NOTA 1. Sumber elektrik dari sel elektrik mengubahkan tenaga kimia kepada tenaga keupayaan elektrik. 2.

Daya gerak elektrik (d.g.e) ialah keupayaan atau tenaga sesuatu punca erlektrik untuk menggerakkan cas-cas elektrik dari satu terminal ke terminal yang lain. 3. D.g.e. ditakrifkan sebagai jumlah tenaga yang dibekalkan oleh suatu sel untuk menggerakkan satu coulomb cas dari satu terminal ke terminal yang lain. 4. D.g.e juga boleh ditakrifkan sebagai bezakeupayaan yang merentasi sel dalam keadaan litar terbuka, iaitu semasa tiada arus mengalir. 5. Nilai bezakeupayaan yang dilabel pada satu sumber elektrik ialah daya gerak elektrik bagi sumber itu. 6. D.g.e boleh diukur dengan menggunakan sebuah voltmeter berintangan tinggi yang disambung secara terus kepada terminal terminal sel atau beteri itu. 7. Unit d.g.e ialah volt (V). 8. Beza keupayaan di antara dua titik ditakrifkan sebagai kerja yang dilakukan untuk menggerakkan satu unit cas diantara dua titik itu. 9. Perbezaan antara d.g.e dan bezakeupayaan:

http://www.tutor.com.my/tutor/arkib2002.asp?e=SPM&s=FZK&b=MEI&m=2&r=m&i=NO TA

STANDARD ELECTRODE POTENTIALS In an electrochemical cell, an electric potential is created between two dissimilar metals. This potential is a measure of the energy per unit charge which is available from the oxidation/reduction reactions to drive the reaction. It is customary to visualize the cell reaction in terms of two half-reactions, an oxidation half-reaction and a reduction half-reaction.

Reduced species -> oxidized species + ne- Oxidation at anode

Oxidized species + ne- -> reduced species Reduction at cathode The cell potential (often called the electromotive force or emf) has a contribution from the anode which is a measure of its ability to lose electrons - it will be called its "oxidation potential". The cathode has a contribution based on its ability to gain electeons, its "reduction potential". The cell potential can then be written Ecell = oxidation potential + reduction potential If we could tabulate the oxidation and reduction potentials of all available electrodes, then we could predict the cell potentials of voltaic cells created from any pair of electrodes. Actually, tabulating one or the other is sufficient, since the oxidation potential of a half-reaction is the negative of the reduction potential for the reverse of that reaction. Two main hurdles must be overcome to establish such a tabulation The electrode potential cannot be determined in isolation, but in a reaction with some other electrode. The electrode potential depends upon the concentrations of the substances, the temperature, and the pressure in the case of a gas electrode. In practice, the first of these hurdles is overcome by measuring the potentials with respect to a standard hydrogen electrode. It is the nature of electric potential that the zero of potential is arbitrary; it is the difference in potential which has practical consequence. Tabulating all electrode potentials with respect to the same standard electrode provides a practical working framework for a wide range of calculations and predictions. The standard hydrogen electrode is assigned a potential of zero volts. The second hurdle is overcome by choosing standard thermodynamic conditions for the measurement of the potentials. The standard electrode potentials are customarily determined at solute concentrations of 1 Molar, gas pressures of 1 atmosphere, and a

standard temperature which is usually 25C. The standard cell potential is denoted by a degree sign as a superscript. Measured against standard hydroden electrode. Concentration 1 Molar ECell Pressure 1 atmosphere Temperature 25C The example below shows some of the extreme values for standard cell potentials. Cathode (Reduction) Half-Reaction Li+(aq) + e- -> Li(s) K+(aq) + e- -> K(s) Ca2+(aq) + 2e- -> Ca(s) Na+(aq) + e- -> Na(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e- -> Zn(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e- -> Cu(s) Standard Potential E (volts) -3.04 -2.92 -2.76 -2.71 -0.76 0.34

O3(g) + 2H+(aq) + 2e- -> O2(g) + H2O(l) 2.07 F2(g) + 2e- -> 2F-(aq) 2.87

The values for the table entries are reduction potentials, so lithium at the top of the list has the most negative number, indicating that it is the strongest reducing agent. The strongest oxidizing agent is fluorine with the largest positive number for standard electrode potential. The link below takes you to a more extensive table.

http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/chemical/electrode.html

KEY CONCEPTS Electrolysis: the process in which an electric current is used to bring about a chemical reaction which does not occur spontaneously (Eo for the electrolytic cell is negative*). Electrolytic Cell: converts electrical energy into chemical energy. Applied emf must be greater than the emf for the cell, ie greater than Eo for the spontaneous redox reaction. Electrodes : conductors used to permit the flow of electrons in an electrochemical cell. One electrode is the anode, the other is the cathode. Anode: Oxidation occurs at the anode. Anions (negatively charged ions) migrate to the anode. Anode is positive. Anode disintegrates. Cathode: Reduction occurs at the cathode. Cations (positively charged ions) migrate to the cathode. Cathode is negative. Solid deposits at the cathode. Electron flow: from anode to cathode. Electrons flow from positive to negative. If more than one reaction is possible, the reaction with the lowest Eo will occur. Mass of substance produced electrolytically is proportional to the quantity of electricity flowing. Examples of Electrolysis and Electrolytic Cells http://www.ausetute.com.au/elecysis.html