Runninghead: HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

Homonegativity and the Sexuality Spectrum Within Northern and Remote Locales

Anthony Jeethan Lakehead University

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM Homonegativity and the Sexuality Spectrum In Northern and Remote Locales

Over the past few years, the scope of homosexuality has widened significantly, marking a large paradigm shift for modern society. However, the topic of homosexuality as a whole includes a large proportion of people, who aren't always considered when forming attitudes towards homosexuality. There is a large scale of stratification in terms of sexuality and gender, each of which garners its own individual views.

Most studies on the topic of homosexuality to date primary focus on the views of heterosexual individuals on either gay males, or lesbian females, in relation to cultural, economic, and social factors. Little inquiry has been given to the views of homosexuals on other homosexuals, or the views of heterosexuals and homosexuals on different stereotypical archetypes within the homosexual community. As a gay male from outside of Northern Ontario, I've noticed a strong difference in the perception, expectation, and expression of homosexuality. Where in more metropolitan area there is a wider acceptance of the gender and sexual spectrum, Northern Ontario shows a more limited scope of acceptance, particularly with views within the homosexual community. This topic is particularly interesting with me, as I would like to pursue sexuality and mental health relations in Northern and remote communities.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

Article Reviews The following articles show research into the topic of attitudes towards homosexuality, in terms of economic status, cultural background, and location. The reviewed studies have their methods, and results summarized.

Article 1: Intergroup Contact, Attitudes Towards Homosexuality and the Role of Acceptance of Gender Non-Conformity in Young Adolescents Collier, K. L., Bos, H., Sandfort, T. (2012) Journal of Adolescence. 35(4). 899-907.

Measures 1. Intergroup contact Participants are asked how many gay or lesbian individuals they know within and outside of school. The responses are given on a 5 point scale, with 1 = no one, and 5 = Four or more. 2. Attitudes towards lesbian and gay men Participants are given a survey with scales adapted from the Herek (1988) study, where they are given statements about homosexuality and can give a response from 1 to 5, where 5 is strongly

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

agree, and 1 being strongly disagree. Higher scores indicate more acceptance. 3. Acceptance of Gender Non-conformity Participants are given scenarios with a person, their sexuality, and their gender expression. These scenarios are rated on a 5-point scale, where 1 is completely unacceptable, and 5 is totally acceptable.

Results This study offers some insight into the gender spectrum of homosexuality. Participants were sorted into male and female groups, and their results recorded. Male students were much more tolerant of homosexuality if they had contact with a gay male outside of school, however, gender non-conformity was generally not highly accepted. With females, knowing a homosexual outside of school was not a precursor of acceptance, and gender non-conformity was generally more accepted.

Article 2: Male Narcissism and Attitudes Toward Heterosexual Women and Men, Lesbian Women, and Gay Men: Hostility toward Heterosexual Women Most of All.

Keiller, S. (2012) Sex Roles. 63(7/8). 530-541.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

Measures 1. Male participants are given the Narcissistic Personality Inventory-16 to determine their levels of narcissism 2. Participants are given the Herek (1988) Attitudes Towards Gay Men and Lesbian (ATGL) scale to measure the correlation between narcissism and their attitudes toward the homosexual community Results While the study mainly proved the correlation between narcissism and negative views towards heterosexual females, it did show a strong correlation between gender stereotypes in relation to levels of narcissism. As such, narcissistic males held more negative views towards homosexuals if they did not conform to gender stereotypes. It is also interesting note that these participants were taken from a Midwestern university, which is very close to Thunder Bay, ON.

Article 3: College Students Views Towards Gays and Lesbians

Chonody, M., Siebert, D., Rutledge, S. (2010) Journal of Social Work Education. 45(3). 499-512.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

Measures 1. Demographics A self-report scale is given to participants, to determine their sexuality, race, and age. Only results from heterosexual respondents were used. These respondents are also given the Index of Attitudes Towards Homosexuality (IAH), which asks questions based on scenarios involving homosexuals, and how comfortable on a scale of 1-6 the respondent would be. The original IAH scale used 1-5 measures, however, a 1-6 scale eliminated the neutral response. Results The results indicated that the mean of respondents was to hold negative views towards gay and lesbian individuals. It should be noted though that these scales deal exclusively with gay males and lesbian female, with little consideration of gender variations. Also, there was no index for transgendered attitudes.

Article 4: The impact of a combined cognitiveaffective intervention on pre-service teachers attitudes, knowledge, and anticipated professional behaviors regarding homosexuality and gay and lesbian issues

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

Riggs, A., Rosenthal, A., Smith-Bonahue, T. (2010). Teaching and Teacher Education. 27(1). 201-209.

Measures 1. Participants Pre-service teachers from a Southeastern University, who were exclusively heterosexual, were used. Respondents who were not exclusively heterosexual were excluded, and the remaining participants were surveyed according to their age, race, sex, marital status, and exposure to homosexuals, 2. Questionnaires Selected participants were given 5 questionnaires to determine their views towards homosexuality. They were given Hereks (1984) Attitudes Towards Lesbian and Gay Men (ATLG) scale, the Modified Information About Homosexuality Index (MIAHI), the Knowledge About Issues Facing Gay and Lesbian Youths (ISSUES) scale, the Anticipated Professional Behaviors Relating to Homosexuality in the School (BEHAVIORS) scale, and a reaction piece to an autobiography dealing with homosexuality. Results The results of all the tests showed that most pre-service teachers had a considerable lack of knowledge about homosexuality, as well as holding a very homonegative view of homosexuality. This was mainly caused by the lack of literature

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

dealing with gay males and lesbians. However, this study acknowledged that it failed to address the views of homosexuals on other homosexuals, as well as views towards transgendered individuals. Finally, it should be noted that this study was conducted in the Southeastern United States, which may have a significant impact on the results.

Article 5: Anti-transgender prejudice: A structural model of associated constructs

Moradi, B., Tebbe, E. N. (2012). Journal of Counseling Psychology. 59(2). 251-261.

Measures 1. Participants: Undergraduate students were surveyed, all from introductory psychology courses from a Florida area university. Of these participants, 90% were Caucasian, and 99% of all participants were heterosexual. 2. Anti-transgender attitudes - A nine-item scale rating transphobia was administered, which used a Likert scale along with transphobic statement. Higher scores indicated higher levels of prejudice. 3. Anti-LGB attitudes The participants were given the Attitudes Toward Lesbians and Gay Males (ATLG) to determine whether their views on homosexuality differed from their views on transgenderism. The ATLG

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM comprises of 20 questions, half dealing with gay/bisexual men, and half dealing with lesbian/bisexual women.

4. Gender Roles: Participants were asked questions about stereotypical gender roles, and how much they agree or disagree with it. The coding was done as such that higher scores would indicate more adherence to stereotypical gender roles 5. Social constructs Participants were also given 2 questionnaires giving their ideas on social desirability and social dominance. This is done to determine the social constructs behind some questionnaires with higher scores, indicating a lower acceptance of homosexuality. Results The whole point of the multiple questionnaire approach was to determine factors influencing transphobia and homophobia. The largest determining factor behind transphobia are existing LGB phobias, as well as beliefs in stereotypical gender roles. However, with this sample, the race of participants were predominantly white, and from the Southeastern United States. While it does give insight into this particular region, it is limited to a single race.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

10

Article 6: Understanding gender differences in early adolescents Sexual Prejudice

Ghavami, N., Mata, J., Wittig, M., (2010) The Journal of Early Adolescence. 30(1). 5075.

Measures 1. Participants Participants were selected from suburban high schools in large school districts. Participants were focused in the 9th grade, as they are just beginning to learn social norms associated with adolescence, as well as to emphasize the importance of gender differences. 2. Social dominance and sex Participants were asked to indicate their sex and given the Social Dominance rating scale.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

11

3. Attitudes Participants were given the Attitudes Towards Lesbians and Gay Males scale (ATLG) in order to see the correlation between gender, dominance, and views on sexuality. Results It was found that males were more homophobic toward gay males, while females were more homophobic toward lesbians. Participants showed a correlation between dominant norms and the level of intolerance towards homosexuals.

Discussion Of the above studies, the one, which I found most interesting, was Moradi and Tebbes (2012) study on anti-transgender prejudice. Their study went beyond the typical binary of most attitude and behavior studies on homosexuality (dealing exclusively with gay males and lesbian females), and went further to include transgendered individuals, as well as more background reasoning into homophobia. Most studies also deal exclusively with stereotypical views of gays and lesbians, while Moradi and Tebbes (2012) study gave more generic statements, where attitudes about gender conformity were also measured. Also, since this test was conducted with university students taking a first year psychology, the study seems highly replicable.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

12

Discussion Part B Even with the Moradi and Tebbe (2012) study, the participants involved were mostly Caucasian showing a still limited scope. It also failed to address intergroup variation in dealing with homosexuality, and the gender binary. Another factor that needs to be considered is the fact that the participants were from a large university in the United States. The issue is that a limited group of people is being surveyed for a large topic, which affects many people throughout the world. Northern Ontario and Northern Canada are both sparsely populated, with lower access to mental health services and education programs on issues facing LGBT youth By expanding the scope to Northern Regions and the attitudes towards homosexuals and gender expectations, a greater understanding could be observed about homophobia, and how we can move towards creating a more open, supportive climate.

Research Proposal

Introduction Over the past few years, the topic of homosexuality has become a speaking point in society. Stereotypical archetypes of gender, and sexuality have been broken, and continue to grow and expand. However, mental health among LGBT individuals does not

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

13

improve parallel with the acceptance of homosexuality. While some studies indicate that acceptance is on the rise, they fail to address core variants behind homonegativity, as well as the location of the study. By addressing these factors, and determining how they differ in Northern and remote regions, mental health and education programs can be formatted to address homonegativity. Classically, homosexuality was considered to be binary, with only gay males, and lesbian females. Previous research, such as Hereks (1998) Attitudes Towards Lesbians and Gay Males (ATLG) scale, only considered attitudes towards stereotypical homosexuals. Hereks scales are widely used in attitude studies, even today. The limited focus of Hereks scale, as well as the stereotypical statements within it, makes it a rather narrow measure. There is another issue concerning previous studies on homosexuality, which is location. Most studies to date sample from large areas in urban settings, where there are usually more education and mental health programs available. However, in Northern areas, or remote areas with little or no mental health programs, homophobia and gender expectations play a more significant role within society.

When studies are conducted, where both the Herek scale, and participants from large areas are used, the results become typical. For example, in Ghavami, Mata, and Wittigs (2010) study on adolescent sexual prejudice towards homosexuals, the results

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

14

simply confirmed the usual studies done on attitudes towards homosexuality. Based on these studies, it would seem that the trend over time has been that homosexuality has become more accepted and that LGBT youth are at less of a risk. However, in remote regions, these trends do not seem to prove true, with little or no explanation as to why. There is also no explanation as for why some members of the LGBT community are still at a higher risk of mental health issues in progressive communities.

Methods The proposed study will attempt to bridge the gap between studies on homonegative attitudes, and provide insight into the reasons behind gradual acceptance, and what mental health professionals and educators can do in remote areas to increase acceptance in underserviced areas.

Participants The subjects, while residing in a Northern city, should also be different in the sense that they come from different backgrounds, and sexualities. Previous studies, like those referenced above, dealt exclusively with heterosexual subjects, and many times, homosexual participants were not included in the data processing.

Apparatus

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

15

Subjects will be given a series of Likert questionnaires, such as modified versions of the ATLG scale, scales looking into gender expectations will be given to all subjects, as well as scales developed to rate acceptance of a wider range of people in the sexuality spectrum. The resulting data will be sorted based on the subjects sexuality, and where they reside. By analyzing the data exclusively from Northern subjects, and comparing it to those who are from outside the area, differences in acceptance in Northern Ontario can be determined, as well as steps which can help improve this process.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM References

16

Chonody, M., Siebert, D., Rutledge, S. (2010). College Students Views Towards Gays and Lesbians. Journal of Social Work Education. 45(3). 499-512.

Collier, K. L., Bos, H., Sandfort, T. (2012). Intergroup Contact, Attitudes Towards Homosexuality and the Role of Acceptance of Gender Non-Conformity in Young Adolescents. Journal of Adolescence. 35(4). 899-907.

Ghavami, N., Mata, J., Wittig, M., (2010). Understanding gender differences in early adolescents Sexual Prejudice. The Journal of Early Adolescence. 30(1). 50-75.

Keiller, S. (2012) Male Narcissism and Attitudes Toward Heterosexual Women and Men, Lesbian Women, and Gay Men: Hostility toward Heterosexual Women Most of All. Sex Roles. 63(7/8). 530-541.

Moradi, B., Tebbe, E. N. (2012). Anti-transgender prejudice: A structural model of associated constructs. Journal of Counseling Psychology. 59(2). 251-261.

HOMONEGATIVITY AND THE SEXUALITY SPECTRUM

17

Riggs, A., Rosenthal, A., Smith-Bonahue, T. (2010). The impact of a combined cognitiveaffective intervention on pre-service teachers attitudes, knowledge, and anticipated professional behaviors regarding homosexuality and gay and lesbian issues. Teaching and Teacher Education. 27(1). 201-209.