BIOMEDICAL INSTRUMENTATION

UNIT I Transducers- performance of characteristic transducers- static and dynamic active transducers-a) magnetic induction type b) piezo electric type c) photovoltaic type d) thermo electric type. UNIT II Passive transducers- a) resistive type-effect and sensitivity of bridge b) capacitive transducer c) linear variable differential transformer LVDT. UNIT III Characteristics of basic recording system- Electro cardio graphy (ECG) originBlock diagram of EEG unit. Electro Myograph EMG. Block Diagram EMG recorders. UNIT IV Electro Encephalo Graph (EEG) Origin Block diagram of EEG unit. Electro Myograph EMG. Block Diagram EMG recorders. UNIT V Digital thermometer computer tomography (CT) principle Block diagram of CT scanner.

UNIT I TRANSDUCER: Transducers are electric or electronic devices that transform energy from one manifestation into another. Most people, when they think of transducers, think specifically of devices that perform this transformation in order to gather or transfer information, but really, anything that converts energy can be considered a transducer. Transducers that detect or transmit information include common items such as microphones, Geiger meters, potentiometers, pressure sensors, thermometers, and antennae. A microphone, for example, converts sound waves that strike its diaphragm into an analogous electrical signal that can be transmitted over wires. A pressure sensor turns the physical force being exerted on the sensing apparatus into an analog reading that can be easily represented. Definition of Transducer: Transducer is a device that converts energy form one form to other, to make it readable for measurement. Thus it converts energy to a readable form e.g. thermometer that converts heat energy into height of mercury column. In transducer output is controlled by the input. Role of transducer They play a vital role in field of measurements. As we discuss earlier transducer covert physical quantity into electrical signal. So without transducer, it would be very difficult to measure the continues physical quantity e.g. light intensity,speed,flow,temperature,radiation,electric flux etc. The quantities are first converted into electrical signal ,then they are monitored by dedicated equipments. Some one could not imagine the measurement of these continuous physical quantities without transducers. Types of transducers They are broadly divided into two categories; 1. Active transducer 2. Passive transducer Active transducer: Such type of transducers required external source of energy to operate. Energy is supplied through a separate voltage source. An example is potentiometer, which senses the resistance by flow of a minute current through itself. Most of the transducers now a day are active.

The various types of active transducers are as follows: a) Magnetic induction type transducers b) Piezo electric type transducers c) Photovoltaic transducers d) Thermo electric type transducers. Magnetic induction type transducer When an electrical conductor is moved in a magnetic field in such a way that the magnetic flux through the conductor is changed, a voltage is induced which is proportional to the rate of change of magnetic flux. Induced emf e =d/dt = - B.lv = magnetic flux B= magnetic induction l= length of the conductor v = velocity of the moving conductor

The negative sign indicates that the direction of the induced emf and hence the direction of the induced current opposes the cause, which was responsible for inducing the emf. The converse of the above is also true. That is, if a current I is sent through an electrical conductor, placed in a magnetic field of induction B a mechanical force f is exerted upon the conductor. Due to the production of the mechanical force, the conductor is moving with a velocity v which is proportional to the current and the magnetic inductance. F= Bil Magnetic induction type transducers are used in the electromagnetic flowmeters, hear sound microphones, dArsonval type indicating instruments and pen motors in the biomedical recorders.

Piezoelectric type transducers

The conversion of electrical pulses to mechanical vibrations and the conversion of returned mechanical vibrations back into electrical energy is the basis for ultrasonic testing. The active element is the heart of the transducer as it converts the electrical energy to acoustic energy, and vice versa. The active element is basically a piece of polarized material (i.e. some parts of the molecule are positively charged, while other parts of the molecule are negatively charged) with electrodes attached to two of its opposite faces. When an electric field is applied across the material, the polarized molecules will align themselves with the electric field, resulting in induced dipoles within the molecular or crystal structure of the material. This alignment of molecules will cause the material to change dimensions. This phenomenon is known as electrostriction. In addition, a permanently-polarized material such as quartz (SiO2) or barium titanate (BaTiO3) will produce an electric field when the material changes dimensions as a result of an imposed mechanical force. This phenomenon is known as the piezoelectric effect. Photovoltaic type transducers: Ejection of electrons from a metal or semiconductor surface when it is illuminated by light or any other radiation of suitable wavelength is called photoelectric effect. The three types of photoelectric transducers 1. Photo emissive, 2. Photoconductive 3. Photovoltaic transducer Photovoltaic transducers are active transducers which generate electrical voltage in proportion to the radiant energy incident on it. Even though photo-resistors are used as pulse sensors in association with miniature tungsten lamp, in the case of photoelectric plethysimography, silicon photovoltaic cells can also be used as pulse sensors. To determine the sodium and potassium ion concentrations in blood, light absorption techniques are used, under suitable conditions, the voltage produced in the silicon photovoltaic cell is directly proportional to the amount of light transmitted through the sample. It is well known that the amount of transmitted light intensity depends upon the absorption of light by the sample.

Thermoelectric type transducers: Thermoelectric type transducers are based on the seebeck effect which states that when two junctions of a thermocouple are maintined at different temperatures, an emf is developed and is proportional to the temperature difference between the junctions of the thermocouple. A thermocouple contains two wires of dissimilar metals or semiconductors which are connected so that they form a closed conductive loop with the flow of current causes one reverse of seebeck effect is called peltier effect in which the flow of current causes one junction to heat and the other junction to cool. The thermocouple transducers based on seebeck effect are used to measure physiological temperaturers where the temperature range is so limited. These are used in the remote sensing circuits and biotelemetry circuits where the miniature size transducers are required to monitor the temperature.

UNIT II Passive transducer:

These does not generates the power from physical mean that is why they depends upon some auxiliary power source for producing its output. But it some cases they may drive some part of their power from physical quantity. This is the reason that they are also known as "externally powered transducers" generally all the resistive, capacitive and inductive transducers are passive transducer. POT can be taken as a best example to study a passive transducer it measures the displacement for which requires a potentiometer as it is resistive type transducer and change in positioning of the slier over the potentiometer wire determines the displacement for which it totally depends upon an external power source, as long as it is powered by some external agency it produces some output otherwise it cannot produces nay output.

Resistive type transducer Resistive type transducer are strain gauge , photoresistor photodiode, phototransistor, thermistor and metallic resistance wire. These are operating on the principle that the measured parameter causes a small change in the resistance of the transducer. A wheatstone bridge is commonly used to measure the resistance change in the transducer.

Principle of Working of Variable Resistance Transducer The variable resistance transducer elements work on the principle that the resistance of the conductor is directly proportional to the length of the conductor and inversely proportional to the area of the conductor. Thus if L is the length of the conductor (in m) and A is its area (in m square), its resistance (in ohms) is given by: R = L/A Where is called as resistivity of the material and it is constant for the materials and is measured in ohm-m The resistance of some materials also changes with the change in their temperature. This principle is primarily used for the measurement of temperature.

Strain Gauges:
It is often easy to measure the parameters like length, displacement, weight etc that can be felt easily by some senses. However, it is very difficult to measure the dimensions like force, stress and strain that cannot be really sensed directly by any instrument. For such cases special devices called strain gauges are very useful. There are some materials whose resistance changes when strain is applied to them or when they are stretched and this change in resistance can be measured easily. For applying the strain you need force, thus the change in resistance of the material can be calibrated to measure the applied force. Thus the devices whose resistance changes due to applied strain or applied force are called as the strain gauges. Principle of Working of Strain Gauges: When force is applied to any metallic wire its length increases due to the strain. The more is the applied force, more is the strain and more is the increase in length of the wire. If L1 is the initial length of the wire and L2 is the final length after application of the force, the strain is given as: =(L2-L1)/L1 Further, as the length of the stretched wire increases, its diameter decreases. Now, we know that resistance of the conductor is the inverse function of the length. As the length of the conductor increases its resistance decreases. This change in resistance of the conductor can be measured easily and calibrated against the applied force. Thus strain gauges can be used to measure force and related parameters like displacement and stress. The input and output relationship of the strain gauges can be expressed by the term gauge factor or

gauge gradient, which is defined as the change in resistance R for the given value of applied strain . Materials Used for the Strain Gauges: Earlier wire types of strain gauges were used commonly, which are now being replaced by the metal foil types of gauges as shown in the figure below. The metals can be easily cut into the zigzag foils for the formation of the strain gauges. One of the most popular materials used for the strain gauges is the copper-nickel-manganese alloy, which is known by the trade name Advance. Some semiconductor materials can also be used for making the strain gauges.

Strain Gauges

Applications of the Strain Gauges The strain gauges are used for two main purposes: 1) Measurement of strain: Whenever any material is subjected to high loads, they come under strain, which can be measured easily with the strain gauges. The strain can also be used to carry out stress analysis of the member. 2) Measurement of other quantities: The principle of change in resistance due to applied force can also be calibrated to measure a number of other quantities like force, pressure, displacement, acceleration etc since all these parameters are related to each other. The strain gauges can sense the displacements as small as 5 m. They are usually connected to the mechanical transducers like bellows for measuring pressure and displacement and other quantities.

Capacitive type transducer:

The capacitive transducer or sensor is nothing but the capacitor with variable capacitance. The capacitive transducer comprises of two parallel metal plates that are separated by the material such as air, which is called as the dielectric material. In the typical capacitor the distance between the two plates is fixed, but

in variable capacitance transducers the distance between the two plates is variable. In the instruments using capacitance transducers the value of the capacitance changes due to change in the value of the input quantity that is to be measured. This change in capacitance can be measured easily and it is calibrated against the input quantity, thus the value if the input quantity can be measured directly. Capactive Transducer or Capacitive Sensor or Variable Capacitance Transducer

Capacitance of the Capacitive Transducers The capacitance C between the two plates of capacitive transducers is given by: C = o x r x A/ d Where C is the capacitance of the capacitor or the variable capacitance transducer o is the absolute permittivity r is the relative permittivity The product of o & r is also called as the dielectric constant of the capacitive transducer. A is the area of the plates D is the distance between the plates

It is clear from the above formula that capacitance of the capacitive transducer depends on the area of the plates and the distance between the plates. The capacitance of the capacitive transducer also changes with the dielectric constant of the dielectric material used in it. Thus the capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer can change with the change of the dielectric material, change in the area of the plates and the distance between the plates. Depending on the parameter that changes for the capacitive transducers, they are of three types as mentioned below. 1) Changing Dielectric Constant type of Capacitive Transducers: In these capacitive transducer the dielectric material between the two plates changes, due to which the capacitance of the transducer also changes. When the input quantity to be measured changes the value of the dielectric constant also changes so the capacitance of the instrument changes. This capacitance, calibrated against the input quantity, directly gives the value of the quantity to be measured. This principle is used for measurement of level in the hydrogen container, where the change in level of hydrogen between the two plates results in change of the dielectric constant of the capacitance transducer. Apart from level, this principle can also be used for measurement of humidity and moisture content of the air. 2) Changing Area of the Plates of Capacitive Transducers: The capacitance of the variable capacitance transducer also changes with the area of the two plates. This principle is used in the torquemeter, used for measurement of the torque on the shaft. This comprises of the sleeve that has teeth cut axially and the matching shaft that has similar teeth at its periphery. 3) Changing Distance between the Plates of Capacitive Transducers: In these capacitive transducers the distance between the plates is variable, while the area of the plates and the dielectric constant remain constant. This is the most commonly used type of variable capacitance transducer. For measurement of the displacement of the object, one plate of the capacitance transducer is kept fixed, while the other is connected to the object. When the object moves, the plate of the capacitance transducer also moves, this results in change in distance between the two plates and the change in the capacitance. The changed capacitance is measured easily and it calibrated against the input quantity, which is displacement. This principle can also be used to measure pressure, velocity, acceleration etc.

Linear variable differential transformer ( LVDT)

Linear variable differential transformer is popularly known as LVDT. As the name suggests LVDT comprises of the differential transformer that provides the AC voltage output proportional to the displacement of the core passing through the windings.

The LVDT comprises of the one primary winding, and two secondary windings connected to each other in series opposing manner as shown in the figure below. The body whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the iron core. Construction of the LVDT The LVDT is basically a differential transformer, whose voltage output is proportional to the displacement of the object hence it is given the name linear variable differential transformer. The differential transformer has a hollow magnetic core on which three coils are wound as shown in the figure below. There is one primary coil in the middle of the core through which the input voltage is applied. There are two secondary coils at the two ends of the central core, which are connected to each other in the phase opposition manner and through which the output is obtained. Through the hollow another solid core is passed, which is connected to the body whose displacement is to be measured.

Working of the LVDT The input voltage is supplied to the primary coil from the external source of power and the output is obtained from the secondary coils. The amplitude and the phase of the output depend on the relative coupling between the two output coils and primary coil. The relative coupling is in turn dependent on the position of the solid core inside the hollow core. The figure below shows the output characteristics of the typical differential transformer. As shown in the figure there is certain position of the core, called as the null position, for which the output voltage is zero, this is an ideal position and is very difficult to attain. Beyond the null position the core moves either to the left or to the right and there is certain output voltage obtained from the differential transformer.

Within certain limits on either side of the null position the output obtained from the differential transformer is proportional to the movement of the core. This means the output from the differential transformer is linear with respect to the motion of the core. The linear variable differential transformer or LVDT works within this range of motion of the core. Thus in LVDT the voltage output obtained is linear with respect to the motion of the core moving inside it. In LVDT the linear range obtained through the device is dependent on the length of the secondary coils. The magnitude of the output voltage obtained across the sides of the null position is same but they are opposite in phase. Thus it is possible to distinguish the two outputs from LVDT by determining the phase difference between the output voltages. The output obtained from the LVDT is calibrated against the input motion of the core. The body whose displacement is to be measured is connected to this core, thus any motion of the body gives direct output from the LVDT in the form of the displacement.

Advantages of LVDT 1) The biggest advantage of the LVDT is that the output obtained from it is proportional to the displacement of the mechanical member whose displacement is being measured. 2) LVDT cannot be overloaded mechanically since the core is completely separated from the other parts of the device. 3) Another important advantage of LVDT is that the output obtained from it is fairly high and it can be measured easily without requiring the need of the intermediate amplification. 3) LVDT is insensitive to the temperature and the changes in the temperature.

UNIT III History and Term ECG (Electrocardiogram) In 1787 Galvani was the first to discover the relationship between electrical currents and muscle contractions. In 1843 Carlo Matteucci detected that the hearts activity is also based on electrical currents. The first graphic representation of this was made by E.J. Marey in 1876. The breakthrough came with the Dutch physiologist Willem Einthoven who was awarded the Nobel Prize in medicine for the invention of the electrocardiography. The deflections and curve descriptions developed by him are still in use today. These deflections were amended by the American cardiologist Emanuel Goldberger on limb leads and by Frank Wilson on precordial leads. The electrocardiogram records the electrical activity of the heart. The heart is a muscular organ which beats in rhythm to pump the blood through the body. The signals that make the hearts muscle fibres contract come from the sinoatrial node, which is the natural pacemaker of the heart. In an ECG test, the electrical impulses made while the heart is beating, are recorded and usually shown on a piece of paper. This is known as an electrocardiogram, and provides information on the condition and performance of the heart.

Anatomy of the Heart It is important to know the hearts structure and blood flow to understand the ECG. The heart is a hollow muscle which is divided into four chambers. These are the right atrium, the right ventricle and the left atrium and the left ventricle. The right atrium receives venous blood which passes via the tricuspid valve to the right ventricle, which propels it through the pulmonary artery to the lungs. In

the lungs venous blood comes in contact with inhaled air, picks up oxygen, and loses carbon dioxide. Oxygenated blood is returned to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Passage of blood through the left atrium, bicuspid valve, into the left ventricle. Via the aortic valve the blood is pumped in the aorta and the arterial branches of the whole body. Standard ECG - Records Method of graphic tracing of the electric current generated by the heart and information on the condition and performance of the heart. In the following the waveform of a normal ECG is explained. Any deviation from the norm in a particular electrocardiogram is indicative of a possible heart disorder. A selection of ECG recordings taken during various electrocardiographic tests will be explained. The normal ECG shows characteristic waves in its course. It was Einthoven who assigned the letters P, Q, R, S, and T to the various deflections.

The P-Wave The P-Wave is caused by atrial contraction. The first upward deflection corresponds with the right atrium and the second downward deflection corresponds with the left atrium.

Examples of deviations from the normal P-Wave indicate: Pointed, upright P-wave when the right atrium is overstrained, e.g. in case of cor pulmonale acutum or cor pulmonale chronicum , i.e. in Latin pulmonary heart a pressure-loaded heart due to a risen pressure in the pulmonary circulation because of a pulmonary disease Bicuspidal , often spreadout P-wave, emphasizing the 2nd peak, e.g. indicating high blood pressure Both parts of the P-wave are changed, merged representation of the changed P-wave as mentioned before, e.g. in case of high blood pressure, right heart hypertrophy and severe organic heart defects Negative deflection of the P-wave occurs in cases of pacemaker actions in the atrioventricular area ECG-Instruments measure the PR-Interval The P-Q-time or PR-Interval extends from the start of the P-wave to the very start of the QRS-complex. The excitation is decreased by the AV-node and led via the bundle of His to the left and right bundle branch (thus, conduction time). The normal duration is between 0.12 0.20 sec. A PR-interval of more than 0.20 sec may indicate a first degree an AV-block.

UNIT IV

Electroencephalography .

An EEG recording net (Electrical Geodesics, Inc.[1]) being used on a participant in a brain wave study.

Epileptic spike and wave discharges monitored with EEG. Electroencephalography (EEG) is the recording of electrical activity along the scalp produced by the firing of neurons within the brain. In clinical contexts, EEG refers to the recording of the brain's spontaneous electrical activity over a short period of time, usually 2040 minutes, as recorded from multiple electrodes placed on the scalp. In neurology, the main diagnostic application of EEG is in the case of epilepsy, as epileptic activity can create clear abnormalities on a standard EEG study.A secondary clinical use of EEG is in the diagnosis of coma, encephalopathies, and brain death. EEG used to be a first-line method for the diagnosis of tumors, stroke and other focal brain disorders, but this use has decreased with the advent of anatomical imaging techniques such as MRI and CT. Derivatives of the EEG technique include evoked potentials (EP), which involves averaging the EEG activity time-locked to the presentation of a stimulus of some sort (visual, somatosensory, or auditory). Event-related potentials (ERPs) refer to

averaged EEG responses that are time-locked to more complex processing of stimuli; this technique is used in cognitive science, cognitive psychology, and psychophysiological research. Source of EEG activity The brain's electrical charge is maintained by billions of neurons. Neurons are electrically charged (or "polarized") by membrane transport proteins that pump ions across their membranes. When a neuron receives a signal from its neighbor via an action potential, it responds by releasing ions into the space outside the cell. Ions of like charge repel each other, and when many ions are pushed out of many neurons at the same time, they can push their neighbors, who push their neighbors, and so on, in a wave. This process is known as volume conduction. When the wave of ions reaches the electrodes on the scalp, they can push or pull electrons on the metal on the electrodes. Since metal conducts the push and pull of electrons easily, the difference in push, or voltage, between any two electrodes can be measured by a voltmeter. Recording these voltages over time gives us the EEG. The electric potentials generated by single neurons are far too small to be picked by EEG or MEG. EEG activity therefore always reflects the summation of the synchronous activity of thousands or millions of neurons that have similar spatial orientation. If the cells do not have similar spatial orientation, their ions do not line up and create waves to be detected. Pyramidal neurons of the cortex are thought to produce most EEG signal because they are well-aligned and fire together. Because voltage fields fall off with the square of the distance, activity from deep sources is more difficult to detect than currents near the skull. Scalp EEG activity shows oscillations at a variety of frequencies. Several of these oscillations have characteristic frequency ranges, spatial distributions and are associated with different states of brain functioning (e.g., waking and the various sleep stages). These oscillations represent synchronized activity over a network of neurons. The neuronal networks underlying some of these oscillations are understood (e.g., the thalamocortical resonance underlying sleep spindles),

while many others are not (e.g., the system that generates the posterior basic rhythm). Research that measures both EEG and neuron spiking finds the relationship between the two is complex with the power of surface EEG only in two bands that of gamma and delta relating to neuron spike activity. Clinical use A routine clinical EEG recording typically lasts 2030 minutes (plus preparation time) and usually involves recording from scalp electrodes. Routine EEG is typically used in the following clinical circumstances:

to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), subcortical movement disorders and migraine variants.

to differentiate "organic" encephalopathy or delirium from primary psychiatric syndromes such as catatonia

to serve as an adjunct test of brain death to prognosticate, in certain instances, in patients with coma to determine whether to wean anti-epileptic medications

At times, a routine EEG is not sufficient, particularly when it is necessary to record a patient while he/she is having a seizure. In this case, the patient may be admitted to the hospital for days or even weeks, while EEG is constantly being recorded (along with time-synchronized video and audio recording). A recording of an actual seizure (i.e., an ictal recording, rather than an inter-ictal recording of a possibly epileptic patient at some period between seizures) can give significantly better information about whether or not a spell is an epileptic seizure and the focus in the brain from which the seizure activity emanates. Epilepsy monitoring is typically done:

to distinguish epileptic seizures from other types of spells, such as psychogenic non-epileptic seizures, syncope (fainting), subcortical movement disorders and migraine variants.

to characterize seizures for the purposes of treatment to localize the region of brain from which a seizure originates for work-up of possible seizure surgery

Additionally, EEG may be used to monitor certain procedures:

to monitor the depth of anesthesia as an indirect indicator of cerebral perfusion in carotid endarterectomy to monitor amobarbital effect during the Wada test

EEG can also be used in intensive care units for brain function monitoring:

to monitor for non-convulsive seizures/non-convulsive status epilepticus to monitor the effect of sedative/anesthesia in patients in medically induced coma (for treatment of refractory seizures or increasedintracranial pressure)

to monitor for secondary brain damage in conditions such as subarachnoid hemorrhage (currently a research method)

If a patient with epilepsy is being considered for resective surgery, it is often necessary to localize the focus (source) of the epileptic brain activity with a resolution greater than what is provided by scalp EEG. This is because the cerebrospinal fluid, skull and scalpsmear the electrical potentials recorded by scalp EEG. In these cases, neurosurgeons typically implant strips and grids of electrodes (or penetrating depth electrodes) under the dura mater, through either a craniotomy or a burr hole. The recording of these signals is referred to as electrocorticography (ECoG), subdural EEG (sdEEG) or intracranial EEG (icEEG)--all terms for the same thing. The signal recorded from ECoG is on a different scale of activity than the brain activity recorded from scalp EEG. Low voltage, high frequency components that cannot be seen easily (or at all) in scalp EEG can be seen clearly in ECoG. Further, smaller electrodes (which cover a smaller parcel of brain surface) allow even lower voltage, faster components of brain activity to be seen. Some clinical sites record from penetrating microelectrodes.

Placement of electrodes:

Computer ElectroencephalographNeurovisor-BMM 40 In conventional scalp EEG, the recording is obtained by placing electrodes on the scalp with a conductive gel or paste, usually after preparing the scalp area by light abrasion to reduceimpedance due to dead skin cells. Many systems typically use electrodes, each of which is attached to an individual wire. Some systems use caps or nets into which electrodes are embedded; this is particularly common when high-density arrays of electrodes are needed. Electrode locations and names are specified by the International 1020 system for most clinical and research applications (except when high-density arrays are used). This system ensures that the naming of electrodes is consistent

across laboratories. In most clinical applications, 19 recording electrodes (plus ground and system reference) are used. A smaller number of electrodes are typically used when recording EEG from neonates. Additional electrodes can be added to the standard set-up when a clinical or research application demands increased spatial resolution for a particular area of the brain. High-density arrays (typically via cap or net) can contain up to 256 electrodes more-or-less evenly spaced around the scalp. Each electrode is connected to one input of a differential amplifier (one amplifier per pair of electrodes); a common system reference electrode is connected to the other input of each differential amplifier. These amplifiers amplify the voltage between the active electrode and the reference (typically 1,000100,000 times, or 60100 dB of voltage gain). In analog EEG, the signal is then filtered (next paragraph), and the EEG signal is output as the deflection of pens as paper passes underneath. Most EEG systems these days, however, are digital, and the amplified signal is digitized via an analog-to-digital converter, after being passed through an anti-aliasing filter. Analog-to-digital sampling typically occurs at 256 512 Hz in clinical scalp EEG; sampling rates of up to 20 kHz are used in some research applications. During the recording, a series of activation procedures may be used. These procedures may induce normal or abnormal EEG activity that might not otherwise be seen. These procedures include hyperventilation, photic stimulation (with a strobe light), eye closure, mental activity, sleep and sleep deprivation. During (inpatient) epilepsy monitoring, a patient's typical seizure medications may be withdrawn. The digital EEG signal is stored electronically and can be filtered for display. Typical settings for the high-pass filter and a low-pass filter are 0.5-1 Hz and 35 70 Hz, respectively. The high-pass filter typically filters out slow artifact, such as electrogalvanic signals and movement artifact, whereas the low-pass filter filters out high-frequency artifacts, such as electromyographic signals. An additionalnotch filter is typically used to remove artifact caused by electrical

power lines (60 Hz in the United States and 50 Hz in many other countries).[2] As part of an evaluation for epilepsy surgery, it may be necessary to insert electrodes near the surface of the brain, under the surface of the dura mater. This is accomplished via burr hole or craniotomy. This is referred to variously as "electrocorticography (ECoG)", "intracranial EEG (I-EEG)" or "subdural EEG (SD-EEG)". Depth electrodes may also be placed into brain structures, such as the amygdala or hippocampus, structures, which are common epileptic foci and may not be "seen" clearly by scalp EEG. The electrocorticographic signal is processed in the same manner as digital scalp EEG (above), with a couple of caveats. ECoG is typically recorded at higher sampling rates than scalp EEG because of the requirements of Nyquist theoremthe subdural signal is composed of a higher predominance of higher frequency components. Also, many of the artifacts that affect scalp EEG do not impact ECoG, and therefore display filtering is often not needed. A typical adult human EEG signal is about 10V to 100 V in amplitude when measured from the scalp and is about 1020 mV when measured from subdural electrodes. Since an EEG voltage signal represents a difference between the voltages at two electrodes, the display of the EEG for the reading encephalographer may be set up in one of several ways. The representation of the EEG channels is referred to as a montage. Bipolar montage Each channel (i.e., waveform) represents the difference between two adjacent electrodes. The entire montage consists of a series of these channels. For example, the channel "Fp1-F3" represents the difference in voltage between the Fp1 electrode and the F3 electrode. The next channel in the montage, "F3-C3," represents the voltage difference between F3 and C3, and so on through the entire array of electrodes. Referential montage

Each channel represents the difference between a certain electrode and a designated reference electrode. There is no standard position for this reference; it is, however, at a different position than the "recording" electrodes. Midline positions are often used because they do not amplify the signal in one hemisphere vs. the other. Another popular reference is "linked ears," which is a physical or mathematical average of electrodes attached to both earlobes or mastoids. Average reference montage The outputs of all of the amplifiers are summed and averaged, and this averaged signal is used as the common reference for each channel. Laplacian montage Each channel represents the difference between an electrode and a weighted average of the surrounding electrodes. When analog (paper) EEGs are used, the technologist switches between montages during the recording in order to highlight or better characterize certain features of the EEG. With digital EEG, all signals are typically digitized and stored in a particular (usually referential) montage; since any montage can be constructed mathematically from any other, the EEG can be viewed by the electroencephalographer in any display montage that is desired. The EEG is read by a neurologist, optimally one who has specific training in the interpretation of EEGs. This is done by visual inspection of the waveforms, called graphoelements. The use of computer signal processing of the EEGso-called quantitative EEGis somewhat controversial when used for clinical purposes (although there are many research uses). Limitations EEG has several limitations. Most important is its poor spatial resolution. EEG is most sensitive to a particular set of post-synaptic potentials: those generated in superficial layers of the cortex, on the crests of gyri directly abutting the skull and radial to the skull. Dendrites, which are deeper in the cortex, inside sulci, in midline or deep structures (such as the cingulate gyrus or hippocampus), or

producing currents that are tangential to the skull, have far less contribution to the EEG signal. The meninges, cerebrospinal fluid and skull "smear" the EEG signal, obscuring its intracranial source. It is mathematically impossible to reconstruct a unique intracranial current source for a given EEG signal,as some currents produce potentials that cancel each other out. This is referred to as the inverse problem. However, much work has been done to produce remarkably good estimates of, at least, a localized electric dipole that represents the recorded currents.

Wave patterns

delta waves. Delta is the frequency range up to 4 Hz. It tends to be the highest in amplitude and the slowest waves. It is seen normally in adults in slow wave sleep. It is also seen normally in babies. It may occur focally with subcortical lesions and in general distribution with diffuse lesions, metabolic encephalopathy hydrocephalus or deep midline lesions. It is usually most prominent frontally in adults (e.g. FIRDA - Frontal Intermittent Rhythmic Delta) and posteriorly in children (e.g. OIRDA - Occipital Intermittent Rhythmic Delta).

theta waves.

Theta is the frequency range from 4 Hz to 7 Hz. Theta is seen normally in young children. It may be seen in drowsiness or arousal in older children and adults; it can also be seen in meditation. Excess theta for age represents abnormal activity. It can be seen as a focal disturbance in focal subcortical lesions; it can be seen in generalized distribution in diffuse disorder or metabolic encephalopathy or deep midline disorders or some instances of hydrocephalus. On the contrary this range has been associated with reports of relaxed, meditative, and creative states.

alpha waves. Alpha is the frequency range from 8 Hz to 12 Hz. Hans Berger named the first rhythmic EEG activity he saw as the "alpha wave". This was the "posterior basic rhythm" (also called the "posterior dominant rhythm" or the "posterior alpha rhythm"), seen in the posterior regions of the head on both sides, higher in amplitude on the dominant side. It emerges with closing of the eyes and with relaxation, and attenuates with eye opening or mental exertion. The posterior basic rhythm is actually slower than 8 Hz in young children (therefore technically in the theta range).

sensorimotor rhythm aka mu rhythm.

In addition to the posterior basic rhythm, there are other normal alpha rhythms such as the mu rhythm (alpha activity in the contralateral sensory and motor cortical areas that emerges when the hands and arms are idle; and the "third rhythm" (alpha activity in the temporal or frontal lobes). Alpha can be abnormal; for example, an EEG that has diffuse alpha occurring in coma and is not responsive to external stimuli is referred to as "alpha coma".

beta waves. Beta is the frequency range from 12 Hz to about 30 Hz. It is seen usually on both sides in symmetrical distribution and is most evident frontally. Beta activity is closely linked to motor behavior and is generally attenuated during active movements.Low amplitude beta with multiple and varying frequencies is often associated with active, busy or anxious thinking and active concentration. Rhythmic beta with a dominant set of frequencies is associated with various pathologies and drug effects, especiallybenzodiazepines. It may be absent or reduced in areas of cortical damage. It is the dominant rhythm in patients who are alert or anxious or who have their eyes open.

gamma waves. Gamma is the frequency range approximately 30100 Hz. Gamma rhythms are thought to represent binding of different populations of neurons together into a network for the purpose of carrying out a certain cognitive or motor function.

Mu ranges 813 Hz., and partly overlaps with other frequencies. It reflects the synchronous firing of motor neurons in rest state. Mu suppression is thought to reflect motor mirror neuron systems, because when an action is observed, the pattern extinguishes, possibly because of the normal neuronal system and the mirror neuron system "go out of sync", and interfere with each other. "Ultra-slow" or "near-DC" activity is recorded using DC amplifiers in some research contexts. It is not typically recorded in a clinical context because the signal at these frequencies is susceptible to a number of artifacts. Some features of the EEG are transient rather than rhythmic. Spikes and sharp waves may represent seizure activity or interictalactivity in individuals with epilepsy or a predisposition toward epilepsy. Other transient features are normal: vertex waves and sleep spindles are seen in normal sleep. Note that there are types of activity that are statistically uncommon, but not associated with dysfunction or disease. These are often referred to as "normal variants." The mu rhythm is an example of a normal variant. The normal Electroencephalography (EEG) varies by age. The neonatal EEG is quite different from the adult EEG. The EEG in childhood generally has slower frequency oscillations than the adult EEG. The normal EEG also varies depending on state. The EEG is used along with other measurements (EOG, EMG) to define sleep stagesin polysomnography. Stage I sleep (equivalent to drowsiness in some systems) appears on the EEG as drop-out of the posterior basic rhythm. There can be an increase in theta frequencies. Santamaria and Chiappa cataloged a number of the variety of patterns associated with drowsiness. Stage II sleep is characterized by sleep spindlestransient runs of rhythmic activity in the 1214 Hz range (sometimes referred to as the "sigma" band) that have a frontal-central maximum. Most of the activity in Stage II is in the 36 Hz range. Stage III and IV sleep are defined by the presence of delta frequencies and are often referred to collectively as "slowwave sleep." Stages I-IV comprise non-REM (or "NREM") sleep. The EEG in REM (rapid eye movement) sleep appears somewhat similar to the awake EEG.

EEG under general anesthesia depends on the type of anesthetic employed. With halogenated anesthetics, such as halothane or intravenous agents, such as propofol, a rapid (alpha or low beta), nonreactive EEG pattern is seen over most of the scalp, especially anteriorly; in some older terminology this was known as a WAR (widespread anterior rapid) pattern, contrasted with a WAIS (widespread slow) pattern associated with high doses of opiates. Anesthetic effects on EEG signals are beginning to be understood at the level of drug actions on different kinds of synapses and the circuits that allow synchronized neuronal activity Electromyography Electromyography (EMG) is a technique for evaluating and recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles. EMG is performed using an instrument called an electromyograph, to produce a record called an electromyogram. An electromyograph detects the electrical potential generated by muscle cellswhen these cells are electrically or neurologically activated. The signals can be analyzed to detect medical abnormalities, activation level, recruitment order or to analyze the biomechanics of human or animal movement. Electrical characteristics The electrical source is the muscle membrane potential of about 90 mV.[3] Measured EMG potentials range between less than 50 V and up to 20 to 30 mV, depending on the muscle under observation. Typical repetition rate of muscle motor unit firing is about 720 Hz, depending on the size of the muscle (eye muscles versus seat (gluteal) muscles), previous axonal damage and other factors. Damage to motor units can be expected at ranges between 450 and 780 mV.

Procedure There are two kinds of EMG in widespread use: surface EMG and intramuscular (needle and fine-wire) EMG. To perform intramuscular EMG, a needle electrode or a needle containing two fine-wire electrodes is inserted through the skin into the muscle tissue. A trained professional (such as a neurologist, physiatrist, or physical therapist) observes the electrical activity while inserting the electrode. The insertional activity provides valuable information about the state of the muscle and its innervating nerve. Normal muscles at rest make certain, normal electrical signals when the needle is inserted into them. Then the electrical activity when the muscle is at rest is studied. Abnormal spontaneous activity might indicate some nerve and/or muscle damage. Then the patient is asked to contract the muscle smoothly. The shape, size, and frequency of the resulting motor unit potentials are judged. Then the electrode is retracted a few millimeters, and again the activity is analyzed until at least 1020 units have been collected. Each electrode track gives only a very local picture of the activity of the whole muscle. Because skeletal muscles differ in the inner structure, the electrode has to be placed at various locations to obtain an accurate study. Intramuscular EMG may be considered too invasive or unnecessary in some cases. Instead, a surface electrode may be used to monitor the general picture of muscle activation, as opposed to the activity of only a few fibres as observed using an intramuscular EMG. This technique is used in a number of settings; for example, in the physiotherapy clinic, muscle activation is monitored using surface EMG and patients have an auditory or visual stimulus to help them know when they are activating the muscle (biofeedback). A motor unit is defined as one motor neuron and all of the muscle fibers it innervates. When a motor unit fires, the impulse (called anaction potential) is carried down the motor neuron to the muscle. The area where the nerve contacts the muscle is called theneuromuscular junction, or the motor end plate. After the action potential is transmitted across the neuromuscular junction, an action

potential is elicited in all of the innervated muscle fibers of that particular motor unit. The sum of all this electrical activity is known as a motor unit action potential (MUAP). This electrophysiologic activity from multiple motor units is the signal typically evaluated during an EMG. The composition of the motor unit, the number of muscle fibres per motor unit, the metabolic type of muscle fibres and many other factors affect the shape of the motor unit potentials in the myogram. Nerve conduction testing is also often done at the same time as an EMG to diagnose neurological diseases. Some patients can find the procedure somewhat painful, whereas others experience only a small amount of discomfort when the needle is inserted. The muscle or muscles being tested may be slightly sore for a day or two after the procedure. Normal results Muscle tissue at rest is normally electrically inactive. After the electrical activity caused by the irritation of needle insertion subsides, the electromyograph should detect no abnormal spontaneous activity (i.e., a muscle at rest should be electrically silent, with the exception of the area of the neuromuscular junction, which is, under normal circumstances, very spontaneously active). When the muscle is voluntarily contracted, action potentials begin to appear. As the strength of the muscle contraction is increased, more and more muscle fibers produce action potentials. When the muscle is fully contracted, there should appear a disorderly group of action potentials of varying rates and amplitudes (a complete recruitment and interference pattern). Abnormal results EMG is used to diagnose diseases that generally may be classified into one of the following categories: neuropathies, neuromuscular junction diseases and myopathies. Neuropathic disease has the following defining EMG characteristics:

An action potential amplitude that is twice normal due to the increased number of fibres per motor unit because of reinnervation of denervated fibres

An increase in duration of the action potential A decrease in the number of motor units in the muscle (as found using motor unit number estimation techniques)

Myopathic disease has these defining EMG characteristics:

A decrease in duration of the action potential A reduction in the area to amplitude ratio of the action potential A decrease in the number of motor units in the muscle (in extremely severe cases only)

Because of the individuality of each patient and disease, some of these characteristics may not appear in every case. Abnormal results may be caused by the following medical conditions (please note this is nowhere near an exhaustive list of conditions that can result in abnormal EMG studies): EMG signal decomposition EMG signals are essentially made up of superimposed motor unit action potentials (MUAPs) from several motor units. For a thorough analysis, the measured EMG signals can be decomposed into their constituent MUAPs. MUAPs from different motor units tend to have different characteristic shapes, while MUAPs recorded by the same electrode from the same motor unit are typically similar. Notably MUAP size and shape depend on where the electrode is located with respect to the fibers and so can appear to be different if the electrode moves position. EMG decomposition is non-trivial, although many methods have been proposed.

Applications of EMG EMG signals are used in many clinical and biomedical applications. EMG is used as a diagnostics tool for identifying neuromuscular diseases, assessing low-back pain, kinesiology, and disorders of motor control. EMG signals are also used as a control sig

nal for prosthetic devices such as prosthetic hands, arms, and lower limbs. EMG can be used to sense isometric muscular activity where no movement is produced. This enables definition of a class of subtle motionless gestures to control interfaces without being noticed and without disrupting the surrounding environment. These signals can be used to control a prosthesis or as a control signal for an electronic device such as a mobile phone or PDA. EMG signals have been targeted as control for flight systems. The Human Senses Group at the NASA Ames Research Center atMoffett Field, CA seeks to advance man-machine interfaces by directly connecting a person to a computer. In this project, an EMG signal is used to substitute for mechanical joysticks and keyboards. EMG has also been used in research towards a "wearable cockpit," which employs EMG-based gestures to manipulate switches and control sticks necessary for flight in conjunction with a goggle-based display. Unvoiced speech recognition recognizes speech by observing the EMG activity of muscles associated with speech. It is targeted for use in noisy environments, and may be helpful for people without vocal cords and people with aphasia. EMG has also been used as a control signal for computers and other devices. An interface device based on EMG could be used to control moving objects, such as mobile robots or an electric wheelchair. This may be helpful for individuals that cannot operate a joystick-controlled wheelchair. Surface EMG recordings may also be a suitable control signal for some interactive video games.

A block diagram of the stages of data acquisition and signal processing is shown in Figure 2. The MES were amplified with the use of preamplifiers (Motion Control, Inc., Salt Lake City, UT) and a differential amplifier (Cambridge Electronic Design, Ltd, Cambridge, UK), together having an effective passband of 10 to 1,000 Hz. The signals were sampled at 5 kHz with 16-bit analog-to-digital conversion, debiased, rectified, and smoothed with a running time window averager with a window length of 240 ms that updated every 80 ms. The processed signals were normalized by the amplitudes of the maximum voluntary contractions and were displayed on a computer screen with the use of LabVIEW software (National Instruments Corporation, Austin, TX).

Control Strategy Customization: Partitioning Signal Space The first set of experiments determined how to partition the signal space into regions that correspond to the Open, Close, and Hold states (Figure 1). The ECRB and FCR MES were recorded during wrist flexion, extension, and rest. The subjects attempted to match five progressively increasing target contraction strengths by flexing and extending the wrist with nonisometric muscle contractions. The increase in the peak-to-peak fluctuation in the MES that occurs

as the strength of contraction increases [20] was approximated with a linear fit, as described by Vodovnik and Rebersek [21]. From this relationship, estimates of the distinct levels of sustained contraction expected from both muscles were calculated. MES were then recorded during trials in which the subject attempted to match the calculated target levels. The muscle contractions recorded were 4 s in duration, followed by 2 s of rest. Visual and audible cues prompted the subjects when to contract and relax and whether to flex or extend the wrist. These trials were repeated with the arm in four functional postures, with and without a weight (1 or 2 lb) fastened to the hand. This was done to help ensure that the control strategy would accommodate changes in MES characteristics that may accompany variations in arm posture or load in the hand. The four postures were the four combinations created when the arm was either reaching up to the side or held in front of the body and when the forearm was either neutral or prone. These four postures, with and without the load on the hand, made up eight arm-forearm-load combinations at which MES data during wrist flexion and extension were recorded. Data points from the final 2 s of the 4 s sustained wrist flexion and extension contractions from all trials were displayed on a graph of signal space (ECRB vs. FCR), and were color-coded so that wrist flexion and extension data could be distinguished. The positions of the side boundaries, which define the width of the Open and Close regions, were determined by inspection of the data and were placed so that they enclosed at least 95 percent of the data points recorded during sustained wrist flexion and extension. Baseline thresholds, the boundaries that separate the Hold from the Open and Close regions, were similarly determined by examination of the data collected during the rest periods between flexion and extension contractions and during additional trials in which subjects were asked to move the arm in space while keeping the wrist relaxed. The boundary that separates the CGP state from the Hold state was placed at a radius of 0.4 or 0.5 units based on pilot data, which indicated that the vector magnitude of MES that subjects could produce during cocontraction was usually

0.4 to 0.6 units. The Open and Close regions were partitioned into subregions based on the calculations of achievable distinct MES levels. Each subregion corresponded to a distinct speed of command modulation; the slowest speed was set at 25 percent per second and the fastest was 50 percent per second.

UNIT V
GLASS THERMOMETER The ordinary glass thermometer is also a complete system. Again the bulb is the sensor but the column of liquid and the scale on the glass is the processor and indicator. Mercury is used for hot temperatures and coloured alcohol for cold temperatures. Figure 8

The problems with glass thermometers are that they are Brittle Mercury solidifies at-40oC. Alcohol boils at around 120 oC. Accurate manufacture is needed and this makes accurate ones expensive. It is e asy for people to make mistakes reading them. Glass thermometers are not used much now in industry but if they are, they are usually protected by a shield from accidental breakage. In order to measure the temperature of something inside a pipe they are placed in thermometer pockets.

Example of the use of Transducers, How Thermometer Works There are numerous types of transducers and they have different types of applications, let us see the example of use of transducer for measurement of temperature. In our day-to-day life we have to measure the temperature many times and the most common devise used for this purpose is the thermometer. The temperature of the surroundings or body cannot be measured directly, but we know that liquids tend to get expanded when heated and get contracted when cooled. This property of the liquids is used to measure the temperature in thermometers, which is type of transducer. In thermometers there is thin capillary tubing and small bulb at the bottom, which is filled with highly temperature sensitive liquid called mercury. When the temperature of the bulb of the thermometer increases, the mercury tends to expand and fill the capillary tube to certain level depending on the temperature. The thermal expansion of mercury is proportional to the temperature of the mercury, so more is the bulb temperature more is expansion of the fluid. Thus if the bulb temperature is higher, mercury will expand to higher levels in the capillary and if its temperature is lesser, the rise in level will also be lesser. Now, outside the capillary tubing, the scale is marked that indicates the temperature of the body. This scale is marked from the standard scale obtained by considering the extent of expansion of mercury at various temperatures. Thus the level of the mercury in the capillary indicates the temperature of the body. Thermometer is a sort of the transducer in which the property of the thermal expansion of the fluids is used for the measurement of the temperature of any body or space. Here the property of thermal expansion is calibrated to the scale in the capillary to enable the temperature measurement. The value of the temperature cannot be measured directly, but the rise in level of the mercury can be measured easily. The rise in level of mercury is proportional to the

temperature of the body and this scale is developed considering the relation between the two.

DIGITAL THERMOMETER: This digital thermometer circuit diagram uses a common 1N4148 diode as the temperature sensor. The temperature coefficient of the diode, -2 mV / 0C is exploited for this application to create an accurate electronic thermometer. To display the measured temperature, a digital multimeter is used and so we can measure temperature values from -9.990C up to +99.90C.

Calibration of the digital thermometer To set the minimum level (00C), place the diode in a glass of water filled with crushed ice (check the temperature first with a normal thermometer) wait until the thermometer shows zero degrees centigrade. Set P1 so that the digital voltmeter will display 000 when the diode senses zero degree centigade. To set the maximum level (1000C), place the diode sensor into a boiling water and adjust P2 so that the digital meter exactly displays 99.9. CT SCANNER: CT Scan also known as CAT Scan is the term used to define Computed Axial Tomography.Usually when someone meets an accident,doctor suggests to get a CT Scan done for a particular part of the body or whole body in some cases.This is because a CT Scan can be used to know about the internal injury.Usually in case of brain injuries,this technology is very effective and useful.Also a CT Scan gets a more detailed picture of the body parts as compared to an X-Ray report.Many of us are aware of the term so lets know what it is and how it works. PRINCIPLE: It is as simple as passing X-rays through the patient and obtaining information with a detector on the other side. The X-ray source and the detector are interconnected and rotated around the patient during scanning period. Digital computers then assemble the data that is obtained and integrate it to provide a cross sectional image (tomogram) that is displayed on a computer screen. The image can be photographed or stored for later retrieval and use as the case may be.

X-rays are electromagnetic waves. The main reason why X-rays is used in diagnosis is because all substances and tissues differ in their ability to absorb Xrays. Some substances are more permeable to X-rays while some others impermeable. Owing to this difference, different tissues seem different when the X-ray film is developed.

Dense tissues such as the bones appear white on a CT film while the soft tissues such as the brain or kidney appear gray. The cavities filled with air such as the lungs appear black.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CT SCANNER:

Computed tomography (CT) is a medical imaging technique that produces threedimensional images of internal human body parts from a large series of twodimensional X-ray images taken around a single axis of rotation. When compared with a conventional X-ray radiograph, which is an image of many planes superimposed on each other, a CT image exhibits significantly improved contrast. With the advent of diagnostic imaging systems like CT, where complex and intensive image processing is required, semiconductors play a very important role in developing systems with increased density, flexibility and high performance.

X-ray slice data is generated using an X-ray source that rotates around the object with X-ray detectors positioned on the opposite side of the circle from the X-ray source. The whole rotating structure is called gantry and every x-ray shot from a given angle is called profile. Of the order of 1000 profiles per revolution are taken progressively as the object is gradually passed through the gantry. The data acquisition system usually consists of a number of channel cards that have an array of scintillator-photodiode solid state detectors follow by the readout electronics. Each photodiode produces a current proportional to the x-ray intensity that the pixel receives. Traditionally, the channel card has a front-end where the current from the detector is integrated and converted to digital values by ADCs. TIs DDC products are single-chip solutions for Directly Digitizing low-level Currents from photodiode arrays in CT scanners. Each DDC channel provides a dual switched integrator front-end to process the current coming from one photodiode. This configuration allows for continuous current integration (avoiding any input signal loss): while one integrator output is being digitized by the on board A/D converter, the other is integrating the input current. The digital data from all channel cards is transferred by high-speed link (LVDS interface) to the controller card and onto the image conditioning cards. The image conditioning card is connected to the host computer where the CT images can be viewed. Here, the digital data are combined by the mathematical procedure known as tomographic reconstruction. Within the controller cards, TI DSPs with advanced VelociTI, very-longinstruction-word (VLIW) architecture developed by Texas Instruments (TI), are an excellent choice for medical imaging applications. DSPs can be used to provide accurate control of the gantry rotation, the movement of the table (up/down and in/out), tilting of the gantry for angled images, and other functions such as turning the X-ray beam on and off. Another important DSP control functionality is ECG gating used to reduce motion artifacts caused by heart movement. Here, the data

acquisition is carefully synchronized with the heartbeat. For interfacing with a PC, gigabit Ethernet transceivers allow for high-speed full-duplex point-to-point data transmissions. The PCI Express PHY interfaces the PCI Express Media Access Layer (MAC) to a PCI Express serial link. The CT Scanner application may have ultra-fast transient requirements for high performance DSP and/or FPGAs, where TIs high-performance non-isolated power modules are well suited. If high PSRR, fast start-up, and low noise are concerns, low-dropout (LDO) linear regulators are available. TIs portfolio includes voltage supervisors, DC/DC converters, power modules, and LDOs that allows complete flexibility for the user to configure a power solution that meets the sequencing requirements for the system.