Defining a Set Elements of a Set

A set is a group of items (in most cases) of the same kind. The items in a set are called the elements or members of a set. A set is well-defined when all its members can be listed. Examples of well-defined sets 1. A = the set of even numbers between 1 and 15 = {even numbers between 1 and 15} = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} 2. B = the set of multiples of 5 between 8 and 28 = {multiples of 5 between 8 and 28} = {10, 15, 20, 25} Note: 1. a set may be denoted by a capital letter (as shown above) 2. {} means the set of Example of elements of a set From example 1 above, A = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} Therefore: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 are all elements of set A. That is: 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14 A (Where the symbol means is an element of). The number of elements in set A is 7. That is, n(A) = 7 Where n(A) means the number of elements in set A

Finite and Infinite Sets

A finite set is one in which it is possible to list and count all the members of the set. Example D = {days of the week} = {Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday} And, n(D) = 7 An infinite set is one in which it is not possible to list and count all the members of the set. Example E = {even numbers greater than 9} = {10, 12, 14, } And, n(E) = infinite

Equal and Equivalent Sets

Two sets are equal if they both have the same members. Example If, F = {20, 60, 80} And, G = {80, 60, 20} Then, F=G, that is both sets are equal. Note: The order in which the members of a set are written does not matter. Two sets are equivalent if they have the same number of elements. Example If, F = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10} And, G = {10, 12, 18, 20, 22} Then, n(F)= n(G)= 5, that is, sets F and G are equivalent.

Empty Set
An empty set is a set which has no members. Example If, H = {the number of dinosaurs on earth} Then, H is an empty set. That is, H = {} Note: An empty set is denoted by the symbol {}

Subsets
A set N is a subset of a set X, if all the elements of N are contained in/members of the larger set X. Example If, X = {3, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 11, 13} And, N = {5, 11, 13} Then, N is a subset of X. That is, N X (where means is a subset of). Number of Subsets If, M = {a, b, c} Then, the subsets of M are: {a}, {b}, {c}, {a, b}, {a, c}, {b, c}, {a, b, c}, {} Therefore, the number of subsets, S = 8

And the formula, S = 2n Where, S is the number of sets And, n is the number of elements of the set Is the formula used to calculate the number of subsets of a given set. So from above, M = {a, b, c} S = 2n = 23 =2x2x2 =8 Note: Every set is a subset of itself, and the empty set is a subset of all sets.

Universal Set
This is the set from which all the elements being examined are members. The universal set is denoted by the symbol U. Example Using set builder notation, where {x:..} means the set of all x such that, If A = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} Then U = {x: x 0, x W} That is, the universal set, U = W, the set of whole numbers.

Intersection of Sets
The intersection of two sets is the listing of elements that are in both sets. The Venn diagram below shows A B, where means intersect.

Example If, U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16} A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12} B = {2, 10, 12, 14}

Then, A intersect B, A B = {10, 12} Note: A B = {4, 6, 8} and, A B = {2, 14}

Union of Sets
The union of two sets A and B is the set of elements that are in A or B, or both. The Venn diagram below shows A B.

Example If, U = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16} A = {4, 6, 8, 10, 12} B = {2, 10, 12, 14}

Then, A union B, A B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14} Note: (A B) = {16} And, (A B) = A B A B = {2, 4, 6, 8, 14, 16} And, A B = (A B)

Functions
A function is a relation in which each member of the domain (this is the set of x values) is mapped to only one member of the range (this is the set of y values), that is, a one to one mapping. A function is also defined in terms of a many to one mapping; this is where more than one x values in a domain are mapped to only one y value in a range. Example of a One to One mapping Using the equation, f(x) =5x + 2 Where, f(x) means the function of x is 5x + 2 And, y = f(x).

Recall the y values are obtained by substituting the domain values for x in the equation. That is, when x = 1 y = 5(1) + 2

y=7 Example of a Many to One mapping Using the equation, f(x) = 2x2 + 3x 2

Note: The x values are obtained by substituting the y values in the equation for f(x), that is, when y= -1, x= -1.78 or 0.28.

Relation vs Function
The difference between a function and a relation is that for a function each domain value (x value) should be matched to one and only one range value (y value), while for a relation the domain value can be matched to more than one range value. This difference is shown using an arrow diagram below, for the relation: y = 2 x, for x = 4, 9, 16

Note: The y values in the arrow diagram above, were obtained by substituting the respective x values in the equation, y = 2 x, for x.

Linear Functions
Linear functions are those of the form, f(x) = ax + c, where, a and c are integers, and linear means a straight line. Recall that, y = f(x) Therefore, y = ax + c Where, y is the dependent variable a is the coefficient of x x is the independent variable c is the constant term. Note also that, y = mx + c, equation of a line Therefore, y = ax + c = mx + c Where, m is the gradient of the line (ratio of the vertical rise over the horizontal run) c is the point at which the line intercepts the y axis. Having stated the form of linear functions, below is an example of how to draw linear functions.

Example Draw the graph of the linear function, f(x) = 3x + 2, for the domain -2 x 2. Method 1 Substitute the values given for x in the domain (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2), in the function, solving for the respective f(x)/ y values. Given, Then, f(x) = 3x + 2 f(-2) = 3(-2) + 2 = -6 + 2 = -4 f(-1) = 3(-1) + 2 = -3 + 2 = -1 f(0) = 3(0) + 2 = 0 + 2 = 2 f(1) = 3(1) + 2 = 3 + 2 = 5 f(2) = 3(2) + 2 = 6 + 2 = 8 Therefore, the set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the linear function are: {(-2, -4), (-1, -1), (0, 2), (1, 5), (2, 8)}

Method 2 This method involves finding the x and y intercepts, that is the point at which the graph crosses the x and y axis. A linear function written in its correct form, that is, f(x) = mx + c, states the y

intercept, c [in (x, y) form is (0, c)]. So, to find the x intercept, substitute 0 for y in the function and solve for x. Given, f(x) = 3x + 2

Y intercept (point of intersection on the y axis) is, (0, 2) X intercept (point of intersection on the x axis) is, y = f(x) y = 3x + 2 0 = 3x +2 3x = -2 x = -2/3 or -0.66 That is, x intercept is (-0.66, 0) Using the x and y intercepts, (-0.66, 0) and (0, 2), the graph is plotted below. (substituting 0 for y)

Quadratic Functions
Quadratic functions are those of the form, f(x) = ax2 + bx + c

Where, And,

a, b and c are all integers f(x) or y is the dependent variable

a is the coefficient of x2 b is the coefficient of x c is the y intercept x is the independent variable Example Draw the graph of the quadratic function, f(x) = x2 2x -3, for the domain -2 x 4. Solution: The set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the graph representing the quadratic function, parabola (a smooth curve), are found by substituting the values given for x in the domain (-2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3), in the function, solving for the respective f(x)/ y values. Given, Then, f(x) = x2 2x 3 f(-2) = (-2)2 2(-2) -3 = 4 + 4 3 = 5

f(-1) = (-1)2 2(-1) 3 = 1 + 2 -3 = 0 f(0) = (0)2 2(0) 3 = 0 0 3 = -3 f(1) = (1)2 2(1) 3 = 1 -2 3 = -4 f(2) = (2)2 2(2) 3 = 4 4 3 = -3 f(3) = (3)2 2(3) 3= 9 6 3 = 0 f(4) = (4)2 2(4) 3 = 16 8 3 = 5 Therefore the set of (x, y) values are: {(-2, 5), (-1, 0), (0, -3), (1, -4), (2, -3), (3, 0), (4, 5)} Please watch the video below to see how the graph is drawn.

Equation of a Line
Given the graph of the line

In this instance, the graph of a line is given and the question requires finding the equation of the line. Example

Find the equation of the line above. Solution: The equation of a straight line is, y = mx + c Recall, c is the y intercept (the point at which the graph crosses the y axis), which is the point (0, 2) That is, c = 2 Now substituting the (x, y) coordinates of any of the other four points on the graph, along with the value for c (2) in the equation, solve for m. That is, using the point (1, 5), substituting 1 for x, 5 for y, and 2 for c Yields, y = mx + c 5 = m (1) + 2 5=m+2 m=52

m=3 Therefore the equation of the straight line is: Y = 3x + 2 Given the co-ordinates of two points on the line If co-ordinates of two points on the line are given, and the question requires using those points to find the equation of the line, use one of the methods below. Example The points, M (-3, -5) and N (5, 3) lie on a straight line L2 . Find the particular equation of the line. Method 1 Substitute the co-ordinates of the points in two different equations, subtracting one equation from the other in solving for m and c. Using the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c Substituting (-3, -5) for x and y respectively -5 = m (-3) + c -5 = -3m + c - eq (1) Substituting (5, 3) for x and y respectively 3 = m (5) + c 3 = 5m + c eq (2) eq (2) eq (1) 3 (-5) = 5m (-3m) + c c 3 + 5 = 5m + 3m 8 = 8m m=1

Substituting m = 1 in eq (1) -5 = -3(1) + c -5 = -3 + c c = -5 + 3 c = -2 Hence the equation of L2 is: y = mx + c y = (1) x + (-2) y=x2 Method 2 Use the co-ordinates of the two points to find the gradient of the line (m), then using m and one of the points to substitute in the equation of a line to find c and hence the equation of the line L2 . Gradient, m = y2 y1/ x2 x1 Recall, M (-3, -5) N (5, 3) m = 3 (-5)/ 5 (-3) m=3+5/5+3 m=8/8 m=1 Using, m = 1 and N (5, 3) to substitute in the equation of a line: y = mx + c 3 = 1 (5) + c 3=5+c c=35 c = -2

Therefore, the equation of L2 is: y=x2 Given the gradient and one point on the line Substitute the given quantities into the equation of a line, solving for c, and hence the equation of the line L2. Given, m = 1 N (5, 3) Then, y = mx + c 3 = 1(5) + c 3=5+c c = -2 Therefore the equation of L2 is: y=x2 Note: The above is the same as Method 2 (with gradient given).

Pie Charts
A Pie chart is a circular diagram divided into sectors, with the size of each sector representing the magnitude of data it is depicting. Each sector of a pie chart can either be displayed in

percentages (note all sectors must add up to 100%) or as an angle (note all sectors must add up to 360o). Example The table below lists some of the most popular football clubs and the number of students at a given institution that supports each. Use a Pie chart to represent the information given in the table. Football Clubs Chelsea Manchester United Barcelona Real Madrid Inter Milan Arsenal Liverpool AC Milan Number of Students 50 200 350 150 25 100 40 75

The Pie Chart above depicts each sector as percentages. To calculate the percentages for each sector use the formula below: % of a sector = Number of students Total number of students So, to calculate the percentage of Chelsea fans: % of Chelsea fans = 50 990 % of Chelsea fans = 5% x 100 x 100

For Pie charts which depicts each sector as angles, the angles for each sector is found using the formula below: Angle of a sector = Number of students Total number of students So, to calculate the angle of the Chelsea sector: Angle of Chelsea sector = 50 x 990 Angle of Chelsea sector = 18o 360 x 360

Note: In most cases the questions set on Pie charts require those drawn depicting sectors in percentages.

Line Graphs
Line graphs are mostly used in depicting trends, and as such, values are in most cases plotted against time. A line graph is drawn by connecting a line to consecutive values, with a circle/point made at each value being depicted. Example The table below lists the amount of Toyota motor vehicles produced in the month of April over the period 2000- 2010. Year 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 Number of Toyota Motor Vehicles Produced 220,382 260,879 213,546 238,890 227,678 245,376 240,224 224,100 258,100 248,024 249,123

Histograms
A histogram is quite similar to Bar charts in that they both have rectangular bars. However, with Histograms the bars can be of different widths, there are no spaces between each (as there is a standard scale on the horizontal axis i.e 1, 2 etc) and the bars must be vertical. The height of each bar is equal to the frequency which it represents. Example The table below lists the number of goals Chelsea scored in the first 6 matches of the 2009/2010 Barclays English Premier League Season. Match # 1 Goals Scored 2 2 3 3 2 4 3 5 2 6 3

Frequency Polygon
A Frequency Polygon is an alternative to histograms, as it also used in representing the frequency of an event. It is a line graph, joining consecutive points. Note: If drawn over a Histogram, each point on the frequency polygon is the mid-point of the top of each respective bar. Example The table below displays the results of a survey of 70 persons, providing their favourite number from the list 1-9. Numbers 1 Frequency 0 2 5 3 9 4 14 5 20 6 10 7 7 8 5 9 0

Relations, Functions and Graphs Quiz #1

Question 1 Draw the graph of the following relations using suitable scales. (i) x = 4 (ii) x = 2.5 Solutions: (i) (iii) y = -5 (iv) y = 6

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)

Question 2 Draw the graphs of the linear functions:

(i) f(x) = 2x + 3 (ii) f(x) = 6x for the domain -1 x 2. Solutions: (i) Substitute the values given for x in the domain (-1, 0, 1, 2), in the function, solving for the respective f(x)/y values. Given, f(x) = 2x + 3

f(-1) = 2(-1) + 3 = -2 + 3 = 1 f(0) = 2(0) + 3 = 0 + 3 = 3 f(1) = 2(1) + 3 = 2 + 3 = 5 f(2) = 2(2) + 3 = 4 + 3 = 7 Therefore, the set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the linear function are: {(-1, 1), (0, 3), (1, 5), (2, 7)}.

(ii) Substitute the values given for x in the domain (-1, 0, 1, 2), in the function, solving for the respective f(x)/y values. Given, f(x) = 6x

f(-1) = 6(-1) = -6 f(0) = 6(0) = 0 f(1) = 6(1) = 6 f(2) = 6(2) = 12 Therefore, the set of (x, y) values to be plotted and connected in forming the linear function are: {(-1, -6), (0, 0), (1, 6), (2, 12)}.

Question 3 Find the equation of the line which passes through the points A (2, 4) and B (8, 10). Solution: Using the equation of a straight line: y = mx + c Substituting (2, 4) for x and y respectively 4 = m(2) + c 4 = 2m + c - eq(1) Substituting (8, 10) for x and y respectively 10 = m(8) + c

10 = 8m + c- eq(2) eq(2) eq(1) 10 4 = 8m 2m + c c 6 = 6m m=1 Substituting m = 1 in eq(1) 4 = 2m + c 4 = 2(1) + c 4=2+c c=42 c=2 Hence the equation of the line passing through points A (2, 4) and B (8, 10) is: y = mx + c y = (1)x + (2) y=x+2 Question 4 The data below are the sizes (to the nearest inch) of the waists of 30 students in a class. 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 24 25 26 26 26 26 26 26 26 27 27 27 27 27 28 28

(a) Copy and complete the frequency table below.

Size of Waist (Inch) 20 21 22 23 ____ 25 26 ____ 28

Frequency ____ 4 ____ 3 2 ____ ____ 5 2

(b) Draw a Frequency Polygon for the information presented above. Solutions: (a) Size of Waist (Inch) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 (b) Frequency 3 4 3 3 2 1 7 5 2

Computation BODMAS
BODMAS is the acronym for the order in which arithmetic operations are carried out. This acronym states that given a problem to solve, work out the: B brackets, M multiplication, D division, A addition and S subtraction of quantities in that order. Note: Do multiplication and division, in the order they appear from left to right.

Whole Numbers
This section illustrates how to compute the addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole numbers. Addition Add the numbers 584 and 646.

Procedure: In addition, we add from right to left. So for the problem above, we start with the extreme right column. The numbers in that column are 6 and 4; when added 6 + 4 = 10, the zero is written below the line in the column (extreme right column) and the 1 (highlighted blue) is added to the numbers in the middle column. Next, the numbers in the middle column, 8 & 4, are added to 1(highlighted blue); 8 + 4 + 1 = 13. The 3 is written below the line in the middle column and the 1 (highlighted red) is added to the numbers in the left column. Lastly, the numbers in the left column, 5 & 6, are added to 1 (highlighted red); 5 + 6 + 1 = 12. The 12 is then written below the line. That is, 584 + 646 = 1230. Subtraction Subtract 342 from 864.

Procedure: When subtracting, subtract from right to left. For the problem above, start with the extreme right column. The numbers in that column are 4 & 2; 4 2 = 2, 2 is written below the line in the extreme right column. Next, subtract the numbers in the middle column; 6 4 = 2, 2 is written below the line in the middle column. Lastly, subtract the numbers in the left column; 8 3 = 5. 5 is written below the line in the left column. Multiplication Multiply 462 by 246.

Procedure: When multiplying, multiply the top number (in this case 462) by each of the numbers in the bottom number (in this case 246), starting with the number to the extreme right. The number to the extreme right in the bottom number is 6. On multiplying, 462 x 6 = 2772 is the result. 2772 is written below the line. Next, 462 is multiplied by 4: 462 x 4 = 1848, 0 is added to the right of 1848, resulting in 18480(the amount of zeros added is determined by the amount of numbers to the right of the number in the bottom row being used, in this case 1 number is to the right of 4 i.e. 6). 18480 is written below 2772. Next, 462 is multiplied by 2: 462 x 2 = 924, two zeros is then added to 924 (as there are two numbers to the right of 2 i.e. 4 & 6) resulting in, 92400. 92400 is then written below 18480. Lastly, 2772, 18480 and 92400 are added, equalling to 113652.

Division Divide 4350 by 5.

Procedure: Since 4 is not divisible by 5, zero (0) is written above 4. 43 is then divided by 5: 5 goes into 43, 8 times, 8 is above 3. 5 multiplied by 8 is 40, 40 is then subtracted from 43, which yields 3. 3 is not divisible by 5, and hence 5 is taken down (follow arrow) to make 35. 35 is then divided by 5, which yields 7. 7 is then written above 5: 7 multiplied 5 is 35, this 35 is then subtracted from 35, yielding 0. Lastly 0 is taken down (follow arrow). 0 divided by 5 is 0, o is therefore written above 0. So, 4350 divided 5 is 870. Combining them altogether The example below, is of a problem that combines the use of addition, subtract, multiplication and division. Example

Fractions
A fraction is a number written in the form , where 3 is called the numerator and 5 the denominator. There are two types of fractions, common and improper fractions. A common fraction is one whose numerator is less than the denominator; hence, all common fractions are less than 1. An improper fraction is one whose numerator is greater than the denominator; hence, all improper fractions are greater than 1. Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)

The lowest common multiple (L.C.M.) of a group of numbers is the lowest number that can be divided by each number in the group, without leaving a remainder. Example What is the L.C.M. of the numbers 3, 5 and 8?

Addition If the denominators of two fractions to be added are the same, then add the numerators and place it over the denominator. Example Add the fractions:

If the denominators are different, then the L.C.M, the lowest common multiple, has to be found. On determining the L.C.M, divide it by each of the denominators, multiply the quotient by the respective numerators and then add the amounts, placing the result over the L.C.M. Example Add the fractions:

Subtraction If the denominators of two fractions to be subtracted are the same, then add the numerators and place it over the denominator. Example Subtract the fractions:

If the denominators are different, then the L.C.M, the lowest common multiple, has to be found. On determining the L.C.M, divide it by each of the denominators, multiply the quotient by the respective numerators and then subtract the amounts, placing the result over the L.C.M. Example Subtract the fractions:

Multiplication When multiplying, it is best to firstly cancel the fractions into their lowest form. Fractions are cancelled by dividing denominators by numerators, or by dividing numerators by denominators. Example Multiply the fractions:

Division When dividing: invert (inter change the numerator and the denominator: ) the fraction after the division sign, change the division sign to a multiplication sign, cancel the fractions, then multiply. Example Simplify:

Decimals
Decimals consist of a whole number and a decimal fraction. Decimal 7.8 =7 = Whole number + 0.8 + Decimal fraction

Decimal fractions are numbers written after decimal points; example, .8 is a decimal fraction. The numbers after the decimal point are actually the numerators of a fraction, with the denominator having as much zeros as there are numbers in the numerator. For example, the decimal fraction .8, is Addition Simplify: as a fraction; 0.73, is .

Subtraction Simplify:

Multiplication

The procedure for multiplying decimals is the same as multiplying whole numbers. On completing the multiplication, the next step is to determine where the decimal point should be placed; count the amount of numbers behind the decimal point in the numbers multiplied, that amount, is the number of places that should be behind the decimal point in the product. Example Simplify:

Division Before dividing, do the following: (1) Turn the divisor (the number that is doing the dividing) into a whole number by moving the decimal point to the right of the last number. (2) Move the decimal point of the number being divided to the right, by the same amount of places as the divisor was moved. On completing, carry out the division placing the decimal point in the quotient, at the exact point where it is in the number being divided. Example Simplify:

Conversions between Rational Numbers

Fractions to Decimals Method 1 To convert a fraction to a decimal, divide the numerator by the denominator.

Example

Procedure: is similar to normal division except, since 8 goes into 4 zero times, a decimal point is placed after the zero and a zero added to 4 turning it into 40. Method 2 Step 1: Find a number that when multiplied by the denominator, results in a product of 10, 100, 1000 or any number with a 1 followed by zeros. Step 2: Multiply both the numerator and denominator by that number. Step 3: Write down the new numerator, putting a decimal point one place to the right for every zero in the new denominator. Example

Decimals to Fractions To convert a decimal to a fraction, use the method outlined below. Example

Fractions to Percentages To convert a fraction to a decimal, multiply the fraction by 100. Example

Percentages to Fractions To convert a percentage into a fraction, follow the steps outlined below. Step 1: Divide the percentage by 100. Step 2: This step applies only if the percentage is not a whole number. In this case, multiply the numerator and the denominator by 10 for every digit after the decimal point (if a number has 2 digits after the decimal point, multiply by 100: 3 digits, multiply by 1000 etc). Step 3: Reduce the fraction into its simplest form.

Examples

Decimals to Percentages To convert a decimal into a percentage, move the decimal point two places to the right (which is the same as multiplying by 100) and add the percentage sign. Example Convert 0.728 into a percentage.

Percentage to Decimal To convert a percentage into a decimal, move the decimal point two places to the left (divide by 100) and remove the percentage sign. Example Convert 43.2% into a decimal.

Significant Figures
To approximate a number to a given amount of significant figures, follow the instructions outlined in the example below. Example

It should be noted that the first significant figure cannot be zero. Example

Decimal Places
To approximate a number to a given amount of decimal places follow the instructions outlined in the example below. Example

Standard Form
Numbers written in the form; A x 10n Where, 1 A 10, are in Standard Form. When writing a number in standard form: Step 1: Write the number in the form A. That is, turn the number into a number greater than or equal to 1, and/or less than or equal to 10. This is done by moving the decimal point either to the right or to the left. Step 2: Multiply the number attained above by 10 for each place moved to the left, and by each place moved to the right. Step 3: Write the number in the form A x 10n. Example Write the following numbers in standard form: (i) 243 876 (ii) 0.000487652 for

Percentage or Fraction of a Quantity

To find the percentage of a quantity, express the percentage as a fraction (write the percentage given over 100) and multiply by the quantity. Example What is 40% of 500?

To find the fraction of a given quantity, multiply the fraction by the quantity. Example

A Quantity as a Percentage or Fraction of Another

To express a quantity as a percentage of another quantity, divide the first quantity by the second and multiply by 100. Example

Express 80 as a percentage of 960.

To express a quantity as a fraction of another, write the first quantity over the second and simplify. Example Express 48 as a fraction of 144.

Ratio
A ratio is a comparison between similar quantities, hence it is absolutely necessary to convert quantities to the same units, currency etc. before expressing them as a ratio. A ratio can be expressed as a fraction, Example In a class of 50 students, students play either football or basketball. 24 students play football. Find the ratio of: (i) (ii) football players : total number of students football players : basketball players. , or in the form n : d, where, : means to.

Square of a Number
The square of a number is the number multiplied by itself. Example

Square Root
The square root of a number x, is defined as that number which when multiplied by itself yields the number x. Example

Average
The average or mean of a set of numbers is defined by the formula:

Example

Computation Quiz #1
Question 1 Simplify (20 2) + 12 4 x 3 Solution:

Question 2 Calculate the exact value of:

Solution:

Question 3 Correct to 3 significant figures, the value of 0.64 x 2.24. Solution:

Question 4 What is 20% of 50 x 100? Solution:

Question 5

What is the ratio of the square of 2 : the square root of 64? Solution:

Number Theory Types of Numbers

Natural Numbers The set of natural numbers is represented by the symbol N, and is defined as the set of counting numbers. That is, the set of natural numbers, N = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5,.}. Note, zero is not a natural number. The set of even and odd numbers are two types of natural numbers. Even numbers are those which are exactly divisible by 2. That is, the set of even numbers = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12,} Odd numbers are those which are not exactly divisible by 2. That is, the set of odd numbers = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15,} Whole Numbers The set of whole numbers is represented by the symbol W, and is defined as the set of natural numbers including zero. That is, the set of whole numbers, W = {0, 1 , 2, 3, 4, 5.}. Integers

The set of integers is represented by the symbol Z, and is defined as the set of whole numbers and the negatives. That is, the set of integers, Z = { -5, -4, -3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5} Note zero is neither positive nor negative. Positive integers are defined as being prime or composite numbers. Prime numbers are numbers which have only two factors (1 and itself). That is, the set of prime numbers = {2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19}. Note: 1 is not a prime number since it only has one factor (itself). Composite numbers are numbers which have more than two factors (can be divided by other numbers apart from 1 and itself). That is, the set of composite numbers = {4, 6, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14, 15, 16}. Rational Numbers The set of rational numbers is represented by the symbol Q, and is defined as the set of numbers (whether positive or negative) which can be written as fractions. A fraction is a number written in the form , where n is the numerator, d is the denominator, and both n and d are integers.

Examples of rational numbers:

That is, the set of rational numbers, Q = { Irrational Numbers

: n and d are integers}

The set of irrational numbers is represented by the symbol I, and is defined as the set of numbers which cannot be expressed as fractions. Examples of irrational numbers: 3, 99, =3.14159 Real Numbers The set of real numbers is represented by the symbol R, and is defined as the set of rational and irrational numbers.

That is, the set of real numbers, R = {rational and irrational numbers} Relationship between the types of numbers On reading the definitions of the respective types of numbers, a relationship should become apparent. This relationship is that: The set of natural numbers is a subset of the set of whole numbers; the set of whole numbers is a subset of the set of integers; the set of integers is a subset of the set of rational numbers; the set of rational numbers is a subset of the set of real numbers. The above relationship written in terms of symbols is: NWZQR Where, means a subset of.

Highest Common Factor (H.C.F.)

The highest common factor (H.C.F.) of a group of numbers is the largest natural number which divides into each number exactly, that is, without leaving a remainder. Example What is the H.C.F. of the numbers 12 and 28?

Lowest Common Multiple (L.C.M.)

The lowest common multiple (L.C.M.) of a group of numbers is the lowest number that can be divided by each number in the group, without leaving a remainder.

Example What is the L.C.M. of the numbers 3, 5 and 8?

The Identity of Operations

The identity of an operation is defined as an action which results in the number being manipulated, remaining unchanged. The identity for an addition and a subtraction is zero. If zero is added to or subtracted from a number, then the sum/difference obtained is that number. Example

The identity for a multiplication and a division is one. If a number is multiplied or divided by one, the product/quotient obtained is that number. Example

The Inverse of Operations

Recall the identity of a number under addition is zero. The inverse of a number x under addition, is a number which when added to x results in zero being the sum. Example

Recall the identity of a number under multiplication is one. The inverse of a number x under multiplication, is a number which when multiplied by x results in one as the product. Example

Associative Law
The associative law addresses the grouping of numbers, and states that the sum/product obtained in an addition/multiplication is not dependent on how the numbers are grouped. That is for additions: (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Example

For multiplication:

(a x b) x c = a x (b x c) Example

Commutative Law
The commutative law addresses the order in which an operation is completed, and states that numbers can be swapped and the sum/product remains the same in an addition/multiplication. That is for additions: a+b=b+a Example

For multiplication: axb=bxa Example

Distributive Law
The distributive law is summarised by the identity below: (a + b) x c = a x c + b x c Example

Number Theory Quiz #1

Question 1 Find the H.C.F of: 12, 24, 60 Solution: Factors of 12 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 12} Factors of 24 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 12, 24} Factors of 60 = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 20, 30, 60} Therefore, the H.C.F. = 12 Question 2 Find the inverse of: (a) 10

Under addition. (b) -5

Under multiplication. Solutions: (a) The inverse of 10: 10 + x = 0 x = -10 i.e. the inverse is, -10.

(b) The inverse of -5:

Question 3 Write an identity that summarizes the: (i) Associative law (addition). (ii) Commutative law (multiplication). (iii) Distributive law. Solutions: (i) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) Recall, the Associative law states that the sum/product obtained in an addition/multiplication is not dependent on how the numbers are grouped. (ii) axb=bxa Recall, the Commutative law states that numbers can be swapped and the sum/product remains the same in an addition/multiplication. (iii) (a + b) x c = a x c + b x c

Measurement Converting Units

Converting Units within SI system

Length

Area

Volume

Distance

Area
This section is catered to finding the area enclosed by rectangles, squares, triangles, parallelograms, trapeziums, and circles. Rectangle The area of a rectangle, A = Lw Where, L is the length of the rectangle And, w is the width of the rectangle.

Example

Square Squares are special cases of rectangles. All the sides of a square are equal. The area of a square, A = L2 Where, L is the length of a side of the square.

Example

Triangle The area of a triangle, Where, b is length of the base of the triangle

And, h is the height of the triangle.

Example

Parallelogram The area of a parallelogram, A = bh Where, b is the length of the base of the parallelogram And, h is the perpendicular height of the parallelogram.

Example

Trapezium The area of a trapezium, Where, a is the length of one parallel side of the trapezium b is the length of the second parallel side of the trapezium And, h is the perpendicular height (distance between the 2 parallel sides) of the trapezium.

Example

Circle The area of a circle, A = r2 Where, r is the radius of the circle And, is 3.142 or

Example

Area, A = r2

Perimeter
This section is centred on finding the perimeter (the total distance around) of figures. Rectangle The perimeter of a rectangle, P = L + w + L + w = 2(L + w) Where, L is the length of the rectangle And, w is the width of the rectangle.

Example

Square The perimeter of a square, P = L + L + L + L = 4L

Where, L is the length of a side of the square.

Example

Triangle The perimeter of a triangle, P = the sum of all the sides.

Example

Circle The perimeter of a circle is called its circumference. The circumference of a circle, C = 2r or d Where, r is the radius of the circle d is the diameter of the circle And, is 3.142 or .

Example

Perimeter, P = 2r

Area of a Sector and Arc Length

The sector of a circle is the portion enclosed by two radii and an arc. The smaller area is called the minor sector and the larger area, the major sector.

As seen in the diagram above, the arc length of the minor sector (minor arc), is the portion of the circumference of the circle which spans the minor sector. The area of the sector of a circle, A = r2 The length of the arc, L = 2r

Example

Arc length, L = 2r

Surface Area
The surface area of a figure, is the total area of all the sides of the figure. Triangular Prism(Right Angle Triangle)

To find the surface area of the prism above, follow the steps below. Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: Divide the figure into smaller shapes. Find the area of each smaller shape. Add the areas of each smaller shape.

A right-angle triangle prisim can be divided into five smaller shapes; two right angle triangles and three rectangles. Example Find the surface area of the prism below.

Pyramid A pyramid is an object which has: a straight sided shape base (a squared, rectangular, trianglular base etc) and triangular sides which meet at the top (called the apex).

Example

Cylinder

To find the surface area of the cylinder above, follow the steps below.

Step 1: Step 2: Step 3:

Divide the figure into smaller shapes. Find the area of each smaller shape. Add the areas of each smaller shape.

A cylinder can be divided into three segements: two circles and a curved surface area. The area of a circle, A = r2 Since there are two circles in a cylinder, multiply the abover formula by 2, that is: The area of the circles, A = 2r2 The curved surface area, C.S.A. = 2rh The area of a cylinder, A = Area of the circles + C.S.A. = 2r2 + 2rh = 2r (r + h) Example

Cube A cube has 6 sides (faces) of the same surface area. Each side (face) of the cube are squares. Recall, the area of a square, A = L2 .

The surface area of a cube, A = 6L2 Where, L is the length of a side of the cube(all the sides of a cube are the same length). Example

Cuboid

The surface area of a cuboid, A = 2Lw + 2 Lh + 2wh Where, L is the length of the cuboid w is the width of the cuboid And, Example h is the height of the cuboid.

Sphere A sphere is a three-dimensional object (such as a ball or the earth) with every point on the surface equidistant (halfway from) from the center. The surface area of a sphere, A = 4r2 Where, r is the radius of the sphere.

Example

Surface Area of a sphere, A = 4 r2

Volume
Triangular Prism(Right Angle Triangle)

The volume of a triangular prism, V = AL Where, A is the area of the cross-section of the prism.That is the area of one of the triangles,

And,

L is the length of the triangular prism.

Example

Pyramid A pyramid is an object which has: a straight sided shape base (a squared, rectangular, trianglular base etc) and triangular sides which meet at the top (called the apex).

The volume of a pyramid, V = Where, A is the area of the base of the pyramid And, h is the perpendicular height of the pyramid.

Example

Cylinder

The volume of a cylinder, V = r2h Where, r2 is the area of the circular cross-section And, h is the height of the cylinder.

Example

Volume of a cylinder, V = r2h

Cube

The volume of a cube , V = L3 Where, L is the length of a side of the cube. Example

Cuboid

The volume of a cuboid, V = Lwh Where, L is the length of the cuboid

w is the width of the cuboid And, h is the height of the cuboid.

Sphere A sphere is a three-dimensional object (such as a ball or the earth) with every point on the surface equidistant (halfway from) from the center. The volume of a sphere, V = r3

Where, r is the radius of the sphere.

Example

Volume of a sphere, V =

r3

Time, Distance and Speed

Time Time is the measurement of an instant which happens in the past, present or future, in hours and or minutes past midnight or noon. The units of time and their abbreviations are listed below: day = d h min s 1 day = 60 minutes 60 seconds 24 hours

hour = minute = second = Note: 1 hour = 1 minute =

Time is stated either by using a 12- hour clock (AM/PM) or by using a 24- hour clock (hrs). The table below shows a comparison between a 12 hour and 24 hour clock, and can be useful when converting time between the two clocks.

12 Hour Clock (AM/PM) 12 Midnight 1:00 AM 2:00 AM 3:00 AM 4:00 AM 5:00 AM 6:00 AM 7:00 AM 8:00 AM 9:00 AM 10:00 AM 11:00 AM 12 Noon 1:00 PM 2:00 PM 3:00 PM 4:00 PM 5:00 PM 6:00 PM 7:00 PM 8:00 PM 9:00 PM 10:00 PM 11:00 PM

24 Hour Clock (hrs) 00:00 hrs 01:00 hrs 02:00 hrs 03:00 hrs 04:00 hrs 05:00 hrs 06:00 hrs 07:00 hrs 08:00 hrs 09:00 hrs 10:00 hrs 11:00 hrs 12:00 hrs 13:00 hrs 14:00 hrs 15:00 hrs 16:00 hrs 17:00 hrs 18:00 hrs 19:00 hrs 20:00 hrs 21:00 hrs 22:00 hrs 23:00 hrs

Below are examples of converting time from the 24-hour clock to the 12-hour clock, and from the 12-hour clock to the 24-hour clock. Examples

The most frequently asked questions in relation to time, are on finding the time taken/time difference. Example

Average Speed Average speed is defined as the average distance travelled per unit of time.

Examples

Measurement Quiz #1
Question 1

If the area of the lined region is 300cm2, what is the value of x in cm? Solutions:

Question 2 Find the perimeter of the figure below.

Solution: Perimeter is the total distance around the figure. Therefore, Perimeter = 10cm + 5cm + 5cm + 7cm + 8cm + 8cm + 2cm + 2cm + 2cm + 5cm = 54cm

Question 3

Find the area of the sector and the arc length. Solution: The area of the sector, A =

Arc length, L =

Question 4 Find the surface area of :

(i)

(ii) Solutions: (i)

(ii)

Question 5 Find the volume of:

(i)

(ii) Solutions: (i)

(ii)

Question 6 A bus travels 12hrs at an average speed of 50km/h. What distance did the bus travel? Solution:

Algebra Algebraic Expressions

x2 + 6x + 9 Above is an example of an algebraic expression. Algebraic expressions are expressions which contain terms, variables and coefficients, and constants. Terms Terms are the elements in an algebraic expression, separated by the arithmetic signs.

Example

A term may consist of variables and coefficients, or a constant. Variables The letters in a term (by extension, algebraic expression) are called variables. Example

Coefficients Coefficients are the numbers before variables. Example

Constants Constants are the terms that contain numbers only. Example

onducting Operations on Algebraic Expressions

Addition and Subtraction When adding, and subtracting algebraic expressions follow the steps below: Step 1: Group like terms (like terms are those with the same variables). Only like terms can be added and subtracted. Step 2: Add or subtract the coefficients of the grouped like terms. Examples

Multiplication and Division The rules for the multiplication and division of positive and negative numbers:

When multiplying algebraic expressions, follow the steps below: Step 1: List the coefficients and variables of each term separately. Step 2: Multiply the coefficients and constants. Step 3: Multiply the variables. Note when multiplying variables:

Examples

When dividing algebraic expressions, follow the steps below: Step 1: List the coefficients and variables of each term separately.

Step 2: Divide the product of the coefficients and constants in the numerator, by the product of the coefficients and constants in the denominator. Step 3: Cancel the like variables in the numerator, by those in the denominator. Examples

Substituting Numbers for Algebraic Symbols

Algebraic symbols are the variables in an algebraic expression. The values of algebraic expressions are obtained by substituting numbers in place of variables, and simplifying. Examples

Translating Verbal Phrases in to Algebraic Expressions

Before attempting to translate verbal phrases in to algebraic expressions, the following terminologies and their meanings must be known:

Terminologies Signs/Meanings Equals, is, adds up to = Times, product, of, multiplied by x Divided by, quotient, per, out of Plus, added to, sum, and, total, combined+ Minus, less than, subtracted from, difference between, less than Examples

Binary Operations
A binary operation is one which takes two elements (no more, no less) and combines them into one. Examples

In algebra, symbols are used to represent and perform operations on binary. Examples

Removing and Inserting Brackets

Removing Brackets The distributive law is used when removing brackets. It is summarised by the identity below: (a + b) c = a x c + b x c The distributive law basically states that when removing a bracket, use the term outside the bracket to multiply each term in the bracket. Examples

Inserting Brackets The distributive law is also used to insert brackets. However, when inserting brackets, the law is used in reverse.

The distributive law in reverse is a means of factorizing. Factorization is the breakdown of numbers into factors, which when multiplied yields the original numbers. When factorizing using the distributive law, follow the steps below. Step 1: Write the variables and coefficients (if any) common to all the terms outside the brackets. Step 2: Divide each term by the term placed outside the brackets in step 1, placing the quotient of the divisions inside the brackets. Examples

Indices
Before attempting to simplify expressions with indices (powers), revisiting the laws of indices is always advised. The laws of indices:

Examples

Linear Equations
A linear equation by definition is an equation which when graphed produces a straight line. The following are two examples of linear equations with one unknown:

When solving linear equations with one unknown: Step 1: Place the unknown variables on the left hand side of the equal sign, and the numbers on the right hand side of the equal sign. Note:

- To move a positive number from one side of the equal sign, to the other, subtract the number from both sides.

- To move a negative number from one side of the equal sign, to the other, add the number to both sides.

- If the coefficient of the unknown variable is multiplying it, divide both sides by the coefficient.

Step 2: Solve for the unknown variable. Examples

Previous | Next imultaneous Linear Equations

Simultaneous equations are two or more equations, with the same unknowns (variables) and solutions. They are solved by using one of two methods: Elimination or Substitution. Below are examples of simultaneous equations.

Elimination In this method, the first objective is to eliminate one of the two unknowns (variables). This is done by: 1. Adding the equations. This procedure is carried out if the coefficients of one of the unknowns are the same, but they have different signs.

2. Subtracting the equations. This is done if the coefficients of one of the unknowns are the same and have the same sign.

3. Multiply one or both equations by a number(s) then add or subtract. If the coefficients of one of the unknowns are not the same, multiply one or both equation by a number(s) which will make the coefficients of one of the unknowns the same. Then, add or subtract the equations (depending on if they satisfy #1 or #2 above).

Having eliminated one of the unknowns, solve for the value of the remaining unknown. On finding its value, substitute it in one of the two equations, and solve for the value of the remaining unknown.

Example

Note: Re-visit the rules in carrying numbers across the equal sign in Linear Equations (with one unknown), if needs be. Substitution To use the method of substitution when solving simultaneous equations, follow the steps listed below, illustrated using the simultaneous equations:

Step 1: Using one of the equations, make one of the unknowns the subject of that equation (that is, have it alone on one side of the equal sign).

Step 2: Substitute the value of the subject in the other equation and solve for the value of the remaining unknown.

Step 3: Solve for the unknown which was made the subject, by substituting the value obtained in step 2 in the equation made by the subject.

Example

Linear Inequality
All the rules governing the solution of linear equations apply to the solution of linear inequalities, except for the differences listed below: 1. Inequalities do not have equal signs. They are represented by the signs: < which means, less than; which means, less than or equal to; > which means, greater than; which means, greater than or equal to. 2. When an inequality is multiplied or divided by a negative number the sign changes. That is, a < (less than) sign would change to a > (greater than) sign, a (greater than or equal to) sign would change to a (less than or equal to) sign etc. 3. The solution of an inequality is a range, which can be drawn on a number line, and is therefore written as a solution set. Examples Solve the following linear inequalities: (a) (b) x+79 x + 2 < 10 x

Solutions: (a) x+79 x+7797 x2 That is, {x: x 2}

(b) x + 2 < 10 x x + x + 2 < 10 x + x 2x + 2 -2 < 10 2 2x < 8 x<4 That is, {x: x < 4}

Algebra Quiz #1
Question 1 Simplify (a) (b) 2x4y2 + 8xy2 4x3y

Solutions: (a)

(b) 2x4y2 + 8xy2 4x3y Note: Only like terms can be added and or subtracted, there are no like terms in the Algebraic expression above. Question 2 (a) Given m = 4, n = -3 Calculate, (3m + n) (2m 2) (b) Find x*y = 4x 3y 6*4

Solutions: (a) (3m + n) (2m 2) = (3 (4) + (-3) ) (2 (4) 2) = (12 3) (8 2) = (9) (6) = 54 (b) 6*4 = = 4(6) 3(4) 4x 3y

= =

24 12 12

Question 3 Factorize Completely (a) 16p + 2q (b) 169a2 13a Solutions: (a) 16p + 2q = (b) 169a2 13a = 13a(13a 1) Question 4 Simplify: (a) (b) (53)2 b1/4 2(8p + q)

Solutions: (a) (53)2 = (b) = 56 53x2

Question 5 Solve the Simultaneous equations: 5y + 6x = 28 2y + 3x = 13 Solution: 5y + 6x = 28 > Eq. 1 2y + 3x = 13 > Eq. 2 Multiply Eq. 2 by 2. 2(2y + 3x = 13) 4y + 6x = 26 > New Eq. 2 Eq.1 New Eq.2 5y 4y + 6x 6x = 28 26 y=2 Substitute 2 for y in Eq.1 5y + 6x = 28 5(2) + 6x = 28 10 + 6x = 28 6x = 28 10 6x = 18

x=3 That is, x = 3 and y = 2

Geometry Types and Properties of Angles

Straight Angles Angles which measure exactly 180 (degrees) are straight angles. Therefore, straight angles are straight lines. Angles are represented by the sign , called theta. That is, for straight angles, = 180.

Right Angles Angles which measure exactly 90 are right angles, that is, = 90.

Obtuse Angles Obtuse angles are those which are greater than 90 but less than 180, that is, 90 < < 180.

Acute Angles

Acute angles are angles which are greater than 0 but less than 90, that is, 0 < < 90.

Reflex Angles Reflex angles are angles which are greater than 180 but less than 360, that is, 180 < < 360.

Adjacent Angles Two angles which share the same vertex (centre, usually represented by 0) and have a common side (line) are called adjacent angles.

Complementary Angles Complementary angles are two angles which when summed equals 90.

Note: <A and <B, are angle A and angle B respectively. Supplementary Angles Supplementary angles are two angles which when summed equals 180.

Vertically Opposite Angles Vertically opposite angles are the angles opposite to each other when two straight lines intersect. Their defining property is that, vertically opposite angles are equal in magnitude.

Corresponding Angles When two parallel lines are crossed by a line called the transversal, the angles formed which are in corresponding positions, are called corresponding angles. Corresponding angles are equal in magnitude.

Types and Properties of Triangles

Equilateral Triangles Triangles with all three sides equal in length and all three angles equal in magnitude, are called equilateral triangles. Since the angles in a triangle sum to 180 and the size of each angle is the same in an equilateral triangle, the angles are all 60.

Isosceles Triangles Isosceles triangles are triangles with two sides equal in length and two angles equal in magnitude.

Scalene Triangles A scalene triangle is one which has no sides equal in length and no angles equal in magnitude.

Right-Angled Triangles Right-angled triangles are triangles with one of their angles equal to 90 (i.e. a right angle).

Obtuse-Angled Triangles Obtuse-angled triangles are triangles with one of their angles greater than 90 but less than 180 (i.e. an obtuse angle).

Acute-Angled Triangles Acute-angled triangles are triangles in which all the angles are acute. That is, all angles are greater than 0 but less than 90.

Congruent Triangles Congruent triangles are triangles which have the same area, angles and side lengths.

Similar Triangles Similar Triangles are triangles which have the same sized angles.

Types and Properties of Quadrilaterals

Quadrilaterals are any four-sided figure, joined by four straight lines, that is, Quadrilaterals are four-sided polygons. Properties of Quadrilaterals: -Four sides. -Four vertices (corners).

-Interior angles sum to 360. -Exterior angles sum to 360. Things to Know: -Diagonals are line segments that join two opposite vertices (corners).

-Two sides are adjacent, if they share a common vertex.

-Two angles are adjacent, if they share a common side.

Rectangle

Rhombus

Square

Parallelogram

Trapezium

Isosceles Trapezium

Kite

Regular Polygons
Regular polygons have all sides, and all angles equal.

Size of Internal Angles To find the size of the internal angles of a regular polygon with n sides, use the formula:

For example, the size of the interior angles of the pentagon (five sides) above is:

The sum of all the interior angles of a polygon with n sides is found using the formula: (n 2) x 180 Therefore, the sum of all the interior angles of the pentagon above is:

(5 2) x 180 = 3 x 180 = 540 Size of Exterior Angles Interior and Exterior angles are measured on the same line, that is, they add up to 180. Therefore, the size of an exterior angle = 180 Interior angle. For example, the size of the external angle of the pentagon above is: Since, interior angle = 108 Then, exterior angle = 180 Interior angle 180 108 = 72 Below is a list of the names and the number of sides, of some of the most popular polygons. Name of Polygon Equilateral Triangle Quadrilateral Pentagon Hexagon Heptagon Octagon Nonagon Decagon Number of Sides 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Pythagoras Theorem
Pythagoras theorem states that for a right angled triangle, if a square was to be drawn on each side of the triangle, the area of the square on the hypotenuse side (the side opposite the 90 angle), is equal to the sum of the area of the two squares drawn on the other two sides.

Where,

a, b and c are the sides of the triangle.

Pythagoras Theorem is most often employed to find the length of an unknown side of a triangle, and as such the form: a2 + b2 = c2 is most frequently used. Example:

Sine, Cosine and Tangent Ratios

Sides of a Right Angled Triangle

The order in which the names of the sides are determined is listed below: -The longest side of the triangle is called the Hypotenuse. -The side opposite to the angle under consideration, in this case A, is called the Opposite. -The remaining side is called the Adjacent. Note: the Opposite side is always the side opposite to the angle under consideration. Sine (Sin) Ratio The sine of an angle is the ratio of the opposite side, to the hypotenuse side. That is, Sin =

Cosine (Cos) Ratio The cosine of an angle is the ratio of the adjacent side, to the hypotenuse side. That is, Cos =

Tangent Ratio The tangent of an angle is the ratio of the opposite side, to the adjacent side. Tan

That is,

Statistics Frequency Tables

Frequency tables are tables which list the frequency of an event, that is, the number of times an event occurs. There are two types of Frequency tables, Ungrouped and Grouped. Ungrouped These are frequency tables which list the frequency (number of times) of observations or data that are ungrouped. Example: Below are the scores students in a class of 40 obtained on a quiz graded out of 10. 4 5 7 3 9 6 2 8 6 5 8 4 7 2 10 9

6 7 8

6 5 9

7 4 7

7 8 6

6 7 8

8 7 5

6 6 10

8 7 9

Construct a frequency table for the scores. Score 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Total Frequency Frequency 2 1 3 4 8 9 7 4 2 40

Note: (1) The total frequency was obtained by summing the frequencies of all the scores. (2) The total frequency amount is equal to the amount of students in the class. Grouped These are frequency tables which list the frequency (number of times) of observations or data that are grouped. These groups are often called classes. Example: Below is a list of the points each basketball team scored in the first half of all 42 games played on the 7th of January 2007, in the NCAA, National Collegiate Athletic Association. 20 22 48 24 49 20 17 30 19 40 30 27 21 28 38 26 30 18 34 33 47 35 27 37 28 35 42 36 44 19 46 47 43 48 25

23

18

28

34

38

43

47

Construct a frequency table for the classes: 15-19, 20-25, 26-29, 30-35, 36-39, 40-45, and 46-49. Points 15 19 20 25 26 29 30 35 36 39 40 45 46 49 Total Frequency Note: Frequency 5 7 6 8 4 5 7 42

In some cases it may be required to add a Tally column to a frequency table.

Class Limits, Boundaries and Intervals

Class Limits Class limits are the smallest and largest observations (data, events etc) in each class. Therefore, each class has two limits: a lower and upper. Example: Class 200 299 300 399 400 499 500 599 600 699 700 799 800 899 Total Frequency Frequency 12 19 6 2 11 7 3 60

Using the frequency table above, what are the lower and upper class limits for the first three classes? For the first class, 200 299 The lower class limit is 200

The upper class limit is 299 For the second class, 300 399 The lower class limit is 300 The upper class limit is 399 For the third class, 400 499 The lower class limit is 400 The upper class limit is 499 Class Boundaries Class Boundaries are the midpoints between the upper class limit of a class and the lower class limit of the next class in the sequence. Therefore, each class has an upper and lower class boundary. Example: Class 200 299 300 399 400 499 500 599 600 699 700 799 800 899 Total Frequency Frequency 12 19 6 2 11 7 3 60

Using the frequency table above, determine the class boundaries of the first three classes. For the first class, 200 299 The lower class boundary is the midpoint between 199 and 200, that is 199.5 The upper class boundary is the midpoint between 299 and 300, that is 299.5 For the second class, 300 399 The lower class boundary is the midpoint between 299 and 300, that is 299.5

The upper class boundary is the midpoint between 399 and 400, that is 399.5 For the third class, 400 499 The lower class boundary is the midpoint between 399 and 400, that is 399.5 The upper class boundary is the midpoint between 499 and 500, that is 499.5 Class Intervals Class interval is the difference between the upper and lower class boundaries of any class. Example: Class 200 299 300 399 400 499 500 599 600 699 700 799 800 899 Total Frequency Frequency 12 19 6 2 11 7 3 60

Using the table above, determine the class intervals for the first class. For the first class, 200 299 The class interval = Upper class boundary lower class boundary Upper class boundary = 299.5 Lower class boundary = 199.5 Therefore, the class interval = 299.5 199.5 = 100

Mean
The mean of a given set of numbers is the average of those numbers, and is calculated by summing all the numbers and dividing by the amount of numbers. That is, the mean =

Example: Find the mean of the following numbers: 6, 12, 15, 20, 14, 8, 10, 18, 24, 12

To find the mean of a frequency distribution with ungrouped data, the product of the frequency and the corresponding observations (noted as fx) is calculated and summed, that sum is then divided by the sum of the frequency amounts. That is, the mean =fx f Where, fx is the sum of the products of the frequency and the corresponding observations And, f is the sum of the frequencies.

Example: The table below shows the size show a survey of 50 men wear.

Find the mean size show. Procedure to find the mean: -Multiply the frequencies by the corresponding observations. -Sum the product of the frequencies and the observations. -Sum the frequencies. -Divide the sum of the products of the frequencies and observations by the sum of the frequencies.

Therefore, fx = 510 And, f = 50

That is, the mean

To find the mean of a frequency distribution with grouped data, firstly find the mid-point of each class interval, then find the product of the frequency and the corresponding mid-points (noted as f1 x1) and sum them, that sum is then divided by the sum of the frequency amounts. That is, the mean =f1 x1 f1 Where, f1 x1 is the sum of the products of the frequency and the corresponding mid-points And, f1 is the sum of the frequencies.

Example:

Find the mean of the following data.

Procedure to find the mean: -Find the mid-point of each class by adding the lower class limit and the upper class limit of each class, and dividing by two. -Multiply the mid-points of each class by the respective frequencies. -Sum the product of the mid-points and the frequencies. -Sum the frequencies. -Divide the sum of the products of the mid-points and the frequencies by the sum of the frequencies.

Therefore, f1 x1 = 4095 And, f1 = 71

That is, the mean

Cumulative Frequency
The cumulative frequency is obtained by adding each frequency in the table, to the cumulative frequency in the row above it. Example: Insert a cumulative frequency column into the table below.

Recall, cumulative frequency is obtained by adding the frequency in each row, to the cumulative frequency in the row above it.

It should be noted that when a question asks that the cumulative frequency should be determined, it is also the norm that questions will ask candidates to determine from the cumulative frequency table, the proportion and/or percentage of the sample above or below a given value. This information can be determined from a cumulative frequency table by inserting a Less than or Equal to column.

For example, in the solution to the example above, we can insert a Length Less than or Equal to column as shown below.

Note the values in the Less than or Equal to column are the values in the Length column, and this information is interpreted as for example: -When the length is 9cm, the values less than or equal to 9cm, is the cumulative frequency, that is 17. Note: If the cumulative frequency is to be calculated for a table with grouped data, then the less than or equal to value for each class will be the upper class boundary. Example: How many lengths in the table above are less than or equal to 10cm? Identify 10 in the less than or equal to column, the answer is the cumulative frequency amount in that row, that is, 27.

Median
The median of a given set of numbers is the central number (the number in the middle). To find the median, the set of numbers should either be arranged in ascending (smallest to largest) or descending (largest to smallest) order. If there is an even amount of numbers in a set, then the median is the average of the two central numbers. Example: Find the median of the following set of numbers. (a) (b) 122, 130, 128, 123, 126, 124, 127, 125, 129 401, 406, 403, 405, 402, 404

(a) The numbers in ascending order: 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130 The central number is, 126.

Therefore, the median = 126. (b) The numbers in ascending order: 401, 402, 403, 404, 405, 406 The central numbers are, 403 and 404. Therefore, the median

Note: The median divides a set into two equal sets, with the same amount of numbers below and above the median. To find the median of ungrouped data, if the sum of the frequency (n) is an odd number, then the median is the observation, if the sum of the frequency (n) is an even number, then the observations.

median is the average of Example: Find the median of the data below.

The number of observations (employees), (n) = 100

Since 100 is an even number, the median is the average of observations. That is, the average of

The next step is to insert a cumulative frequency column.

Identify which row 50 falls under in the cumulative frequency column, the salary amount in that row is the 50th observation. That is, the 50th observation is, 6000. Identify which row 51 falls under in the cumulative frequency column, the salary amount in that row is the 51th observation. That is, the 51th observation is, 6500. Therefore, the median

Mode
The mode of a given set of numbers is the number which has the highest frequency, that is, it is listed the most times. Example: Identify the mode in the following distributions (a) 20, 24, 27, 24, 26, 28, 27, 24

(b) 102, 108, 107, 109, 108, 102, 110 (c) Goals ScoredFrequency 1 5 2 8 3 3 4 3 5 1 (a) The mode is the number which appears the most times: 20, 24, 27, 24, 26, 28, 27, 24 Since 24 appear the most times, it is the mode. That is, mode = 24 (b) 102, 108, 107, 109, 108, 102, 110

In this distribution, 102 and 108 both appears two times. Therefore, the mode = 102 and 108. And this distribution is called, bimodal. (c) The highest frequency is 8. Therefore the modal number of goals scored is 2.

Range, Interquartile and Semi-interquartile Ranges (Raw Data)

Range The range of a set of numbers is the difference between the largest and the smallest number. Example: Calculate the range of the following numbers: 204, 210, 215, 220, 225, 234, 238, 240 The range

= the largest number the smallest number = 240 204 = 36 Ungrouped Frequency Table-Range The range of a frequency distribution with ungrouped events is calculated using the formula below. The range = the upper boundary limit of the largest event the lower boundary of the smallest event Example:

Find the range of the points in the table above. Firstly identify the largest and smallest points. Largest point = 13 Smallest point = 7 Find the upper boundary limit of the largest and the lower boundary limit of the smallest. Upper boundary limit of 13 is, 13.5 Lower boundary limit of 7 is, 6.5 The range = Upper boundary limit of 13 lower boundary limit of 7 = 13.5 6.5

= Quartiles

-Q2 (the middle quartile) is the median. -Q1 (the lower quartile) is the median of the numbers to the left of, or below Q2. -Q3 (the upper quartile) is the median of the numbers to the right of, or above Q2. Example: 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32 Find the lower, middle and upper quartiles of the data above. Since the data is already in ascending order, identify the median. 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, 24, 26, 28, 30, 32 22 is the median, therefore, Q2= 22 The median of the numbers to the left of Q2: 12, 14, 16, 18, 20 16 is the median, therefore, Q1 = 16 The median of the numbers to the right of Q2: 24, 26, 28, 30, 32 28 is the median, therefore, Q3 = 28 Interquartile Range The interquartile range of a distribution is the difference between the upper and lower quartiles. That is, interquartile range = Q3 Q1 Therefore using the example above, the interquartile range is: Interquartile range = Q3 Q1 Since, Q3 = 28 Q1 = 16

Interquartile range = 28 16 = 12 Semi-Interquartile Range The semi-interquartile range of a distribution is half the difference between the upper and lower quartiles, or half the interquartile range. Therefore, from the example above, it was determined that the interquartile range = 12. Therefore, semi-interquartile range

Probability
Probability is defined as the likelihood of an event occurring. Given that all the possible outcomes are equally likely, the probability of an event is equal to the number of favourable outcomes divided by the total number of possible outcomes, that is:

The probability of an event will be a number between 0 and 1. If the probability of an event is 0, then the event will never occur, that is, it is impossible. If the probability of an event is 1, then the event will occur, that is, it is a certainty. Example: A basket consists of 50 fruits, 15 apples, 20 oranges and 15 peaches. (a)What is the probability of selecting an apple? (b)What is the probability of selecting an orange? (c)What is the probability of selecting a grape? (d)What is the probability of selecting either an apple or an orange?

(e)What is the probability of selecting an apple, an orange or a peach? Procedure: -Determine the number of favourable outcomes. -Determine the total number of possible outcomes. -Divide the number of favourable outcomes by the total number of possible outcomes. (a) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of apples, that is, 15. The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50. Therefore,

(b) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of oranges, that is, 20. The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50. Therefore,

(c) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of grapes, that is, 0. The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50. Therefore,

(d) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of apples and oranges, that is, 35.

The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50. Therefore,

(e) The number of favourable outcomes = the number of apples, oranges and peaches, that is, 50. The total number of possible outcomes = the number of fruits in the basket, that is, 50. Therefore,

Consumer Arithmetic Percentage Profit and Percentage Loss

Profit can be defined as the monetary gain made from a transaction. In consumer arithmetic, a profit is made if the selling price of a product is greater than the cost price (the price at which the product was bought) of the product. Therefore, Profit = Selling price Cost price The percentage profit made from a transaction is found by using the formula below.

A loss is made from a transaction if the selling price of a product is less than the cost price. Therefore, Loss = Cost price Selling price

The percentage loss made from a transaction is found by using the formula below.

Example: The manager of a Foot Locker store buys 30 Carmelo Anthony New York Knicks jerseys for $250 each. (a)Find the percentage profit if the jerseys are sold for $290 each. (b)Find the percentage loss if the jerseys are sold for $245 each.

Note that the percentage profit could be found without finding the total cost and selling prices. This is shown below.

Note that the percentage loss could be found without finding the total cost and selling prices. This is shown below.

Discount
A discount is a reduction in the selling price of a product. Discounts are usually given as a percentage of the selling price. Therefore, if the discount is y%

The discount price is the difference between the selling price and the discount. That is,

Example: A Mac book has a selling price of $1000. If a 10% discount is given to a customer, what is the discounted price of the Mac book?

Sales Tax
Sales tax is a fee charged by governments on products, and is calculated as a percentage of the selling price of a product. Depending on your country of residence, this sales tax might have a name, for example, in Jamaica the sales tax is called General Consumption Tax, G.C.T, in England and most of Europe its called, VAT, Value Added Tax.

Now to find the selling price of a product inclusive of the sales tax amount, add the sales tax to 100% and find that percentage of the selling price. So if the sales tax is 10% , the formula would be:

Example: Given that the sales tax on all products is 15%, find the final selling price of a product which costs $1500.

Simple Interest
Simple interest is the interest calculated on a principal sum. Principal is the sum of money invested in to, or borrowed from an institution, denoted as P. The money earned by an invested principal is called interest, and the money charged for borrowing a principal amount from an institution is also called interest, denoted as I. The amount of interest earned or charged per year is expressed as a percentage and is known as the rate of interest, denoted as R. Therefore,

Note, the amount accruing, A = P + I Example1: A person invested $5000 in a bank at 10% per annum for 4 years. (a)What is the simple interest earned? (b)Determine what this interest earned equals to in terms of monthly payments.

Example2: A person borrows $12000 from a bank at 15% per annum for 3 years. Determine the sum of each monthly payment.

Previous | Next Compound Interest

Compound interest is interest which is calculated on the principal sum for the first year and on the accruing amount for the remaining years.

For example, to find the compound interest earned when $5000 is invested at 10% per annum for 3 years: -Find the interest earned for the first year.

-Add the principal to the interest for the first year, which sums to the principal at the beginning of the second year.

-Find the interest earned for the second year.

-Add the principal at the beginning of the second year to the interest earned for the second year, which sums to the principal at the beginning of the third year.

-Find the interest for the third year.

-Sum the interest for the first, second and third years, which equals to the Compound interest.

There is however a much simpler way to obtain the compound interest, this is done by using the amount accruing formula below:

Below, the compound interest found above is determined using the formula.

Depreciation
Most assets decrease in value over time and depending on the condition they are in (the wear); this decrease in value is called depreciation. To find the amount by which an asset depreciates over a year, the rate of depreciation (the percentage by which it decreases) is multiplied by the initial cost of the asset, the depreciation amount (the product obtained) is then subtracted from the initial cost to give the current book value of the asset. For example, a Blackberry Bold 9780 is purchased for $460, if its depreciation is calculated as 5% per annum, what is its book value after a year?

The Initial cost of the asset, P = $460 The rate of depreciation, R = 5%

To find the depreciation of an asset for a period greater than one year, do the following: -Find the book value using the formula,

-Find the depreciation amount by using the formula,

By amending the example above, we have, a Blackberry Bold 9780 is purchased for $460, if its depreciation is calculated as 5% per annum, find the amount by which it depreciates over 3 years?