RESIDUAL STRESSES CAUSED BY THERMAL AND THERMOCHEMICAL SURFACE TREATMENTS

T. Ericsson
Depar~tnento Mechanical Engineering, Lhkoping Universify, S-X31 83 Linkoping, Sweden f

ABSTRACT Thermal treatments discussed in this paper are induction and laser hardening of steel and thermochemical treatments are carburizing, nitriding, nitrocarburizing and boriding of steel. The principles for the methods are briefly described and experimental data on residual stresses are reviewed. The mechanisms for the residual stress generation is then discussed in some detail supported by computer models. The effect of varying the process parameters on the residual stress is analysed. KEYWORDS Residual stress, carburizing, case hardening, induction hardening, laser hardening, nitriding, boriding. INTRODUCTION Thermal and thermochemical heat treatment of metal is usually accompanied by the evolution of large residual stresses. There are a number of reasons for this: (i) thermal stresses due to thermal expansion or contraction of a homogeneous material in a temperature gradient field, (ii) different thermal expansion coefficients of the various phases in a multiphase material, (iii) density changes due to phase transformations in the metal, (iv) growth stresses of reaction products formed on the surface or as precipitates, (v) chemical compositions gradients below the surface. In the following it will be demonstrated how these factors contribute during thermal and thermochemical surface treatments of steel. The treatments described are carburizing, induction and laser hardening, nitriding, nitrocarburizing and boriding. Several of the processes have been described recently in volume 2 of Advances in Surface Treatments (Ericsson, 1985): It is appropriate to remind the reader of some definitions. One distinguishes between macro- and micro-residual stresses or with a more elaborated classification residual stresses of the first, second and third kind. The residual stresses treated here are of the macro type equivalent to the first kind. An exception

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T. E r i c s s o n

i s i n m a r t e n s i t i c s t r u c t u r e s w i t h r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e when measurements ( b u t n o t c a l c u l a t i o n s ) r e f e r t o a t r e s s e s i n t h e m a r t e n a i t e l f e r r i t e and r e t a i n e d In the following a u s t e n i t e s e p a r a t e l y i . e . r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s of t h e second k i n d . s t r e s s e s w i l l a l s o be d i s c u s s e d t h a t e x i s t d u r i n g t h e whole h e a t t r e a t m e n t process. They a r e n o t r e s i d u a l a t r e s s e s i n a s t r i c t s e n s e b u t r a t h e r i n t e r n a l s t r e s s e s . Normally no c o n f u s i o n a r i s e s however.
I

M a r t e n s i t e T r a n s f o r m a t i o n Hardening The p r i n c i p l e f o r t h e c r e a t i o n of t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s on c o o l i n g i s shown i n F i g . 1 f o r a s i m p l e body (Rose and Hougardy, 1967). The s u r f a c e t e n p e r a t u r e d e c r e a s e s more r a p i d l y t h a n t h e c o r e t e m p e r a t u r e . T h i s means t h a t t h e s p e c i f i c volume i s g r e a t e r i n t h e c o r e t h a n i n t h e s u r f a c e . The volume c o n t r a c t i o n i n t h e s u r f a c e i s p r e v e n t e d by t h e h i g h e r s p e c i f i c volume i n t h e c o r e . The t h e r m a l s t r e s s i s a p p r o x i m a t e l y p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e and i s t e n s i l e i n t h e s u r f a c e and compressive i n t h e c o r e . If the yield s t r e s s i s never r e a c h e d t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s a f t e r f i n i s h e d c o o l i n g i s z e r o . I f t h e y i e l d s t r e s s , c u r v e b , i s lower t h a n t h e t h e o r e t i c a l e l a s t i c s t r e s s , c u r v e a , t h e s u r f a c e m a t e r i a l f l o w s i n t e n s i o n and on f u r t h e r c o o l i n g becomes t o o l a r g e f o r t h e c o r e and c o m p r e s s i v e s u r f a c e s t r e s s e s r e s u l t w i t h compensating t e n s i o n i n t h e c o r e . The time o f s t r e s s r e v e r s a l i s d e s i g n a t e d U. L a r g e t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s a r e f a v o u r e d by low t h e r m a l c o n d u c t i v i t y , h i g h h e a t c a p a c i t y and h i g h t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t . Other f a c t o r s i n c r e a s i n g t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i f f e r e n c e and h e n c e t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s a r e l a r g e t h i c k n e s s dimensions and h i g h c o o l i n g i n t e n s i t y of t h e c o o l i n g medium. A l a r g e y i e l d s t r e s s a t e l e v a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s w i l l d e c r e a s e t h e d e g r e e of p l a s t i c f l o w and t h u s t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s w h i l e t h e y i e l d s t r e s s a t t h e ambient t e m p e r a t u r e p u t s a n upper l i m i t t o the residual s t r e s s .

Water Quenched 100-mm Specimen

1001

4100 1000 Time, seconds

F i g . 1 Formation of t h e r m a l s t r e s s e s on c o o l i n g . (Rose and Hougardy, 1 9 6 7 ) . I n F i g . 2 t h e added e f f e c t of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of a u s t e n i t e t o m a r t e n s i t e i n s t e e l i s d e m o n s t r a t e d . At time tl t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e f a l l s below t h e m a r t e n s i t e s t a r t t e m p e r a t u r e M and t h e s u r f a c e s t a r t s t o t r a n s f o r m . I t s expands and t h e t h e r m a l t e n s i l e a t r e s s e s a r e c o u n t e r a c t e d . The s t r e s s r e v e r s a l t a k e s p l a c e e a r l i e r t h a n o t h e r w i s e . At t h e time t 2 t h e c o r e t r a n s f o r m s which c a u s e s a n o t h e r s t r e s s r e v e r s a l . A f t e r c o o l i n g t r a n s f o r m a t i o n induced t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s a t t h e s u r f a c e dominate over t h e t h e r m a l l y induced c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s .

Residual Stresses

Fig. 2 Formation of residual stress on loading considering thermal expansion and transformation austenite-martensite. (Chatterjee-Fischer, 1973). As the scope of this treatment is surface hardening the treatment of martensite hardening will be limited to carburizing and induction and laser hardening. The present author has discussed thermal residual stresses from a more general point of view elsewhere (Ericsson, 1982). Carburizine Carburized steels present a more complicated picture than steels with homogeneous carbon content. Typical maximum compressive stress values vary between 700 and 300 MPa. Already in the early 1930s it was shown experimentally that large compressive stresses are present in carburized steel by Buhler et al. (1932). This was explained as a result of the larger expansion of the high carbon martensite in the surface relative to the low carbon martensite or non-martensitic transformation products in the core. Typical maximum compressive stress values vary between 700 and 300 MPa. Koistinen (1958) measured and explained qualitatively the residual stress distribution in carburized steels. He showed that the old explanation was too naive. The basis for his discussion is the fact that the martensite start temperature (M ) decreases with increasing carbon content. The martensite transformationswill start where the temperature first cuts the M curve, see Fig. 3. The transformation then spreads outwards and inwards. ?he untransformed austenite in the surface layer is plastically strained in tension due to the core transformation. When the elongated surface is finally transformed large compressive stresses are set up. However, the high retained austenite content close to the surface causes the maximum compressive stress to occur at 50 to 60% of the total case depth, corresponding to about 0.5% C in low carbon steel. The reversal in sign of the residual stress occurs at, or very near the case-core interface. The statement about the position of the compressive stress maximum should not be regarded as a general rule as will be shown in the following. Computer modelling has been very instructive to explain the mechanism of case hardening more in detail (Hildenwall and Ericsson, 1978, Hildenwall, 1979). In Figs. 4a to 4d one can follow how the transformation of austenite starts below the surface and proceeds and how at the end the austenite in the case is partially transformed to martensite. The evolution of the stress can be Been

T. Ericsson

Fig. 3

Depth below surface Temperature distribution at the time t t and t3 during 2 quenching of a carburized specimen in & relation e to the M -temperature. (Koistinen, 1958).

Run no. 2 5 Time 8.0 s

0 = Austenib
0 = Bainlte

A = Martensite

Fig. 4a in Fig. 5. At first the stress has a typical thermal distribution with tension at the surface and compression in the centre. When a fair amount of the austenite has transformed in the case/core interface the stress there is pushed into compression. When the case transforms into martensite, the stress there becomes compressive and a tensile peak appears below this layer. The tensile peak may for other radii, carbon depths or steel analysis be missing (Burnett, 1977). During the cooling the yield stress is attained at different locations at different times and the plastic deformation taking place affects very much the final stress distribution (Hildenwall, 1979 and Burnett, 1977). The so-called transformation plasticity will also have an important effect (Sjostrom, 1982 and 1985, Denmis et al. 1983 and 1985). Transformation plasticity implies that plastic deformation is facilitated by a simultaneous phase transformation.

Residual Stresses
0

Run no. 2 5 Time 10.1 s

0 = Austenlte 0 = Balnite A = Martenslte

2
k0

2
0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0

r (mm)
F i g . 4b

Run no. 2 5 Time 20.1 s

0 = Austenite

0 = Bainlte A = Martensite

k-

0.0

1.0

2.0

3.0

4.0

5.0

r (mm)
F i g . 4c U s u a l l y t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n c a r b u r i z e d s t e e l d i s p l a y s a minimum ( = maximum c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s ) a l i t t l e below t h e s u r f a c e , s e e F i g . 5. D i s t r i b u t i o n s w i t h a n i n t e r m e d i a t e maximum h a s a l s o been measured, s e e f o r i n s t a n c e Coleman and Simpson (1950) and H i l d e n w a l l and E r i c s s o n ( 1 9 8 0 ) , s e e F i g . 6 . The r e a s o n f o r t h e minimum i n F i g . 5 i s t h e h i g h r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t i n t h e s u r f a c e . T h e r e i s a s h i f t towards t h e s u r f a c e of t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s minimum f o r lower s u r f a c e c a r b o n c o n t e n t s ( l e s s r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e ) (Coleman and Simpson, 1 9 5 7 , and K n u u t t i l a , 1 9 8 2 ) . The d e p t h of t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s minimum i s a l s o s t r o n g l y i n f l u e n c e d by t h e specimen dimension f o r a c o n s t a n t c a r b o n p r o f i l e a s shown by Coleman and Simpson ( 1 9 5 7 ) , K n u u t t i l a (1982) and Ericsson ( 1 9 8 3 ) . When comparing specimens of t h e same s i z e t h e minimum o c c u r s a p p r o x i m a t e l y a t t h e same f r a c t i o n of t h e c a s e d e p t h independent of c a r b o n p r o f i l e ( K n u u t t i l a , 1982, and E r i c s s o n 1 9 8 3 ) . The d e p t h a t which t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r changes s i g n i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g d i a m e t e r of a c y l i n d r i c a l specimen w i t h a c e r t a i n c a r b o n p r o f i l e and a t t h e same time t h e maximum compressive s t r e s s i n c r e a s e s . The e x p l a n a t i o n

e.

e.,

T. Ericsson

R u n no. 2 5 T i m e 1065.3 s

0 = Bainite A = Martensite

=Ausbnite

Fig. 4

Computed phase c o n t e n t a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s a f t e r t h e s t a r t of t h e o i l quenching of a c y l i n d r i c a l specimen w i t h 1 0 mm d i a m e t e r , 1 . 0 mm c a s e d e p t h and 0.84% C i n t h e s u r f a c e . The s t e e l h a s 0.16% C, 0.7% C r , 1.0% N i . ( K n u u t t i l a , 1982). ( a ) a t 8.0 s e c o n d s , ( b ) a t 1 0 . 1 s e c o n d s , ( c ) a t 20.1 s e c o n d s , ( d ) a t 1065 s e c o n d s .

Fig. 5 C a l c u l a t e d a x i a l s t r e s s a t 1 2 . 2 , 1 6 . 8 , 30.1 and 434.8 seconds a f t e r t h e s t a r t of t h e o i l quenching of a c y l i n d r i c a l specimen w i t h 1 7 mm d i a m e t e r , 0 . 9 mm c a s e d e p t h (550 HV) and 0.85% C i n t h e s u r f a c e . Same s t e e l a s i n F i g . 4 ( E r i c s s o n e t . , 1 9 8 3 ) . i s t h a t a l a r g e r d i a m e t e r means a s m a l l e r amount of m a r t e n s i t e i n t h e c o r e s o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t r a i n i n t h e c a s e and t h e a v e r a g e transformation s t r a i n i n the cylinder i s increased. With i n c r e a s e d c a s e d e p t h and c o n s t a n t d i a m e t e r t h e maximum compressive s t r e s s and Hougardy, 1967) E r i c s s o n tends t o d e c r e a s e ( ~ o s e 1983) b u t t h e e f f e c t i s n o t always s i g n i f i c a n t (Motoyama and Horisawa, 1 9 7 1 ) . A more s e v e r e quenching l i k e w a t e r quenching i n s t e a d of o i l quenching, t e n d s t o g i v e l a r g e r compressive s t r e s s e s (Coleman and Simpson, 1 9 5 7 ) , K n u u t t i l a , 1 9 8 2 , and Motoyama

u.,

Residual Stresses TABLE -1 R e s i d u a l S t r e s s e s Measured by X-ray D i f f r a c t i o n i n M a r t e n s i t e and A u s t e n i t e i n C y l i n d e r s w i t h d i f f e r e n t Diameters made of Swedish S t a n d a r d S t e e l SS 2511 (0.16% C, 0.8% Mn, 0.7% C r , 1.0% N i , 0.06% Mo) and SS 2523 (0.15% C, 0.9% Mn, 1.0% C r , 1.1% i , 0.1% Mo). R e l a t i v e Mean E r r o r N i n R e s i d u a l S t r e s s < 10% ( m a r t e n s i t e ) R e l a t i v e Mean E r r o r i n R e s i d u a l S t r e s s < 20% ( a u s t e n i t e ) ( K n u u t t i l a , 1982)

93

Steel

Diam. mm

Case depth 550 H C mm

carbon cont. %

Surface

R e s i d u a l S t r e s s MPa surface mm martensite austenite

content %

and Horisawa, 1 9 7 1 ) which i s a l s o s u p p o r t e d by c a l c u l a t i o n s ( E r i c s s o n e t a l . , 1983). The measured r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s d i s c u s s e d s o f a r a r e i n t h e m a r t e n s i t e l b a i n i t e phase. But t h e s t r u c t u r e i n t h e h i g h c a r b o n c a s e c o n t a i n s f a i r l y l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e s of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e . I n a n e x t e n s i v e work by Beumelburg (1974) t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s and t h e r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t were measured i n 4 d i f f e r e n t s t e e l s c a r b u r i z e d t o between 0.45 and 1.20% C i n t h e s u r f a c e . Most of t h e s t e e l s were a n n e a l e d a t 170C. As a g e n e r a l t r e n d t h e a u s t e n i t e s t r e s s d e c r e a s e d w i t h i n c r e a s e d r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t (9-65%) and was t e n s i l e e x c e p t f o r more t h a n 40% a u s t e n i t e . The m a r t e n s i t e s t r e s s i n c r e a s e d and was compressive below 10% and most o f t e n s l i g h t l y t e n s i l e above 10% r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e . I n a n o t h e r f a i r l y e x t e n s i v e s t u d y by K n u u t t i l a (1982) w i t h a u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t s between 1 5 and 32% t h e s t r e s s was compressive i n b o t h p h a s e s e x c e p t i n one

T. Ericsson

Fig. 6 Residual stresses versus depth below the surface in a 10 x 50 x 80 specimen, 0.65 mm case depth (550 HV) and 0.82% C in the surface. The steel has 0.18% C, 0.7% Cr, 3.0% Ni and 0.05% No. (Hildenwall and Ericsson, 1980). single specimen with tensile stress in the austenite, see Table 1. The magnitude in the austenite was as a rule slightly smaller than in the martensite, except in the odd specimen where the magnitude in the austenite was much larger. Obviously more studies are needed to clarify the relation between the residual stress in martensite and retained austenite. The computer modelling so far has not treated the phases separately. Sub-zero treatment of as-carburized steels reduces the retained austenite content due to martensite formation. It is intuitively to be expected that the martensite stress should become more compressive due to the swelling of the case. Beumelburg (1974) found a subsequent shift of the residual stress in the martensite in the compressive direction and of the residual stress in austenite in the tensile direction. A few studies however have shown a more complicated pattern, the compressive stress in the martensite layer just below the surface is reduced about 50 MPa but deeper into the material it is increased about 50 MPa, see Fig. 7 (Magnusson, 1980).
A

low temperature temper (170C) is reported to shift the residual stress in the tensile direction in the martensite. A tensile shift has also been observed in the retained austenite by Coleman and Simpson (1957) and Beumelburg (1974).

Very often in gascarburizing a thin soft layer (10 wm) is formed on the surface due to oxidation of alloying elements like Cr and Mn. the hardenability of the dealloyed layer is relatively low and therefore a fine perlite is formed early during the cooling. This layer becomes strained in tension during the martenite formation of the case and tensile stresses arise. The mechanism is discussed in detail by Hildenwall and Ericsson (1980). Induction Hardening In induction hardening of steel one has to consider both the heating and the cooling stage. The heating is caused by eddy currents generated with an induction coil. The depth of the eddy current layer (skin depth) 6 is mainly determined by the frequency f of the current in the coil, 6"Jl/G. One usually distinguishes between stationary and progressive induction hardening. In the former the coil covers the whole area to be heated and in the latter the workpiece is moved through the coil which consists of one or very few turns. In both cases the cooling is usually done by spraying water on the workpiece. Very often the hardened zone is tempered at low temperature (170C)

Residual Stresses

F i g . 7 Measured d i s t r i b u t i o n s of r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e and r e s i d u a l s t r e s s v e r s u s d e p t h below t h e s u r f a c e i n a c y l i n d r i c a l specimen w i t h 1 5 mm d i a m e t e r , 0.80 m c a s e d e p t h (550 HV) and 0.85% C i n t h e s u r f a c e ) m Same s t e e l a s i n F i g . 4 (Magnusson, 1 9 8 0 ) . a f t e r w a r d s . The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e c a s e a r e c o m p r e s s i v e and u s u a l l y o f t h e o r d e r of 500-1000 MPa. B computer m o d e l l i n g Melander ( 1 9 8 3 ) , (1985a) and (1985b) h a s e x p l a i n e d t h e y mechanism of s t r e s s g e n e r a t i o n . I n F i g s . 8 a t o 8h c a l c u l a t e d diagrams a r e shown f o r a 40 mm d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r of t h e s t e e l AISI 4142 h e a t e d w i t h 300 kHz f o r 33 seconds and a f t e r 4.5 seconds w a t e r s p r a y e d f o r 80 s e c o n d s . The t e m p e r a t u r e a t v a r i o u s d e p t h i s shown i n F i g . 8 a . The t u r n o f f of t h e h e a t i n g and t h e s t a r t o f t h e w a t e r s p r a y i n g i s e v i d e n t i n t h e s u r f a c e t e m p e r a t u r e c u r v e . The maximum t e m p e r a t u r e i s r e a c h e d t h e l a t e r t h e d e e p e r t h e l o c a t i o n i n t o t h e specimen. The h e a t i n g r a t e below t h e C u r i e t e m p e r a t u r e (770C) i s more r a p i d t h a n above a s t o be e x p e c t e d . The r e a s o n f o r a more r a p i d t e m p e r a t u r e r i s e j u s t b e f o r e t h e p l a t e a u i s an i n c r e a s e i n t h e c o i l c u r r e n t . I n t h e t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e above Ac3 (800'C) where t h e a u s t e n i t e f o r m a t i o n t a k e s p l a c e t h e t e m p e r a t u r e s t a y s a l m o s t c o n s t a n t f o r a w h i l e due t o t h e a b s o r p t i o n of h e a t of t r a n s f o r m a t i o n . T h i s i s c l e a r from F i g . 8 c which shows t h e a u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t v e r s u s t i m e f o r v a r i o u s d e p t h s . t h e t h i c k n e s s of t h e a u s t e n i t e l a y e r i s of c o u r s e d e t e r m i n i n g t h e h a r d e n i n g d e p t h . The t h i c k n e s s c a n be s e e n i n F i g . 8d and i s a t a maximum of a b o u t 4 mm a f t e r 3 3 s e c o n d s . The m a r t e n s i t e l a y e r formed i s shown i n F i g . 8 e . t h e development of t h e a x i a l s t r e s s i s i l l u s t r a t e d i n F i g . 8g v e r s u s d e p t h a t v a r i o u s t i m e s and i n F i g . 8h v e r s u s time f o r v a r i o u s d e p t h s . The f i n a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n ( a x i a l , t a n g e n t i a l and r a d i a l ) i s shown i n F i g . 8 f . Study F i g . Bg, 8d and 8b t o g e t h e r . A f t e r 1 0 s e c o n d s t h e s t r e s s i s compressive i n t h e s u r f a c e l a y e r due t o t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n of t h e o r i g i n a l s t r u c t u r e . A f t e r 23 s e c o n d s t h e s t r e s s i s s h i f t e d

T. Ericsson

T I M E (s)

" 5'

"

'

~1 0 ~

" 15 '

"

"2 0 ~

D E P T H (mm)

Fig. 8a,b in the tensile direction due to the formation of more austenite which has a lower specific volume. After 4 0 seconds the austenite in the outer layer of 2 mm is shifted in the compressive direction due to martensite formation. This finally causes compressive axial and tangential stress down to a depth of about 5 mm which is a little below the caselcore interface. No tensile peak is formed in this example below the compressive layer which is sometimes reported. It should be pointed out that these computer calculations in many cases give quite good agreement with measured temperatures, hardnesses and residual stresses (Melander, 1983 and 1985a). In Fig. 9 is shown a comparison of calculated and measured residual stresses. One feature that is very often observed experimentally but has not been predicted by calculations is a shift in the tensile direction of the residual stress closest to the surface. It is not due to decarburization. At the edges of the induction hardened zone tensile stresses can occur, see Fig. 10 (Ishii 1971). They are probably caused by a plastic deformation in compression during heating (to maximum temperature below All, followed by an elastic deformation in tension during the cooling to the final temperature.

u.,

At progressive induction hardening of a sufficiently long cylinder a steady state condition may develop in that a certain temperature distribution is

Residual S t r e s s e s

TIME (s)

DEPTH (mn)

Fig. 8 c , d , e i s moved a l o n g t h e c y l i n d e r w i t h o u t b e i n g changed. Melander ( 1 9 8 5 a ) , (1985b) h a s c a r r i e d o u t such a computer m o d e l l i n g . F i g u r e l l a shuows measured and c a l c u l a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e p r o f i l e s f o r 40 mn, d i a m e t e r specimen of A I S I 4142 s t e e l h e a t e d by 40 kHz i n d u c t i o n v o l t a g e and moved w i t h a speed of 3 . 4 7 mmlsec through a s i n g l e c o i l and c o o l e d by a w a t e r s p r a y . The measured and c a l c u l a t e d h a r d n e s s i s shown i n F i g . l l b and t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i s shown i n F i g . l l c . The measured r e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s p l a y s a t y p i c a l minimum j u s t below t h e s u r f a c e which i s however n o t reproduced by t h e c a l c u l a t i o n s . The magnitude o f r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i s f a i r l y normal. I f t h e c o o l i n g time s e e n by a t r a v e l l i n g p o i n t on t h e c y l i n d e r i s t o o s h o r t h e a t i n g o f t h e s u r f a c e may o c c u r by h e a t c o n d u c t i o n from t h e warm c o r e , s e e F i g . 1 2 . T h i s e f f e c t may be used f o r low t e m p e r a t u r e tempering o f t h e i n d u c t i o n hardened l a y e r . Such a temper w i l l r e d u c e t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s .

T. E r i c s s o n

F i g . 8 C a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s f o r i n d u c t i o n hardened (300 kHz) c y l i n d e r w i t h 40 mm d i a m e t e r made of s t e e l AISI 4142. ( a ) Temperature v e r s u s time f o r d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s , ( b ) Temperature v e r s u s d e p t h a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , (c) A u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t v e r s u s time f o r d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s , ( d ) A u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t v e r s u s d e p t h a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , ( e ) The f i n a l m a r t e n s i t e and h a r d n e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n s , ( f ) R e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s v e r s u s d e p t h , ( g ) Axial s t r e s s versus depth a t d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , ( h ) Axial s t r e s s v e r s u s time f o r d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s , (Melander, 1985a and 1985b)

Residual S t r e s s e s

D E P T H (inn)
F i g . 9 Calculated and measured a x i a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n an induction hardened c y l i n d r i c a l specimen with 40 mm diameter and 4 . 7 mm c a s e depth (550 HV) made of s t e e l AISI 4142. (Melander, 1985a and 1985b).

2 U

80

60

40

20 0

100 Axial

200
length
(mm

300

F i g . 10 surface.

Residual s t r e s s e s and hardness of s t a t i c induction hardened Diameter o f specimen i s 190 mm, frequency 10 kHz and heating time 50 seconds. ( I s h i i e . , 1 9 7 1 ) .

T. E r i c s s o n

F i g . 1 C a l c u l a t e d and m e a s u r e d r e s u l t s f o r a p r o g r e s s i v e l y i n d u c t i o n h a r d e n e d 1 s p e c i m e n w i t h 4 0 mm d i a m e t e r , 1 . 5 m c a s e d e p t h ( 5 5 0 HV) made m o f s t e e l A I S I 4142. (Melander, 1985a and 1985b)

L a s e r Hardening The s u r f a c e L a s e r h a r d e n i n g h a s many s i m i l a r i t i e s w i t h i n d u c t i o n h a r d e n i n g . l a y e r of t h e s t e e l i s r a p i d l y h e a t e d i n t o t h e a u s t e n i t i c t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e and t h e n q u e n c h e d . So i n b o t h c a s e s t h e r e i s a r a p i d h e a t i n g and a v e r y s h o r t In T h e r e a r e d i f f e r e n c e s however. h o l d i n g t i m e a t t h e peak t e m p e r a t u r e .

Residual Stresses

F i g . 1 2 C a l c u l a t e d r e s u l t s f o r d i f f e r e n t l e n g t h of t h e c o o l i n g zone f o r p r o g r e s s i v e i n d u c t i o n h a r d e n i n g o f a 1 0 m d i a m e t e r specimen. ( a ) n Workpiece w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o o l i n g z o n e s , ( b ) t e m p e r a t u r e v e r s u s time 1 mm below t h e s u r f a c e . (Melander, 1985a and 1985b). l a s e r h a r d e n i n g t h e h e a t i s g e n e r a t e d a t t h e s u r f a c e by t h e l a s e r l i g h t w h i l e i n i n d u c t i o n h a r d e n i n g t h e h e a t i s g e n e r a t e d down t o c e r t a i n d e p t h . The quenching a f t e r l a s e r h e a t i n g i s n o r m a l l y a c h i e v e d by h e a t c o n d u c t i o n i n t o t h e c o r e w h i l e a f t e r i n d u c t i o n h e a t i n g w a t e r quenching i s t h e r u l e . The l a s e r h e a t i n g i s n o r m a l l y c a r r i e d o u t a l o n g 1-10 mm wide s t r a i g h t o r curved t r a c e s on t h e s u r f a c e . T h e r e f o r e t h e r e a r e a l s o g e o m e t r i c s i m i l a r i t i e s between w e l d i n g and laser hardening. S e v e r a l computer models have been developed f o r t h e c a l c u l a t i o n of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d i s t r i b u t i o n under a l a s e r beam (Godfrey 1981, Kawasumi, 1981, Courtney and S t e e n , 1981, Ashby 1985, end L i , 1 9 8 4 ) . An example i s shown i n F i g . 1 3 f o r t h e power d e n s i t y of 940 J and e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e s a r e shown i n F i g . 1 4 f o r t h e power d e n s i t y of 2300 J cm-'. The r i s e time of t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i s obviously s h o r t e r than f o r i n d u c t i o n h e a t i n g , Fig. 8a. Notice a l s o t h a t t h e t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e c o r e i s always lower t h a n a t t h e s u r f a c e i n t h e l a s e r h a r d e n i n g c a s e w h i l e t h e s u r f a c e and i n t e r i o r t e m p e r a t u r e may c r o s s e a c h o t h e r in the induction hardening case.

u.,a,

There i s l i t t l e time f o r c a r b i d e d i s s o l u t i o n and a c o a r s e c a r b i d e ( p e a r l i t e i s l a n d s ) c a n g i v e r i s e t o m a r t e n s i t e i s l a n d s i n a f e r r i t i c m a t r i x . ( L i , 1984, 19 C h a t t e r j e e - F i s c h e r G., 8 4 ) . High r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e c o n t e n t s have been r e p o r t e d i n t h e o u t e r l a y e r s of l a s e r hardened medium c a r b o n s t e e l s ( C h a t t e r j e e Fischer 1 9 8 4 , Melander, 1 9 8 5 a , E r i c s s o n , 1 9 8 5 ) , w h i l e t h e same s t e e l s e x h i b i t no r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e a f t e r i n d u c t i o n h a r d e n i n g .

u.,

There i s l i t t l e d a t a a v a i l a b l e a b o u t r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s around a l a s e r hardened t r a c k . I n T a b l e 2 v a l u e s from measurements across a s i n g l e 8 mm wide p a s s on a 0.4% c a r b o n s t e e l i s shown and i n F i g . 1 5 , a d e p t h d i s t r i b u t i o n f o r t h e same type o f s t e e l . The d i s t r i b u t i o n i s s i m i l a r t o t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r i n d u c t i o n h a r d e n i n g a n d , one can a d d , a f t e r c a r b u r i z i n g . Common f e a t u r e s w i t h c a r b u r i z i n g i s t h e m a r t e n s i t e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s t a r t below t h e s u r f a c e and t h e h i g h r e t a i n e d austenite content.

T. E r i c s s o n

Fig. 1 3

C a l c u l a t e d t h e r m a l c y c l e s of a l a s e r - h a r d e n i n g r u n f o r an energy i n p u t of 940 ( L i , 1984).

LASER, SPECIMEN 583 1
700.8 100.8 E49.8
CI

4a0.8 380.8

W I 288.0 180.8 88 . 0.0 18.8 20.9 38.1 48.8 68.0

TIME C S )

F i g . 1 4 Measured t e m p e r a t u r e s a t d i f f e r e n t d e p t h s below t h e s u r f a c e . Curve 3 a t 0.86 mm below t h e s u r f a c e and c u r v e 2 a t 4.70 mm. (Yao and Melander, 1 9 8 3 ) To u n d e r s t a n d t h e d i s t r i b u t i o n a c r o s s t h e t r a c e i t i s i n s t r u c t i v e t o t a k e a d v a n t a g e o f t h e a n a l o g u e w i t h welding. C a l c u l a t i o n o f w e l d i n g s t r e s s e s i n c a r b o n s t e e l (SAE 1 0 4 5 ) have g i v e n t h e r e s u l t i n F i g . 1 6 . I t i s s e e n t h a t t h e r e a r e c o m p r e s s i v e a x i a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e c e n t r e , t e n s i l e peaks a t t h e s i d e s and t h e n c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s f u r t h e r a s i d e . The s i m i l a r i t y w i t h t h e measured d i s t r i b u t i o n s a t t h e edge of s t a t i o n a r y i n d u c t i o n hardened l a y e r s s h o u l d a l s o be p o i n t e d o u t , s e e F i g . 1 0 . A s p e c i a l c a s e of l a s e r h a r d e n i n g u s i n g a t o r i c m i r r o r t o h e a t t h e whole c i r c u m f e r e n c e of a c y l i n d r i c specimen h a s been t r e a t e d r e c e n t l y . (Melander, 1 9 8 5 a , Melander and Yao, 1 9 8 5 ) . F i g u r e 1 7 a t o f shows c a l c u l a t e d t e m p e r a t u r e s , a u s e e n i t e c o n t e n t s and a x i a l s t r e s s e s a s f u n c t i o n s of t i m e and d e p t h r e s p e c t i v e l y f o r a 57 mm d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r i n t h e s t e e l SAE 4142. The t r a v e l speed t h r o u g h t h e t o r i c m i r r o r was 0.152 mlmin, t h e l a s e r beam w i d t h 8.175 mm and t h e i n p u t power 6.60 Wlm2. The t e m p e r a t u r e i n t h e s u r f a c e r i s e s q u i c k l y t o 950C and t h e n d e c r e a s e s t o t h e same t e m p e r a t u r e a s t h e c e n t r e ( a b o u t 300C). Due t o

Residual S t r e s s e s

F i g . 15 Residual s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n r e s u l t i n g from l a s e r transformation hardening. ( L i , 1 9 8 4 , Gnanamuthu and Shaw, 1 9 7 9 ) .

- &stand
F i g . 16

von der Nahlmille tmml

Residual s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n around a weldment i n s t e e l SAE 1045. (Yu, 1 9 7 7 ) .

T. E r i c s s o n

T I M E (s)
Fig. 1 7 a , b , c t h e l i m i t e d mass of t h e c y l i n d e r t h e t e m p e r a t u r e d o e s n o t d e c r e a s e f u r t h e r . ( I n a c t u a l t e s t s t h e c y l i n d e r had t o be w a t e r c o o l e d a t t h e e n d ) . The a u s t e n i t e forms t o a d e p t h of a b o u t 0.8 m m , F i g . 17d. During t h e h e a t i n g compressive s t r e s s e s d e v e l o p i n t h e s u r f a c e due t o t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n , F i g . 1 7 c , which q u i c k l y change i n t o t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s when t h e a u s t e n i t e forms. The c o r e d e v e l o p s t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s . When t h e m a r t e n s i t e s t a r t s t o form c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s a p p e a r i n t h e s u r f a c e . The depth d i s t r i b u t i o n a t t h e e n d , F i g . 1 7 f , d i s p l a y s If the c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s i n t h e m a r t e n s i t e r e g i o n and a t e n s i l e peak below. c o o l i n g had been c o n t i n u e d down t o room t e m p e r a t u r e , a c o m p l e t e l y m a r t e n s i t i c

Residual Stresses

DEPTH (mn)
F i g . 1 7 C a l c u l a t e d v a l u e s f o r a c y l i n d e r of s t e e l SAE 4142 w i t h 28.6 mm ( a ) temperature d i a m e t e r l a s e r hardened by h e l p o f a t o r i c m i r r o r . versus time, (b) austenite content versus time, ( c ) a x i a l s t r e s s component v e r s u s t i m e , ( d ) a u s t e n i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r 24 seconds ( e l m a r t e n s i t e d i s t r i b u t i o n a f t e r 1 0 0 seconds (end of c a l c u l a t i o n ) , a x i a l (o ) , t a n g e n t i a l (o ) and r a d i a l (o ) s t r e s s v e r s u s d e p t h a f t e r 1 0 s e c o n d s . ( ~ e l g n d e r ,1 9 8 5 a , ~ e f a n d e rand Yao, 1 9 8 5 ) . 8 c a s e s h o u l d have been o b t a i n e d w i t h much l a r g e r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s . N o t i c e t h a t t h e s t r e s s minimum i s below t h e s u r f a c e i n F i g . 1 7 f l i k e i n t h e e x p e r i m e n t a l c u r v e , F i g . 1 5 . Measurements on 1 5 mm d i a m e t e r c y l i n d e r s of SAE 4142 s t e e l

106

T. E r i c s s o n TABLE 2 D i s t r i b u t i o n o f R e s i d u a l S t r e s s e s on t h e S u r f a c e a c r o s s a Laser Hardened Track on S t e e l SAE 1045. C h a t t e r j e e - F i s c h e r e t a l . , 1984') D i s t a n c e from centre line rm n Residual s t r e s s Ma P

hardened i n t h i s way show c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s o f between 340 and 450 MPa a t t h e s u r f a c e and between 480 and 660 i n t h e minimum and t h a t r e t a i n e d a u s t e n i t e 1985, c o n t e n t s v a r y between 3 and 7% i n t h e s u r f a c e r e g i o n . ( E r i c s s o n Melander and Yao, 1 9 8 5 ) .

u.,

Nitriding R e s i d u a l s t r e s s g e n e r a t i o n due t o n i t r i d i n g of s t e e l h a s n o t b e e n s t u d i e d s o much a s through h a r d e n i n g o r c a r b u r i z i n g . An overview p a p e r h a s r e c e n t l y been p u b l i s h e d i n German (Koch, 1 9 8 2 ) and some t h e o r e t i c a l d i s c u s s i o n s a r e found i n ( M i t t e n m e i j e r , 1981, 1 9 8 3 , R o z e n d a a l , 1984, O e t t e l and E h r e n t r a u t , 1 9 8 5 ) . N i t r i d i n g i s c a r r i e d o u t i n t h e f e r r i t i c t e m p e r a t u r e r a n g e , u s u a l l y between 500 and 550C, i n p a r t i a l l y d i s s o c i a t e d ammonia f o r up t o 1 2 0 h o u r s . t h e n i t r o g e n a c t i v i t y i n t h e g a s i s u s u a l l y s o h i g h t h a t a l a y e r of 7 ' - n i t r i d e ( F ~ ~ N ) even - n i t r i d e (Fe -3N) i s formed. During r e c e n t y e a r s s o - c a l l e d and p l a s m a - n i t r i d i n g h a s g a i n e d w i 3 e r u s e . The n i t r o g e n u p t a k e i s t h e n a c t i v a t e d by glow d i s c h a r g e . The p r o c e s s time can be s h o r t e n e d o r t h e p r o c e s s can be c a r r i e d o u t a t a lower t e m p e r a t u r e . I n n i t r i d i n g t h e main c a u s e f o r r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e m e t a l p h a s e i s t h e c h e m i c a l g r a d i e n t o f n i t r o g e n from t h e s u r f a c e inwards. I n c a r b o n s t e e l s t h e n i t r o g e n i s i n s o l i d s o l u t i o n a t t h e p r o c e s s t e m p e r a t u r e and i r o n n i t r i d e s a r e p r e c i p i t a t e d d u r i n g t h e c o o l i n g . The r e s u l t i n g r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e s m a l l . I f t h e s t e e l i s a l l o y e d with elements with higher a f f i n i t y f o r n i t r o g e n , alloyed 'Chis i s e s p e c i a l l y n i t r i d e s a r e precipitated already during the n i t r i d i n g . pronounced w i t h a l l o y i n g e l e m e n t s of v e r y h i g h a f f i n i t y f o r n i t r o g e n l i k e A l , V o r Ti. The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s t h e n become g r e a t e r . I f t h e s t e e l i s quenched a f t e r t h e n i t r i d i n g t h e r m a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s a r e superimposed and l a r g e r c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s a r e o b t a i n e d . Examples of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n d i f f e r e n t s t e e l s a r e shown i n F i g . 1 8 . P l a s m a n i t r i d i n g g i v e s s i m i l a r r e s i d u a l s t r e s s values a s gasnitriding. (Koch, 1982). The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e n i t r i d e l a y e r on t h e s u r f a c e h a s been t h e s u b j e c t of two r e c e n t p a p e r s (Rozendaal, 1984, O e t t e l and E h r e n t r a u t , 1 9 8 5 ) . The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e 7 ' - n i t r i d e i s h i g h l y c o m p r e s s i v e w h i l e i n t h e - n i t r i d e i t c a n become t e n s i l e a t t h e o u t e r surface, see Fig. 19.

Residual Stresses .20

-CL rr 2 nn 0

bE
-20

-40

-60

Fig. 18a

~bstond von der 0berf&he

Fig. 18b No comprehensive quantitative model has yet been developed for nitriding, but the basic principles are well understood (Rozendaal Gal, 1984, Oettel and Ehrentraut, 1985). Contributing factors in the diffusion zone in the metal phase are the composition gradient of nitrogen, the precipitation of nitrides which have a larger atomic volume of metal than the matrix and thermal stresses and in the compound layer misfit between 7 ' - and -nitride in two phase layers, precipitation of y'-nitride in original -nitride and formation of nitrogen

T. E r i c s s o n

F i g . 1 8 R e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n g a s n i t r i d e d i n s l o w l y c o o l e d specimens. ( a ) n o r m a l i z e d c a r b o n s t e e l SAE 1 0 1 5 , ( b ) QZT D I N 37Cr4, ( c ) n o r m a l i z e d 27CrA16. (Koch, 1 9 8 2 ) .

10

Abstand von der Oberflache In urn

F i g . 19 R e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n t h e compound l a y e r on t h e s t e e l D I N 30CrMoV9 a s a f u n c t i o n o f t h e d e p t h under t h e s u r f a c e . ( O e t t e l and E h r e n t r a u t , 1 9 8 5 ) . F i l l e d p o r e s . F i n a l l y a v e r y s i g n i f i c a n t c a u s e i s t h e i n t e r a c t i o n between t h e compound l a y e r and t h e m e t a l m a t r i x due t o d i f f e r e n t atomic volumes of t h e m e t a l and d i f f e r e n t t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t s . The former f a c t o r i s

Residual S t r e s s e s u s u a l l y e x p r e s s e d by h e l p of t h e P i l l i n g - B e d w o r t h (PB) r a t i o which f o r p u r e 1 9 8 4 ) . The i r o n n i t r i d e s a r e 1.16 ( y l / a ) and 1.15 ( / a ) (Rozendaal i n t e r a c t i o n should g i v e a t e n s i l e s t r e s s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e metal s u r f a c e zone and a s t r o n g c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s c o n t r i b u t i o n t o t h e compound l a y e r .

109

s.,

One h a s t r i e d t o e v a l u a t e n u m e r i c a l l y some of t h e f a c t o r s . The c o m p o s i t i o n a l g r a d i e n t s t r e s s c a n b e s e t p r o p o r t i o n a l t o t h e d i f f e r e n c e between t h e l o c a l and t h e a v e r a g e c o n c e n t r a t i o n of n i t r o g e n i n t h e s t e e l ( M i t t e n m e i j e r , 1 9 8 3 ) . F i g u r e 20 shows how t h e c a l c u l a t e d s u r f a c e m a c r o s t r e s s i n t h e m e t a l v a r i e s w i t h time and development of t h e n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e . N o t i c e t h a t t h e s u r f a c e s t r e s s i s compressive and i n c r e a s e s w i t h i n c r e a s i n g s u r f a c e n i t r o g e n c o n t e n t i n t h e beginning. S t r e s s r e l a x a t i o n due t o d i s l o c a t i o n movements i n t h e m e t a l c a n a l s o o c c u r . (Rozendaal Gal., 1984).

-t

penetration depth(pn

F i g . 20 ( a ) Development of t h e n i t r o g e n c o n c e n t r a t i o n p r o f i l e on n i t r i d i n g H and a - i r o n specimens of t h i c k n e s s 2 mm i n a g a s atmosphere of 13% N 3 87% H2 a t 560C. ( b ) S u r f a c e m a c r o s t r e s s (0 ) , n i t r o g e n s u r f a c e c o n c e n t r a t i o e (C ) and a v e r a g e n i t r o g e n g o n c e n t r a t i o n o f t h e same spescimen a s i n ( a ) a s a f u n c t i o n of time. (Mittenmeijer, 1983).

(c)

The v a r i o u s c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e compound l a y e r h a s been d e p i c t e d i n F i g . 21. The c o n t r i b u t i o n ( a ) i s due t o t h e PB e f f e c t , ( b ) i s due t o p r e c i p i t a t i o n of y r - n i t r i d e i n E - n i t r i d e on c o o l i n g and ( c ) due t o t h e l a r g e r t h e r m a l c o n t r a c t i o n of E - n i t r i d e r e l a t i v e t o " ( ' - n i t r i d e . The t o t a l

T. E r i c s s o n

, Abstand van der O b c r f k h e

F i g . 2 1 Model f o r t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n s t o t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e compound l a y e r of n i t r i d e d s t e e l ( a ) by volume m i s f i t , ( b ) by p r e c i p i t a t i o n ( c ) thermal s t r e s s e s ( d l t h e t o t a l r e s i d u a l s t r e s s . ( 0 e t t e l and E h r e n t r a u t , 1985). r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e compound l a y e r c a n be s l i g h t l y t e n s i l e a t t h e o u t e r s u r f a c e and s t r o n g l y compressive n e a r e r t h e n i t r i d e m e t a l i n t e r f a c e . There a r e a number o f f e r r i t i c t r e a t m e n t s s i m i l a r t o n i t r i d i n g b u t a l s o i n v o l v i n g c a r b o n , s o c a l l e d n i t r o c a r b u r i z i n g . Examples a r e n i t e m p e r , c a r r i e d o u t i n g a s , and t u f f t r i d i n g , c a r r i e d o u t i n a s a l t b a t h . The t r e a t m e n t times a r e much s h o r t e r t h a n f o r n i t r i d i n g 1-4 h o u r s i n s t e a d o f 12-120 h o u r s , and t h e t e m p e r a t u r e h i g h e r , t y p i c a l l y 570C i n s t e a d of 500-550C. I n n i t r o c a r b u r i z i n g e - c a r b o n i t r i d e i s formed on t h e s u r f a c e and t h e d i f f u s i o n zone i s u s u a l l y n o t s o d e e p a s f o r n i t r i d i n g due t o t h e s h o r t p r o c e s s t i m e . The mechanism of r e s i d u a l s t r e s s f o r m a t i o n i s t h e same a s f o r n i t r i d i n g . Boriding B o r i d i n g of s t e e l i s c a r r i e d o u t i n powder, s a l t b a t h o r g a s a t 800-1000C. Boron r e a c t s w i t h t h e s t e e l t o form Fe2B and FeB. By c h o o s i n g s u i t a b l e c o n d i t i o n s a monophase l a y e r of Fe2B can be formed. The i n t e r f a c e between t h e s t e e l and t h e b o r i d e l a y e r i s v e r y i r r e g u l a r , sometimes d e s c r i b e d a s t o o t h shaped. I n two r e f e r e n c e s s p e c i f i c a t t e n t i o n h a s been p a i d t o r e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s (Permyakov e t al. -, 1969 and L i l i e n t a l and T a i i k o w s k i , 1 9 8 0 ) . The r e s i d u a l s t r e s s i n t h e b o r i d e l a y e r a t room t e m p e r a t u r e i s mainly c o m p r e s s i v e , a s measured by mechanical methods, P i g . 22 and 23. The e x p l a n a t i o n g i v e n t o t h e o c c u r r e n c e of compressive s t r e s s i s t h e d i f f e r e n c e i n t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n c o e f f i c i e n t between t h e b o r i d e p h a s e s and t h e s t e e l . The t h e r m a l e x p a n s i o n of t h e m e t a l i s l a r g e r t h a n t h a t

Residual S t r e s s e s

Distance from the surfaar, rnrn

F i g . 22 R e s i d u a l s t r e s s e s i n b o r i d e l a y e r s on p u r e i r o n a f t e r 2 h b o r i d i n g by e l e c t r o l y s i s i n m o l t e n borax. D i f f e r e n t t e m p e r a t u r e s were u s e d : c u r v e 1 850aC, c u r v e 2 950C and c u r v e 3 1050C. (Permyakov I

1969).

+ 100
c
5
" 3

MPo 0

F - 200 2 - roo

% .-,- 600 , . - en0

-1000 10

60 I IUI W

20

60

100 140

10

60 1W 140

20

60

100 140

Abslond von der Obeflloche

F i g . 23 R e s i d u a l s t r e s s d i s t r i b u t i o n i n t h e compound l a y e r on pack b o r i d e d SAE 1045 s t e e l . The p o s t h e a t t r e a t m e n t s a f t e r c o o l i n g were ( a ) none, (b) n o r m a l i z e d , ( c ) n o r m a l i z e d , hardened and tempered a t 450C, ( e ) n o r m a l i z e d , hardened and tempered a t 200C. ( L i l i e n t a l and T a c i k o w s k i , 1980). of t h e b o r i d e and h e n c e t h e b o r i d e l a y e r w i l l s t a n d u n d e r compression a f t e r c o o l i n g from t h e r e a c t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e . As a consequence t h e compressive r e s i d u a l s t r e s s s h o u l d be t h e l a r g e r t h e h i g h e r t h e r e a c t i o n t e m p e r a t u r e which i s a l s o o b s e r v e d , F i g . 22. I t h a s been p o i n t e d o u t t h a t t h e d e n s i t y o f t h e s t e e l a f t e r c o o l i n g from t h e b o r i d i n g t e m p e r a t u r e s h o u l d a l s o a f f e c t t h e r e s i d u a l s t r e s s . The d e n s i t y i n c r e a s e s i n t h e o r d e r m a r t e n s i t e , tempered m a r t e n s i t e F i g u r e 23 shows t h a t t h e l a r g e r t h e d e n s i t y t h e and p e a r l i t e l f e r r i t e . t h e compressive s t r e s s . A m a r t e n s i t i c s t e e l s t r u c t u r e a c t u a l l y causes t e n s i l e s t r e s s e s i n t h e b o r i d e l a y e r , F i g . 23e. SM AY U MR Large c o m p r e s s i v e s t r e s s e s i n t h e s u r f a c e r e g i o n i s n o r m a l l y o b t a i n e d by c a r b u r i z i n g , i n d u c t i o n and l a s e r h a r d e n i n g , n i t r i d i n g and b o r i d i n g of s t e e l s .

112

T. Ericsson

Contributing factors for carburizing, induction and laser hardening are thermal stresses and density changes due to martensite formation. In carburizing the carbon gradient affects the residual stress formation indirectly by affecting the Ms temperature. For nitriding contributing factors are different thermal expansion coefficients for the phases present, growth and precipitation stresses for nitrides and stresses due to the nitrogen composition gradient. Thermal stresses can also be involved. For boriding the stresses due to the composition gradient is probably not so important as for nitriding. Martensite transformation stresses can arise in the steel substrate below the boride layer if the steel is quenched after the boriding treatment. REFERENCES Ashby, M. F. and K. E. Easterling (1984) The transformation hardening of steel surfaces by laser beams - 1. Hypo-eutectoid steels. Act Met. 2, 1935-1948. Proben mit Beumelburg, W. (1974) Das Verhalten von einsat~~eharteten verschiedenen ~berflachenzustandenund Randkohlenstoffgehalten im Umlauf biege-, statischen biegeund Schlagbiegeversuch. Dissertation, University of Karlsruhe. Buhler, H., H. buchholz and E. H. Scheil (1932) Eigenspannungen bei der warmebehandlung von Stahl. Archiv fur das Eisenhuttewesen, 5, 413-418. Burnett, J. A. (1977) Evaluation of elastic-plastic stresses in quenched carburized cylinders by finite element methuods. Ph.D. Thesis, University of Akron. Courtney, C. and W. M. Steen (1981) The surface heat tretment of En 8 steel using a 2 kW C02 laser. In 2 metalworking, American Soc. Metals, Metals Park, 195-208. Chatterjee-Fischer, R. (1973) Beispiele fur durch W&mebehandlung bedingte Eigenspannungen und ihre Auswirkungen. Harterei-~echnische Mitteilungen, 28, 276-288. ~hzterjee-Fischer,R., R. Rothe and R. Becker (19874) Uberblick uber das art en mit dem Laserstrahl. Harterei Technische Mitt., 39, 91-98. Coleman. W. S. and M. Sim~son(1957) Residual stresses in carburized steels. In Fatigue durability of carburized steel. American Soc. Metals, Cleveland. Denis, S., A. Simon and G. Beck (1983) Analysis of the thermochemical behaviour of steel during martensite quenching and calculation of internal stress. In E. Macherauch and V Hauk (Eds) Eigenspannungen. Entstehung-Messung. Bewertung. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Metallkunde, Oberursel. Denis, S., E. Gautier, A. Simon and G. Beck (1985) Stress-phase transformation interactions: Basic principles modelization and their role in the calculation 805,814. of internal stresses. Material Science and Technology, Ericsson, T. (1982) Thermal and transformation stresses. In E. Kula and Residual stress and stress relaxation. Plenum, 19-38. V. Weiss (Eds.). Ericsson, T., S. sjZstrZm, M. Knuuttila and B. Hildenwall (1984) Predicting residual stresses in cases. In D. E. Diesburg (~d.) Case-hardened steels: microstructural and residual stress effects. Met. Soc. AIME, Warrendale. Ericsson, T., S.-C. Yao and M. Melander (1985) Residual stresses and microstructures in laser hardened medium and high carbon steel. In Proc. 4th Intern. Congress on Heat Treatment of Materials, Berlin, 702-733. Ericsson, T. (1985) Thermal and austenitic thermochemical surface hardening of steel. In A. Niku-Lari (Ed.) Advances in surface treatments, 2, Pergamon Press, Oxford. Godfrey, D. J., A. C. Hill and C. Hill (1981) A computer model for pulsed laser heating of device structures. Solid State Science and Techn., 1798-1803. Gnanamuthu, D. S. and C. B. Shaw (1979) Laser-solid interactions and laser processiang. In AIP Conference Proc. No. 50. Hildenwall. B. and T. Ericsson (1978) Prediction of residual stresses in case hardening steels. In Doane and J. Kirkaldy (~ds.) Hardenability concepts with application to steel. Met. Soc. AIME, Warrendale. Hildenwall, B. (1979) Prediction of the residual stresses created during quenching. LinkGping Studies in Science and Technology, Dissertation No. 39, Linkoping.

<

1,

Residual Stresses Hildenwall, B. and T Ericsson (1980) Residual stresses in the soft pearlite . 3-13. layer of carburized steel. J . Heat Treating, Ishii, K., M. Iwamoto, T. Shiraiwa and Y. Sakamoto (1971) Residual stress in the induction hardened surface of steel. SAE 710280. Soc. Automotive Eng. Kawasumi, H. (1981) Metal surfce hardening C04 laser. In Source book on applications of the laser in metalworking',American Soc. Metals, Metals Park, 185-194. Knuuttila, M. (1982) Computer controlled residual stress analysis and its appliction to carburized steel. Linkoping Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertation No. 81, Linkoping. Koch, M. (1982) . Eigenspannungen nach Nitrieren und Einsatzharz. In V. Hauk Eigenspannungen und Lastspannungen. Hanser and E Macherauch (Eds.). . Verlag, Munchen, 112-121. Koistinen, D. P. (1958) The distribution of residual stresses in carburized cases and their origin. Trans. ASM, 50, 227-241. Li, W.-B. (1984) Laser transformation hardening of steel surfaces. Doctoral thesis 1984:35D, Lulea University of Technology. Lilienthal, W. and J. Tacikowski (1980) Einfluss der warmebehandlung auf die Spr&digkeit von Boridschichten auf Stahlen. ~arterieTechnische Mitt., 2, 251-256. Magnusson, L. (1980) Cyclic behaviour of carburized steel. ~ i n k o ~ i n ~ Studies in Science and Technology, Dissertation No. 56, ~ i n k o ~ i n ~ . Motoyama, M. and H. Horisawa (1971) Residual stress measurements in casehardened steels. SAE 710281, Soc. Automotive Eng. Melander, M. (1983) Computer calculations of residual stresses due to induction hardening. In E. Macherauch and V. Hauk (Eds.) Eigenspannungen. EntstehungMessune-Bewertune. Deutsche Gesellschaft fur Metallkunde. Oberursel. " Melander, M. (1985a) A computational and experimental investigation of induction Studies in Science and Technology. and laser hardening. ~ i n k o ~ i n ~ Dissertation No. 124, Linkoping. Melander, M. and 8.-C. Yao (1985) Theoretical and experimental study of laser transformation hardening with a toric mirror. Surface Engineering. (in press). Melander, M. (1985b) Theoretical and experimental study of stationary and progressive induction hardening. J. of Heat Treating, 2 4, 145-166. Mittenmeijer, E. J . (1983) the relaxation between residual macro- and microstresses and mechanical properties of case-hardened steels. In D. E. Diesburg (Ed.) Case-hardened steels: microstructural and residual stress effects, Met. Soc. AIME, Warrendale, 161-187. Mittenmeijer, E. J . (1981) Gitterverzerrungen in nitriertem Eisen und Stahl. Harterei Technische Mitt., 2, 57-68. Oettel, H. and B. Ehrentraut (1985) Makroskopische Eigenspannungen in der Verbindungsschicht gasnitrierter Stahle. Harterei Technische Mitt., 40, 183187. Permyakov, V. G., L. Kh. Trush, A. N. Dorofeeva and A. V. Bilshenko (1969) Residual stresses in iron after nitriding, carburizing and boriding. Sovjet Materials Science, 2, 231-233. Rozendaal, H. C. F., P. F. Collijn and E. J. Mittenmeijer (1984) Morphology, composition and residual stresses of compound layers of nitrocarburized iron and steel. In Heat Treatment '84, Metals Society, London, 31.1-31.16. Rose. A. and H. P. Hou~ardv (1967) Transformation characteristics and - . hardenability of carburizing steels. In Transformation and hardenability in steels. Climax Molybdenum Comp. of Michigan. Sjostrom, S. (1982) The calculation of quench stresses in steel. ~ i n k o ~ i n ~ Studies in Science and Technology. Dissertations No. 81, Linkoping. SjGstrom, S. (1985) Interactions and constitutive models for the calculation of quench stresses in steel. Materials Science and Technology, 1,823-829. Yu, H. J. (1977) Berechnungen von Abkuhlungs-, Umvandlungs-, Schweiss-, Sorvie Verformungseigenspannungen mit Hilfe der Methode der Finiten Elemente. Dissertation ~niversitacKarlsruhe. Yao, S.-C., and M. Melander (1983) Laser hardening-literature review and investigation of steels SS 2244 and SS 2258. LiTH-IKP-R-320, Linkoping University.

1,