading: is a force perpendicular to the plane of the section under consideration but
not passing through the centroid of the section thus bending the supporting member.

5. Bending or flexure: is the deformation of materials due to transverse loading.

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1.2. Basic concept of stress and strain

1.2.1. Stress:

As an external load or force is applied to a body, the material from which the body is
composed resists that force. If the external force increases so does the internal resisting force
that develops in the material. If the external force is removed, the internal resisting force
would no longer remain. This capacity to develop an internal resisting force is the
characteristic of a material that gives it strength. A stronger material has the capacity to
develop a greater internal resisting force before failing compared with a weaker material.
Because of complexity involved in structural analysis a typical condition may not incorporate
ideal simplifying assumption therefore assumptions are made in strength calculations. The
assumptions made are:
1. The material of the body has a solid continious structure
2. With in the limits of the part of the body the material is homogeneous and isotropic
3. There are no internal forces in a body prior to loading uless specified
4. The effect of a system of forces acting on a body is equal to the sum of the effects of
these forces applied in succession and in any order ( super-position principle holds true)
5. At points in a body sufficiently away from the points of appliction of loads internal forces
are independent of the manner in which these loads are applied. (Saint-Venants
principle)

1.3.1.1 Normal Stress: The simplest case of loading is that of a straight bar of constant cross-
section which has external forces applied at its ends along the bar axis and which either
stretch the bar or compress it as shown in fig. below. If we consider a plane in the bar
which is at right angles to its axis, the internal forces are at right angles to the plane. The
term direct stress or normal stress is used for the value of this force per unit area of the
plane. The internal forces are limited to only axial forces acting along the centroid axis of
the member.

T T C C



Fig 1.1 a. Bar in tension b. Bar in compression

A
P
= o

Where s = average normal stress, A= cross sectional area, P = axial force applied
1.3.1.2 Shear Stress: If a plane is passed through a body; force acting along this plane is called a
shear force. This force causing shear stress acts parallel to the direction of the stressed
area called the shear plane. When forces tend to slice through a material, a shear stress is

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created. This shear stress is also known as tangential stress. The fig. below shows a bar in
shear, the parallel component being termed as a shear force and giving shear stress.
A
P




A shear stress along section A-A


Fig. 1.2 Bar in Shear
Applications: Punching operations, materials glued together, riveted joints, welded joints etc
1.3.1.3 Bearing Stress: is the contact pressure between separate bodies. Its defined as the stress
that is a result from the contact of two members. Its similar to normal stress as it is an
internal stress caused by compressive forces. See fig. below








Plate
Rivet/Bolt













Fig 1.3 Shearing stress on riveted joint and Bearing stress on the plates.
Due to the loading P
b
, there will be shear stress on the rivet and bearing stress on the plates. A
b
is
the area over which there is bearing stress (internal compressive stress) on the single plate.





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1.2.2. Strain
A body that is subjected to an external force becomes deformed. Deformation occurs when the
shape of a body is altered due to an applied force, due to the relative displacement of particles, of
the material, relative to each other. Deformation can be elastic when the distortion of the body is
removed and the body returns to its original shape when the stress is relieved. Deformation can
also be permanent; when the applied force is removed and the stress is relieved, the deformation
remains. We call such type of deformation as plastic deformation. A lateral deformation is an
elongation or contraction of a body cross section. Longitudinal deformation of a body due to an
applied force typically results in lateral deformation unless the body is constrained laterally.
1.3.2.1 Normal Strain (Longitudinal strain): is the relationship between longitudinal
deformation under stress and the original longitudinal dimension when the body is not
under stress. Consider the fig. below:




L
o
c =

Fig 2.4 a. Normal strain in tension b. Normal strain in compression
d = Longitudinal (Axial deformation) = L
f
-L L= original longitudinal dimension
e = normal strain L
f
= final length after loading

Stretch ratio or extension ratio (l) =
L
L
f


1.3.2.2 Lateral strain: The inter-atomic distance of molecules increases longitudinally in a
material under tensile stress. With this increase in longitudinal inter-atomic distance there
is a decrease in lateral inter-atomic distance. The decrease in lateral inter-atomic distance
presents itself as a thinning of the cross section of the body. Conversely, compressive
stress reduces the longitudinal dimension of the body and increases the lateral dimension.
A compressive stress decreases the longitudinal inter-atomic distance of the molecules of
the material under stress. With this decrease in longitudinal inter-atomic distance there is
an increase in the lateral inter-atomic distance. The increase in lateral inter-atomic
distance presents itself as a widening of the cross section of the body. Simply as a
material is stretched, its cross section contracts, and as a material is compressed its cross
section expands.








Fig.2.5 Lateral strain

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Lateral Strain, e
lat
=
lateral
Lateral
L
L
0
A
=
E
vo
-ve if it is under an axial tension, and +ve if it
is under an axial compression.
L
o lateral
is the original cross section length of the material before it is under load,
L
lateral
is the change in cross section length as a result of a specific force.

1.3.2.3 Shear strain: Perhaps the most familiar illustration of shear is the movement of rocks on
opposite sides of a fault as shown in fig. below. Because this type of shear is the easiest
to visualize, it is called simple shear.

Fig2.6 simple shear


Fig.2.7 Simple shear deformation
Imagine when the fault starts moving we draw a line at right angles to the fault. As the fault
slips, the line rotates (and also lengthens), and angle A increases. However, angle A will never
reach 90 degrees unless the slip on the fault is infinite.
We can define shear strain exactly the way we do longitudinal strain: the ratio of deformation to
original dimensions. In the case of shear strain,
though, it's the amount of deformation perpendicular
to a given line rather than parallel to it.





Fig.2.8 shear strain

The ratio turns out to be tan A, where A is the angle the sheared line makes with its original
orientation. Note that if A equals 90 degrees, the shear strain is infinite.

1.4 Poissons ratio

A relationship between lateral strain and longitudinal strain within the elastic range is an
assumed constant known as Poissons ratio ,
c
c
v
lateral
=
Where e
lateral
is the lateral strain and e is the longitudinal strain.



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1.5 Stress-Strain Diagram
During tensile testing or compression testing of a material sample, the stressstrain curve is a
graphical representation of the relationship between stress, derived from measuring the load
applied on the sample, and strain, derived from measuring the deformation of the sample, i.e.
elongation, compression, or distortion. The area under the elastic portion of the curve is known
as the modulus of resilience. Resilience is the property of a material to absorb energy when it is
deformed elastically and then, upon unloading to have this energy recovered. In other words, it is
the maximum energy per unit volume that can be elastically stored. It is represented by the area
under the curve in the elastic region in the stress-strain curve fig2.9 below.
Modulus of toughness: is the property of a material to absorb energy as the force is increased
from zero to rupture. It may be calculated as the area under the whole stress strain curve.
The nature of the curve varies from material to material. The following diagrams illustrate the
stressstrain behavior of typical materials in terms of the engineering stress and engineering
strain where the stress and strain are calculated based on the original dimensions of the sample
and not the instantaneous values.
































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For Ductile materials

Fig. 2.9 Stress Strain diagram for structural steel (typical ductile material)
Steel generally exhibits a very linear stressstrain relationship up to a well defined yield point
(Fig.2). The linear portion of the curve is the elastic region and the slope is the modulus of
elasticity or Young's Modulus. After the yield point, the curve typically decreases slightly
because of dislocations escaping from Cottrell atmospheres. As deformation continues, the stress
increases on account of strain hardening until it reaches the ultimate strength. Until this point, the
cross-sectional area decreases uniformly because of Poisson contractions. The actual rupture
point is in the same vertical line as the visual rupture point.
However, beyond this point a neck forms where the local cross-sectional area decreases more
quickly than the rest of the sample resulting in an increase in the true stress. As shown in Fig.2.9
On an engineering stressstrain curve this is seen as a decrease in the apparent stress, however if
the curve is plotted in terms of true stress and true strain the stress will continue to rise until
failure. Eventually the neck becomes unstable and the specimen ruptures (fractures).
Strain hardening region, also known as work hardening is the strengthening of a material usually
metallic by plastic deformation. This strengthening occurs because of dislocation movements
within the crystal structure of the material. Any material with a reasonable high melting point
such as metal alloys can be strengthened in this fashion. The process may be called cold
working. When metals are deformed beyond the elastic limit, a permanent change in shape
Modulus of Resilience =
( )
E
y y
2
o o
=

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occurs, if the metal is loaded beyond the yield point, unloaded then loaded again, the elastic limit
is raised as a result of strain hardening.








For Brittle materials


Fig.3 Stress Strain Curve for Brittle materials
Brittle materials such as concrete and carbon fiber do not have a yield point, and do not strain-
harden. Therefore the ultimate strength and breaking strength are the same. A most unusual
stress-strain curve is shown in Fig.3. Typical brittle materials like glass do not show any plastic
deformation but fail while the deformation is elastic. One of the characteristics of a brittle failure
is that the two broken parts can be reassembled to produce the same shape as the original
component as there will not be a neck formation like in the case of ductile materials. A typical
stress strain curve for a brittle material will be linear. Testing of several identical specimen, cast
iron, or soil, tensile strength is negligible compared to the compressive strength and it is assumed
zero for many engineering applications. Glass fibers have a tensile strength stronger than steel,
but bulk glass usually does not. This is because of the stress intensity factor associated with
defects in the material. As the size of the sample gets larger, the size of defects also grows. In
general, the tensile strength of a rope is always less than sum of the tensile strength of its
individual fibers.





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1.6 Hooks Law

Most Engineering structures are designed to undergo relatively small deformations involving
only the straight line portion of the corresponding stress-strain diagram. For that initial portion
of the diagram the stress s is directly proportional to the strain e.
1.7 Modulus of Elasticity;
The modulus of elasticity shows the stiffness of the material
c
o
= E
;
E= modulus of elasticity,
Proportionality limit: The largest value of the stress for which Hooks law can be used for a
given material is known as the proportional limit of that material.
Elastic Limit: If the material has a well defined yield point; the elastic limit and the proportional
limit are essentially equal. When a material doesnt possess a well determined yield point, the
elastic limit cannot be determined with precision. However, by the offset method, we can
determine the yield point and assume the material behave elastically with some margin of error.

1.8 Hooks law for shear
It states that for the initial portion of the shear stress versus the shear strain diagram, under the
proportionality limit, the shear stress is directly proportional to the shear strain .

1.9 Modulus of Rigidity (G)
It is the ratio of shear stress to the displacement per unit sample length (shear strain)
xy
xy
G

t
=
Where
xy
is the shear stress and
xy
is the shear strain

1.10Deflection under Axial Load
c
o
= E
;
L AE
P o
c = =

Axial deformation d =
AE
PL

Lateral deformation, e
L lateral
= eb where = Poissons ratio
= longitudinal strain
b= original lateral dimension.

Superposition principle: states that the effect of a given combined loading on a structure can be
obtained by determining separately the effects of the various loads and combining the results
obtained.





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1.11Multi-axial loading:

Consider structural elements subjected to loads acting in the directions of the three coordinate
axes and producing normal stresses s
x
, s
y
ands
z
are all different from zero. This condition is
referred to as a multi-axial loading in a principal stress state.
In the case of multi-axial loading, considering the effect of the stress component sx, it will cause
strain equal to
E
x
o
in the x direction and lateral strains of
E
x
vo
in each of the y and z
directions. Similarly, the stress component s
y
causes strain equal to
E
y
o
in the y direction and
lateral strains of
E
y
vo
in each of the other two directions. Finally, the stress component s
z

causes a strain equal to
E
z
o
in the Z direction and
E
z
vo
in each of the other two directions.
Combining the results obtained, we conclude that the components of strain corresponding to the
given multi axial loading are:

E E E
z
y
x
x
vo
vo
o
c + =
,
E E E
z
y
x
y
vo
o
vo
c + =
,
E E E
z
y
x
z
o
vo
vo
c + =




1.12Concept of Design

Every material has its individual properties. It can be ductile, flexible or brittle. It deforms under
the influence of a temperature change. It may plastically deform at a certain stress (load) and
break at another. Its properties according to perpendicular directions may be equal (isotropic) or
different (orthotropic).
To ensure a safe design, these specific material properties have to be taken into account. The
essential information is collected by conducting different tests in a material testing laboratory.
At the failure of the material its ultimate stress is reached. The point of plastic deformation of the
material is indicated as the yield point, corresponding to the yield stress. Taking this into
account, an allowable stress can be defined for each individual material to be used within the
design analysis using some safety factor. A secure design requires a certain safety clearance
towards the failure of the employed material. This is ensured by applying a safety factor.
And therefore, ratio of safety factor is given by:
Factor of safety= Ultimate load/stress or Factor of safety = Yield load/stress
Allowable load /stress Allowable load/stress
In the design analysis, the existing stress due to the existing load increased by the factor of safety
(design stress) has to be proofed less or equal to the allowable stress.



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