Environmental Impact of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy is a renewable energy source that can be used to offset the use of fossil fuels as well as the emission ofgreenhouse gases. Geothermal energy was created by the formation of the Earth and is replenished through the radioactive decay of core minerals and the shifting of tectonic plates. The solar rays that constantly strike the earths surface also add to the amount of geothermal energy found within the planet. Geothermal energy is already used by approximately 70 countries across the globe and is capable of supplying 75% to 100% of the commercial energy needed. This would significantly lower the amount of pollution generated. However despite all these benefits, geothermal energy is not completely pollutant free. The energy plants themselves are capable of releasing pollutants. While the geothermal energy is being extracted, noxious gases and elements are released, such as carbon dioxide, mercury, and sulphur. When released into the atmosphere, these things contribute to acid rain and global warming, things that renewable energy is generally used to lessen. Greenhouse gases are also emitted. There is a case to be made against geothermal energy because of these extraction emissions. However while there are pollutants involved with geothermal energy, fewer emissions are released than when fossil fuels are used for energy. If geothermal energy was used in full in place of fossil fuels, it would have a much smaller impact upon the environment. These emissions can be offset by injecting any fluids brought to the surface through geothermal energy back into the earth. This is referred to as carbon capture and storage. Hot water from geothermal sources may contain trace amounts of dangerous elements such as mercury, arsenic, and antimony. If this water is released into rivers or other bodies of water it can be extremely dangerous to humans and animals who may consume the contaminated liquid. Any program to utilize geothermal energy needs to allow for the capture of these elements. Another aspect to consider is the influence of the geothermal power plants upon the site. Geothermal activity can cause foundational problems with surrounding land, especially if water is used in correlation with hot dry rock. If the site is overused, or if a plant is larger than the geothermal sites capacity, it is possible to deplete the area of its geothermal energy. This has a hard impact upon the environment, and excess pollution from the remainder of the plant can also cause problems. Geothermal power plants have minimal land and fresh water requirements compared to other energy sources. Current geothermal plants use 1-8 acres per megawatt (MW) versus 5-10 acres per MW for nuclear operations and 19 acres per MW for coal power plants. They use 20 liters of fresh water per MWh versus over 1,000 liters per MWh for nuclear, coal, or oil.

Geothermal energy has environmental implications to consider. However when compared to fossil fuels, the impact of geothermal energy on the environment is much smaller relative to its benefits.

Depletion of resources
The process of extracting geothermal fluids (which include gases, steam and water) for power generation typically removes heat from natural reservoirs at over 10 times their rate of replenishment. This imbalance may be partially improved by injecting waste fluids back into the geothermal system.

Damage to natural geothermal features

Natural features such as hot springs, mud pools, sinter terraces, geysers, fumaroles (steam vents) and steaming ground can be easily, and irreparably, damaged by geothermal development. When the Wairkei geothermal field was tapped for power generation in 1958, the withdrawal of hot fluids from the underground reservoir began to cause long-term changes to the famous Geyser Valley, the nearby Waiora Valley, and the mighty Karapiti blowhole. The ground sagged 3 metres in some places, and hot springs and geysers began to decline and die as the supply of steaming water from below was depleted. In Geyser Valley, one of the first features to vanish was the great Wairkei geyser, which used to play to a height of 42 metres. Subsequently, the famous Champagne Pool, a blue-tinted boiling spring, dwindled away to a faint wisp of steam. In 1965 the Tourist Hotel Corporation tried to restore it by pumping in some three million litres of water, but to no avail. Geyser Valley continued to deteriorate, and in 1973 it was shut down as a tourist spectacle. This story has been repeated many times where there has been geothermal development.

Subsidence
Extracting geothermal fluids can reduce the pressure in underground reservoirs and cause the land to sink. The largest subsidence on record is at Wairkei, where the centre of the subsidence bowl is sinking at a rate of almost half a metre every year. In 2005 the ground was 14 metres lower than it was before the power station was built. As the ground sinks it also moves sideways and tilts towards the centre. This puts a strain on bores and pipelines, may damage buildings and roads, and can alter surface drainage patterns.

Polluting waterways
Geothermal fluids contain elevated levels of arsenic, mercury, lithium and boron because of the underground contact between hot fluids and rocks. If waste is released into rivers or lakes instead of being injected into the geothermal field, these pollutants can damage aquatic life and make the water unsafe for drinking or irrigation. A serious environmental effect of the geothermal industry is arsenic pollution. Levels of arsenic in the Waikato River almost always exceed the World Health Organisation standard for drinking water of 0.01 parts per million. Most of the arsenic comes from geothermal waste water discharged from the Wairkei power station. Natural features such as hot springs are also a source of arsenic, but it tends to be removed from the water as colourful mineral precipitates like bright red realgar and yellowy green orpiment.

Air emissions
Geothermal fluids contain dissolved gases which are released into the atmosphere. The main toxic gases are carbon dioxide (CO2) and hydrogen sulfide (H2S). Both are denser than air and can collect in pits, depressions or confined spaces. These gases are a recognised hazard for people working at geothermal stations or bore fields, and can also be a problem in urban areas. In Rotorua a number of deaths have been attributed to hydrogen sulfide poisoning, often in motel rooms or hot-pool enclosures. Carbon dioxide is also a greenhouse gas, contributing to potential climate change. However, geothermal extraction releases far fewer greenhouse gases per unit of electricity generated than burning fossil fuels such as coal or gas to produce

Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is heat contained below the earth's surface. The only type of geothermal energy that has been widely developed is hydrothermal energy, which consists of trapped hot water or steam. However, new technologies are being developed to exploit hot dry rock (accessed by drilling deep into rock), geopressured resources (pressurized brine mixed with methane), and magma. The various geothermal resource types differ in many respects, but they raise a common set of environmental issues. Air and water pollution are two leading concerns, along with the safe disposal of hazardous waste, siting, and land subsidence. Since these resources would be exploited in a highly centralized fashion, reducing their environmental impacts to an acceptable level should be relatively easy. But it will always be difficult to site plants in scenic or otherwise environmentally sensitive areas. The method used to convert geothermal steam or hot water to electricity directly affects the amount of waste generated. Closed-loop systems are almost totally benign, since gases or fluids removed from the well are

not exposed to the atmosphere and are usually injected back into the ground after giving up their heat. Although this technology is more expensive than conventional open-loop systems, in some cases it may reduce scrubber and solid waste disposal costs enough to provide a significant economic advantage. Open-loop systems, on the other hand, can generate large amounts of solid wastes as well as noxious fumes. Metals, minerals, and gases leach out into the geothermal steam or hot water as it passes through the rocks. The large amounts of chemicals released when geothermal fields are tapped for commercial production can be hazardous or objectionable to people living and working nearby. At The Geysers, the largest geothermal development, steam vented at the surface contains hydrogen sulfide (H2S)-accounting for the area's "rotten egg" smell-as well as ammonia, methane, and carbon dioxide. At hydrothermal plants carbon dioxide is expected to make up about 10 percent of the gases trapped in geopressured brines. For each kilowatt-hour of electricity generated, however, the amount of carbon dioxide emitted is still only about 5 percent of the amount emitted by a coal- or oil-fired power plant. Scrubbers reduce air emissions but produce a watery sludge high in sulfur and vanadium, a heavy metal that can be toxic in high concentrations. Additional sludge is generated when hydrothermal steam is condensed, causing the dissolved solids to precipitate out. This sludge is generally high in silica compounds, chlorides, arsenic, mercury, nickel, and other toxic heavy metals. One costly method of waste disposal involves drying it as thoroughly as possible and shipping it to licensed hazardous waste sites. Research under way at Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York points to the possibility of treating these wastes with microbes designed to recover commercially valuable metals while rendering the waste nontoxic. Usually the best disposal method is to inject liquid wastes or redissolved solids back into a porous stratum of a geothermal well. This technique is especially important at geopressured power plants because of the sheer volume of wastes they produce each day. Wastes must be injected well below fresh water aquifers to make certain that there is no communication between the usable water and waste-water strata. Leaks in the well casing at shallow depths must also be prevented. In addition to providing safe waste disposal, injection may also help prevent land subsidence. At Wairakei, New Zealand, where wastes and condensates were not injected for many years, one area has sunk 7.5 meters since 1958. Land subsidence has not been detected at other hydrothermal plants in long-term operation. Since geopressured brines primarily are found along the Gulf of Mexico coast, where natural land subsidence is already a problem, even slight settling could have major implications for flood control and hurricane damage. So far, however, no settling has been detected at any of the three experimental wells under study. Most geothermal power plants will require a large amount of water for cooling or other purposes. In places where water is in short supply, this need could raise conflicts with other users for water resources. The development of hydrothermal energy faces a special problem. Many hydrothermal reservoirs are located in or near wilderness areas of great natural beauty such as Yellowstone National Park and the Cascade Mountains. Proposed developments in such areas have aroused intense opposition. If hydrothermal-electric development is to expand much further in the United States, reasonable compromises will have to be reached between environmental groups and industry.

In conclusion, environmental impact of geothermal energy depends on how it is being exploited and which approach is taken. But geothermal plants in general does not burn fossil fuels or coal in order to produce electricity. In comparison with traditional power plant, it produces just 1 percent of CO2 emission in contrast with incineration of fossils. In addition, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) adds regarding geothermal heating systems (secondary utilization of geothermal power) that geothermal heat pumps are the most energy-efficient, environmentally clean, and cost-effective systems for temperature control. Altogether, geothermal energy represents clean modern solution for growing energy demand as well as for steps against climate change.

Social Impacts
During each project phases, geothermal energy projects will have social impacts. Geothermal energy projects can have both positive and negative social impacts. Social impacts can be seen as changes to people's way of life, culture, community structure, stability, services and facilities and their level of participation in decision-making. Positive social impacts include:

Improved standards of living Education and skill building Livelihood development Improved health and sanitation

Negative social impacts include:

Impacts on water for other uses such as drinking water or irrigation. Impacts on cultural heritage sites Negative impacts on landscape and recreational areas Noise or disturbance Ground subsidence or earthquakes

Benefits experienced in developing countries may be much more dramatic than in developed countries. Impacts for geothermal energy projects may occur on the local, regional or national level.

The increasing dust levels and smells the project could bring if it expands towards their homesteads. A rise in respiratory diseases (asthma), eye problems, colds and flu's. Displacement/ resettlement from their present homes. The reduction in land size(s) as the project expands. The reduction in grazing land for their livestock. A reduction in family size due to the gradual decrease in land sizes. An increase in miscarriages or children being born with deformities or retarded if the projects expand. Their cultural values being eroded by outsiders. Table 5.1 summarises the socio-economic impacts on the Maasai as a result of the Olkaria Geothermal Project. It is evident that the greatest benefits of the project have been the provision of shopping centres, water and sale of souvenirs to tourists at the cultural centre. This has resulted in increased income levels and subsequent rise in living standards and quality of life

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Geothermal Energy: Construction Impacts

Potential environmental impacts from construction activities are generally similar to but more extensive than those during the exploration and drilling phase, but of shorter duration than those during the operations and maintenance phase.
Activities that may cause environmental impacts during construction include site preparation (e.g., clearing and grading); facility construction (e.g., geothermal power plant, pipelines, transmission lines ); and vehicular and pedestrian traffic. The construction of the geothermal power plant would disturb about 15 to 25 acres of land. Transmission line construction would disturb about one acre of land per mile of line. Impacts would be similar to but more extensive than those addressed for theexploration and drilling phase; however, many of these impacts would be reduced by implementing good industry practices and restoring disturbed areas once construction activities have been completed. Potential impacts from these activities are presented below, by the type of affected resource.

Acoustics (Noise)
The primary source of noise during the construction phase would be the construction of the geothermal power plant, which would occur over a period of 2 to 10 years. Near residential areas, noise levels could exceed the EPA guideline but would be intermittent and extend for only a limited time.

Air Quality
Emissions generated during the construction phase include exhaust from vehicular traffic and construction equipment, fugitive dust from traffic on paved and unpaved roads, and the release of geothermal fluid vapors (especially hydrogen sulfide , carbon dioxide , mercury, arsenic, and boron, if present in the reservoir ). Activities such as site clearing and grading, power plant and pipeline system construction, and transmission line construction would have more intense exhaust-related emissions over a period of 2 to 10 years. Impacts would depend upon the amount, duration, location, and characteristics of the emissions and the meteorological conditions (e.g., wind speed and direction, precipitation, and relative humidity). Emissions during this phase would not have a measurable impact on climate change . State and local regulators may require permits and air monitoring programs.

Cultural Resources
Potential impacts to cultural resources during the construction phase could occur due to land disturbance related to the construction of the power plant and transmission lines. Impacts include destruction of cultural resources in areas undergoing surface disturbance and unauthorized removal of artifacts or vandalism as a result of human access to previously inaccessible areas (resulting in lost opportunities to expand scientific study and educational and interpretive uses of these resources). In addition, for cultural resources that have an associated landscape

component that contributes to their significance (e.g., sacred landscapes or historic trails ), visual impacts could result from large areas of exposed surface, increases in dust, and the presence of large-scale equipment, machinery, and vehicles. While the potential for encountering buried sites is relatively low, the possibility that buried sites would be disturbed during construction does exist. Unless the buried site is detected early in the surface-disturbing activities, the impact to the site can be considerable. Disturbance that uncovers cultural resources of significant importance that would otherwise have remained buried and unavailable could be viewed as a beneficial impact, provided the discovery results in study, curation, or recordation of the resource. Vibration, resulting from increased traffic and drilling/development activities, may also have effects on rock art and other associated sites (e.g., sites with standing architecture).

Ecological Resources
Most impacts to ecological resources (vegetation, wildlife, aquatic biota , special status species , and their habitats) would be low to moderate and localized during the construction phase (although impacts due to noise could be high). Activities such as site clearing and grading, road construction, power plant construction, ancillary facility construction, and vehicle traffic have the potential to affect ecological resources by disturbing habitat, increasing erosion and runoff, and creating noise at the project site. Impacts to vegetation include loss of native species and species diversity; increased risk of invasive species ; increased risk of topsoil erosion and seed bank depletion; increased risk of fire; and alteration of water and seed dispersal. Construction activities have the potential to destroy or injure wildlife (especially species with limited mobility); disrupt the breeding, migration, and foraging behavior of wildlife; reduce habitat quality and species diversity; disturb habitat (e.g., causing loss of cover or food source); reduce the reproductive success of some species (e.g., amphibians). Accidental spills could be toxic to fish and wildlife. The noise from construction and vehicle traffic has a high potential to disturb wildlife and affect breeding, foraging, and migrating behavior. Wild horses, burros, and grazing livestock could be adversely affected by the loss of forage and reduced forage palatability (due to dust settlement on vegetation) and restricted movement around the development area.

Environmental Justice
Environmental justice impacts occur only if significant impacts in other resource areas disproportionately affect minority or low-income populations. It is anticipated that the development of geothermal energy could benefit low-income, minority, and tribal populations by creating job opportunities and stimulating local economic growth via project revenues and increased tourism. However, noise, dust, visual impacts, and habitat destruction could have an adverse affect on traditional tribal life ways and religious and cultural sites. Development of wells and ancillary facilities could affect the natural character of previously undisturbed areas and transform the landscape into a more industrialized setting. Development activities could impact the use of cultural sites for traditional tribal activities (hunting and plant-gathering activities, and areas in which artifacts, rock art, or other significant cultural sites are located).

Hazardous Materials and Waste Management

Solid and industrial waste would be generated during construction activities. Much of the solid waste would be nonhazardous, consisting of containers and packaging materials, miscellaneous wastes from equipment assembly and presence of construction crews (food wrappers and scraps), and woody vegetation. Industrial wastes would include minor amounts of paints, coatings, and spent solvents. Most of these materials would likely be transported off-site for disposal. In forested areas, commercial-grade timber could be sold, while slash may be spread or burned near the well site.

Health and Safety

Potential human health and safety impacts during the construction phase would include exposures to geothermal fluids or steam during maintenance activities, system failures, or well blowouts, andhazardous materials such as petroleum , oils, lubricants, and herbicides ; and the risk of serious injuries or accidents. Adverse impacts could also occur from the risk of electrical fires and wildfires caused by project activities; electric shock during transmission line and substation maintenance; and vehicular accidents due to increased traffic on local roads. The potential for such impacts can be minimized if appropriate safety procedures are implemented.

Land Use
Temporary and localized impacts to land use would result from construction activities. These activities could create a temporary disturbance in the immediate vicinity of a construction site (e.g., to recreational activities or livestock grazing). The magnitude and extent of impacts from constructing power plants and pipeline systems would depend on the current land use in the area; however, long-term impacts on land use would be minimized by reclaiming all roads and routes that are not needed once construction is completed. All other land uses on land under well pads , buildings, and structures would be precluded as long as they are in operation. Construction activities are unlikely to affect mining and energy development activities, military operations, livestock grazing, or aviation on surrounding lands. Activities affecting resources and values identified for protection areas would likely be prohibited.

Paleontological Resources
The potential for impacts on paleontological resources is high where grading and excavation intercept geologic units with important fossil resources. Ground clearing and vehicular traffic have the potential to impact the fossil resources at the surface. The disturbance caused by all these activities could increase illegal collection and vandalism. Disturbance that uncovers paleontological resources of significant importance that would otherwise have remained buried and unavailable could be viewed as a beneficial impact, provided the discovery results in study, collection, or recordation of the resource.

Socioeconomics
Construction phase activities would contribute to the local economy by providing employment opportunities, monies to local contractors, and recycled revenues through the local economy. The magnitude of these benefits would vary depending on the resource potential. Construction of a typical 50-megawatt (MW) power plant and related transmission lines would require an estimated 387 jobs and $22.5 million in income, but would vary depending on the community. Job availability would vary with different stages of construction. Expenditures for equipment, materials, fuel, lodging, food, and other needs would stimulate the local economy over the duration of construction. Economic impacts may occur if other land use activities (e.g., recreation, grazing, or hunting) are altered by geothermal development. Constructing facilities will alter the landscape and could affect the nonmarket values of the immediate area. Many of these land uses may be compatible; however, it's possible that some land uses will be displaced by geothermal development.

Soils and Geologic Resources

Impacts to soils and geologic resources would be greater during the construction phase than for other phases of development because of the increased footprint, and would be particularly significant if biological or desert crusts are disturbed. Construction of additional roads, well pads, the geothermal power plant, and structures related to the power plant (e.g., the pipeline system and transmission lines) would occur during this phase. Construction of well pads, the geothermal power plant, the pipeline system, access roads , and other project facilities could cause topographic changes. These changes would be minor, but long term. Soil compaction due to construction activities would reduce aeration, permeability , and water-holding capacity of the soils and cause an increase in surface runoff, potentially causing increased sheet, rill, and gully erosion. The excavation and reapplication of surface soils could cause the mixing of shallow soil horizons , resulting in a blending of soil characteristics and types. This blending would modify the physical characteristics of the soils, including structure, texture, and rock content, that could lead to reduced permeability and increased runoff from these areas. Soil compaction and blending could also impact the viability of future vegetation. Any geologic resources within the areas of disturbance would not be accessible during the life of the development. It is unlikely that construction activities would activate geologic hazards. However, altering drainage patterns or building on steep slopes could accelerate erosion and create slope instability.

Transportation
Geothermal development would result in the need to construct and/or improve access roads and would result in an increase in industrial traffic. Overweight and oversized loads could cause temporary disruptions and could require extensive modifications to roads or bridges (e.g., widening roads or fortifying bridges to accommodate the size or weight of truck loads). An overall increase in heavy truck traffic would accelerate the deterioration of pavement, requiring local government agencies to schedule pavement repair or replacement more frequently than under the existing traffic conditions. Increased traffic would also result in a potential for increased accidents within the project area. The locations at which accidents are most likely to occur are

intersections used by project-related vehicles to turn onto or off of highways from access roads. Conflicts between industrial traffic and other traffic are likely to occur, especially on weekends, holidays, and seasons of high use by recreationists. Increased recreational use of the area could contribute to a gradual increase in traffic on the access roads.

Visual Resources
Impacts to visual resources would be considered adverse if the landscape were substantially degraded or modified. Construction activities would have only temporary and minor visual effects, resulting from the presence of workers, vehicles, and construction equipment (including lighting for safety); and from vegetation damage, dust generation, scarring of the terrain, and altering landforms or contours. Reclamation following construction to restore visual resources to pre-disturbance conditions would lessen these impacts.

Water Resources (Surface Water and Groundwater)

Impacts to water resources during the construction phase would be moderate because of ground-disturbing activities (related to road, well pad, and power plant construction) that could lead to an increase in soil erosion and surface runoff. Impacts to surface water would be moderate but temporary and could be reduced by implementing best management practices based on stormwater pollution prevention requirements and other industry guidelines. During the construction phase, water would be required for dust control, making concrete, and consumptive use by the construction crew. Depending on availability, it may be trucked in from off-site or obtained from local groundwater wells or nearby municipal supplies.