Spain's First School of Physics

Spain's First School of Physics: Blas Cabrera's Laboratorio de Investigaciones Fsicas Author(s): Jos M.
Snchez-Ron and Antoni Roca-Rosell Reviewed work(s): Source: Osiris, 2nd Series, Vol. 8, Research Schools: Historical Reappraisals (1993), pp. 127-155 Published by: The University of Chicago Press on behalf of The History of Science Society Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/301698 . Accessed: 28/02/2013 23:51
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SchoolofPhysics: Spain'sFirst Bias Cabrera's Laboratorio de Investigaciones Fisicas

M. and By Jose' Sdnchez-Ron* Antoni Roca-Rosell**
not can Nationalscientific where,"' at leastto thesamedegree. productivity be strongly influenced population, economic and by power, social,political, culand perhaps turalhistory, evenclimate geographical faclocation, amongother nowas in thepast.We know great a deal aboutthespecific tors, effects several of in of thesefactors, mainly thecase of thebig nations but thatcontributed significantly thedevelopment science.Such standard to of sources Joseph as BenDavid's classicTheScientist's inSociety Role seldom beyond go Germany, Great Britain, France,or the UnitedStates.2 Few case studiesare devoted smaller to countries made significant that contributions science(e.g.,Hollandor Italy), to and thebodyof secondary literature declines, geometrically evenexponenor for tially, smallnations witha less-celebrated scientific history. In thisessaywe investigate first the research physics laboratory anysignifiof cance founded Spain,theLaboratorio Investigaciones in de in Fisicas,created Madrid in 1910 by the Junta para Ampliaci6n Estudiose Investigaciones de Cientificas (Board forthePromotion Studiesand Scientific of Research).3 This state-supported institution notattached anyuniversity, was to although mostof itssenior researchers university were professors. Nothing resembling"research a group"or "research school"of physics existedin Spain before thatlaboratory wentintooperation. Indeed,thegreat merit theLaboratorio thatit sucof was ceededin establishing GeraldGeisonhas denominated "research what a school"; that is, "a small groupof maturescientists pursuing reasonably a coherent
*Departamento Fisica Te6rica,Universidad de Aut6nomade Madrid,Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain. **Grup Treballd'Hist6riade la Ciencia,Institut de d'EstudisCatalans,c/.Carme47, 08001 Barcelona, Spain. Wearegrateful GeraldGeisonandLewisPyenson, readthefirst to who draft thepaperandgave of valuablecomments advice,and to FrancesCoulbornKohlerforher careful and of editing the manuscript. I Thomas Schott, "Scientific Productivity International and Integration SmallCountries: of Mathematics Denmark in and Israel," Minerva, 1987,25:3-20. 2 Joseph Ben-David, TheScientist's Role in Society (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall, 1971; 2nd ed., Chicago:Univ.ChicagoPress,1984). 3 Chemistry (mostly physical chemistry) also covered theLaboratorio, wewillnotexamwas in but ine thisdiscipline detailhere. in
v 1993 by The Historyof Science Society.All rights reserved.0021-1753/93/8401-0007$01.00
IT HAS LONG BEEN RECOGNIZED that"sciencedoes notflourish every-
OSIRIS 1993, 8: 127-155
127
128
JOSt M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL
in with side-by-side advancedstudents thesame instiof programme research in tutionalcontextand engaging direct,continuoussocial and intellectual interaction. we and on perspective thefoundation fateoftheLaboratorio To geta proper of at science theturn of situation Spanish general the to needfirst consider more so and context in appeared an institutional cultural The thecentury. Laboratorio and in elsewhere thisvolume, (or discussed assumed) from different thecontexts almosthalfof thatwe havedevoted to of so unfamiliar mosthistorians science, the will Only thisessaytothisbackground. then webe abletounderstand reasons its during exisitfaced someofthedifficulties of for creation theLaboratorio, the its after years in thirty dismantled 1939,lessthan it and tence, why waseffectively founding. of was clearin SectionIII, theLaboratorio a creation theSpanish As becomes by twodecadesthereafter a newgovernin for established 1910and funded state, the mentalorganization, Junta.The dependenceof the Laboratorioon the sometimes situation-worked national political state-and thuson theshifting the so with riseofa fasdisastrously and to to itsbenefit sometimes itsdetriment, underFrancoin thelate 1930s. cistSpanishregime IV as three its decades, weshowin Sections andV,theLaboratorio During first under chemistry and work somesolidexperimental inphysics physical produced of units, in a of theleadership BlasCabrera, specialist themeasurement magnetic for best MiguelCatalan,a spectroscopist known his disand his collaborator V In in of in covery 1922ofmultiplets thespectra manganese. Sections andVI we to contributions this a issuesthatfind place in mostoftheother several address and buildings and programs, laboratory research personnel, volume-funding, neveratof out by the staff the Laboratorio carried The research equipment. and programs originality, its leadingresearch taineda highlevelof theoretical who scientists spenttimeabroadon fellowships by wereimported Laboratorio won of contributions the Laboratorio fromthe Junta.Yet the experimental of the enoughso as to attract interest the attention, international respectful Education Board, which ultimately Foundation'sInternational Rockefeller equipped of providedthe fundsforthe construction a largeand splendidly Nacionalde Fisica y Quimica,completed the newlaboratory building, Instituto in 1931. of the programs "theschoolofCabrera"had staghowever, research Bythen, attack sciunder effective itself found by a and nated, within decadetheInstituto the in Italy, Instituto to group Fascist entists loyal Franco.UnlikeEnricoFermi's it and the whocouldsecure protection resources had patron no longer a political
I GeraldL. Geison,"Scientific of and History Schools," Specialties, Research Emerging Change, couldalso S. which favors, Joseph Fruton research group, 1981,19:20-40;on p. 23. Theterm Science, instiat located a single of (group) it in be appliedtotheLaboratorio that wasa community scientists doingresearch in institutions Spainstopped it other who and tution, thatall thephysicists left for in Contrasts SciinSpain).See Fruton, institutionalized was because physics so poorly mostly (though American Sciences and Biochemical (Philadelphia: in Groups theChemical Research Style: entific of the because influence 1990),Ch. 1,note1.Yetonecanalsospeakofa school Society, Philosophical in its longafter closing the SpanishCivil War(1936-1939): scattered persisted the Laboratorio and someof theLaboratorio's young physicists and universities a fewothercenters, throughout at learned theJunta to similar those they and approaches on research topics with continued chemists laboratory.
SPAIN'S FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS
129
In neededto pursueitsresearch been a programs. anycase, Cabrerahad never of of physicist thestature Fermi, in theendhisresearch and schoolmust conbe a sidered relative with failure, Fermi's of certainly comparison by group nuclear in physicists Rome as well as mostof the schoolsdiscussedelsewhere this in volume.
I. A NATION SCIENTIFICALLY UNDERDEVELOPED
In 1898Spainlostitswaragainst UnitedStates wasforced abandonits the and to last colonies,Cuba and the PhilippineIslands.At the time manySpaniards that thought thecauseofthedefeat thescientific technological was and inferiority of theircountry. the Cortes (Spanish parliament), deputyEduardo At the Vincenti exclaimed 23 June1899: on
I willnotstopsaying, putting asidefalse patriotism, wemust that follow examthe plethat UnitedStates given us. Thiscountry the has to defeated notonly us because it is stronger, becauseit has a higher but levelofeducation thanwe have;in no way because theywerebraver. Yankeehas come up againstour navyor army, No but rather machine a invented someelectrician machinist. by or Therehasbeenno fight. We have been defeated the laboratory in the offices, at sea or on the in and not mainland.5
The 1898 defeat helpedadvancesciencein Spain,butother factors conalso tributed. Although Spaindid notbecomean industrialized nation until midthe dle ofthiscentury,bourgeois a revolution (calledLa Gloriosa)beganas early as 1868.Among liberal the causesthatthisrevolution promoted theFreeEduwas university and programs, established departments thoseofphysiology new (e.g., and histology theUniversity Madrid). at of In theclimate intellectual of freedom introduced La Gloriosa, indepenby the denceofscience from religion becamean openly debated issue.Forcenturies the Catholic credoand curiahad reigned supreme Spain.Suddenly, appeared in it to liberalsand freethinkers the old chainshad finally that been broken. Thus in 1869,in thewakeoftherevolution, physician the Francisco Sunyer Capdevila felt confident to enough proclaim theCortes:"Man is Science,God is Ignoat rance;Man is theTruth, God is an Error."6 of Darwinism, course,fitted extremely into thisnew Zeitgeist. well Before
cation Act, which abolished censorship,introducedmodern science courses into
1868 Darwin's ideas had made fewinroads in Spain, but La Gloriosa changed the situation completely. Indeed, evolutionism became the leitmotifof the
scientific of literature the day,the scientific theory par excellence, although morebecauseofthephilosophical possibilities offered theleft it to thanbecause
5 EduardoVincenti Reguerra, y Politica pedag6gica: Treinta ahzos vidaparlamentaria de (Madrid: Imp.Hijos de Hernandez, 1916);quotedinYvonne Turin, L'education l'eole enEspagne 1874 et de a 1902:Liberalisme tradition et (Paris:Presses Universitaires, 1959),p. 375. One ofthemoreoutspoken commentators thescientific on dimension thedefeat thebiological of was chemistry professor at the University Madrid,JoseRodriguez of Carracido.On Carracidosee AntonioMoreno Gonzalez,ed., JoseRodriguez Carracido (Madrid:Fundaci6n Banco Exterior, 1991). 6 See Guillermo SanchezMartinez, Guerraa Dios, a la tisisy a los reyes: Francisco Sunery Capdevila,una propuesta materialista para la segundamitaddel siglo XIX espanol(Madrid: Edicionesde la Universidad Aut6noma Madrid,1987),p. 215. de
130
JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON AND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL
of of understanding theneedsand situation contempooftherevolutionaries' the Not theory. surprisingly, orthodox scienceor thedetailsof Darwinian rary reestablished at did right not acceptthenewtheory all; whentheRestoration curriculum into religion theuniversity "official science"in 1874,reintroducing and standing lostits official as back censorship well,Darwinism and bringing the polemicbetween "twoSpains"-liberal of becamethetouchstone a fierce of character thedeThe ideological modern traditional. and and conservative, of existence any "civildiscourse"-to use ThomasGlick's the bate precluded was discourse abysmally expression'-on bothsides,and thelevelofscientific and that or religion, philosophy wasat stake, but low.Itwasnotscience, politics, instituand the to the opportunity makeDarwinism occasion forpromoting normalizaor, sciencewas lost. Whena sortof agreement, better, tionalizing evolutionism decade of thenewcentury, wellintothe first tion,was attained, and par theory excellence, it ceased the be couldno longer considered scienti/ic the of the for to be a symbol thosewhodefended importance sciencefor future of thecountry. of with structures theRestoration 1874did not The return theold political of By half fell that however, science backtothelevelofthefirst ofthecentury. mean, so underpinned manycontemporary knowledge the 1870sand 1880sscientific couldnotstagnate Spainscience needsand devicesthatevenin underdeveloped In a underwent notabledevelopment. The completely. biomedicaldisciplines of of research a consequence thegrowth was for someinstances, support scientific mithe founded first of Thusin 1886theMunicipality Barcelona cities. industrial raof to in laboratory Spaindevoted theproduction thePasteurian crobiological a who was its Ferran, in 1884haddeveloped cholera biesvaccine; director Jaume one the vaccine, first appliedto humans.9 of network instiwhere rudimentary a sciences, If we excludethebiomedical university could be sheltered (hospitals, existedin whichprofessionals tutions the in situation Spain all through nineteenth the chairs,laboratories), typical as century, part was By century theisolatedscientist. theend oftheeighteenth of to and to of ofthediffusion theEnlightenment thanks someextent theefforts in had Valencia, organizations been founded Seville, KingCarlosIII, scientific as (not always Vergara, Barcelona,and Madrid; physics, well as technology in from amongthetopicscultivated those figured distinguished physics), clearly and domihad which invaded France(I1808-1814), But institutions. waragainst VII Fernando once of natedSpanishsoil,and thenthereign thefar-from-liberal meanttheend-whether physical had by theNapoleonicforces been defeated, mostof the existing or interdiction-of lack destruction, of support, explicit did beginto in the secondhalfof thecentury the situation Only institutions.
improve.
in On for chairs, example. Darwinism Spainsee ThomasF. lost Darwinians their 7Several leading Glick, "Spain," in The ComparativeReceptionofDarwinism,ed. Glick, 2nd ed. (Chicago: Univ. Chi-
cago Press,1988),pp. 307-345. was Univ.Press,1988).Thisdivision a Princeton in Einstein Spain(Princeton: F. 8 Thomas Glick, paleontologist, a Catholic LUnderer, Josep Joaquim others, rule: not trend, a universal among general hypothesis. of sometenets theDarwinian accepted was like others, controversial. vaccine, many 1988).Ferran's de Ajuntament Barcelona, (Barcelona:
9Antoni Roca Rosell, Histbria del Laboratori Municipal de Barcelona: De Ferran a Turrb
SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS II. THE PHYSICAL SCIENCES IN SPAIN DURING THE NINETEENTH CENTURY
131
no As faras research concerned, Spanish is the universities played roleinphysics Not the in Spainduring nineteenth century. until1857was a lawpassedcreating in were of then suchstudies until faculties science; of pursued thefaculty philosoand was This situation notuniqueto Spain.Physics, phy. mathematics, someof and humanities werelodgedin philosophy faculties Gerin sciences thenatural German universidid many also; onlyat theendofthenineteenth century a few 10 or for sciences. In Spainphysics, tiescreate specialsections faculties thenatural sciences constituted sections the of and mathematics, chemistry, natural initially in of had but the thefaculty science thestatesystem, in fact science Newton a of 11 were only the very slimpresence. Until1913MadridandBarcelona universities and thedoctorate could be wheresciencestudents could specializein physics; in as of awarded, thesciences in all disciplines, bytheUniversity Madrid.12 only in There,training thephysical sciences was morecomplete; couldlearnadone vancedastronomy mathematical and physics, instance. for Evenat Madrid, howwere dissertations notexpected be original to contributions the to ever, doctoral and was there well.Other as discipline, so research neglected countries followed similar butnotfor longas Spain.In theearly as nineteenth paths, century French in and were doctorats-es-sciences, particularly physics chemistry, notexpected to constitute original piecesofwork; candidates onlyhad to summarize literathe tureand reflect it. Originality quality on and steadily becamethetouchstone of thedoctoral however: between program, 1847 and 1881aboutfifty-seven theses were rejected unsuitable toolowinquality thedoctorate theFaculty as or for in of Sciencesin Paris.13 Another is differencethatin Franceall theuniversities could grant doctoral degrees. That university faculties Spain lackedresearch in incentives and facilities someprofessors theturn thecentury. significant beganto disturb by of One episode followed reception Wilhelm the of Rontgen's discovery X raysin 1895. of in Professors physics theFaculty Sciencesat Barcelona of of replicated genethe rationofX raysand presented their promising results a publiclecture 10 at on February 1896-quite an early date.Butwhenthey triedsoon after perform to withthe new and mysterious (theythought some experiments rays thatthey could detectdeflection X rays),theyfound, theirdismay, of to thatthe few
10 Christa Jungnickel RussellMcCormmach, Intellectual and The Mastery Nature: of Theoretical Physics from OhmtoEinstein, Vol. I: The Torch Mathematics, of 1800-1870(Chicago:Univ.Chicago Press,1986),Ch. 1. II The number sections of variedduring periodunder the consideration; sometimes physics and mathematics formed section, other one at times physics chemistry. a detailed and For study physof ics at Spanishuniversities during nineteenth the century AntonioMorenoGonzalez, Una see cienciaen cuarentena: fisicaacademicaen Espaha (1750-1900)(Madrid:ConsejoSuperior La de Investigaciones Cientificas [CSIC], 1988). 12The regulation allowing onlytheUniversity Madridto grant of doctorates notrescinded was untilthe 1950s. '3 Terry Shinn, "The French ScienceFaculty System, 1808-1914:Institutional Changeand Research Potential Mathematics thePhysical in and Sciences," Historical Studiesin thePhysical Sciences(HSPS), 1979, 10:271-332; and Harry Paul,FromKnowledge Power: W. to TheRise ofthe ScienceEmpirein France,1860-1939(Cambridge: Cambridge Univ.Press,1985),pp. 54-55.
132
to out devicesavailableto themmade it impossible carry the old experimental 14 experiments. of was and In Spain,onlyin astronomy meteorology research anysignificance of character experiThe the out carried towards endofthecentury. observational by allowedthemto be conducted individuals, carried in thesefields out ments equipmodest even couldstillcontribute, with Suchobservers amateurs. mostly for of ofMarsor thesatellites Jupiter, inaboutthesurface to ment, knowledge and currents) somegeophysimeasurements telluric Meteorological stance. (e.g., to attached an academic whether couldalso be donebyindividuals, cal research fields. 1860 By also availablein these Various postswere or institution outside.'5 a stations, had of the Spanishgovernment organized network meteorological In faculties. 1888thegovernand science to attached stateschools mostofthem T. by directed Augusto ArciCentral founded Instituto the ment Meteorologico, or a forecasting, servicethatmanymodern, wouldmis,to provideweather by be modern,stateshad alreadyestablished that time. Even before1800 existedin Spain; a observatories and two official astronomical meteorological in in founded civilone in Madrid,established 1790,and a navalone in Caidiz, these Although of village San Fernando.'6 1753and movedin 1798to thenearby scienmostlate-nineteenth-century routine carried important out centers work, located and did advanced research, San Fernando, tists that felt they notproduce cenand awayfrom mainuniversity cultural the intheSouthofSpain,wastoofar of tersto havemuchimpacton thedevelopment academicscience. saw nevertheless observatoSome late-nineteenth-century Spanishscientists physicalsciencesas a researchries as a possiblerouteto institutionalizing of orienteddiscipline.In Barcelonathe leadingscientists the Academia de in to attempted foundan observatory thecityfrom1883 onCienciasy Artes industrialist a gave successin 1902,whena textile partial Theyachieved wards. beganfunctionit. Observatory to largesumof money establish The Barcelona was ing in 1904, but its funding so meagerthatit could not conductmajor as on also focused observatories a way The SpanishJesuits scientific projects. scientific research: the 1860s theyhad foundedmeby of institutionalizing Islands.17 in stations Cuba and the Philippine and astronomical teorological backto the their the experience brought Once Spain lostthesecolonies, Jesuits in observatories 1904,in Granada two founding geophysical IberianPeninsula, and Roquetes.-8
14 See Antoni y El finisecular: joven Fontser6 su 6poca" Roca Rosell,"La fisicaen la Catalufia de Aut6noma Madrid,1990),Ch. 5. (Ph.D. diss.,Universidad 15 The most Eduard LUnderer, Joaquim Josep were fields in working these scientists representative (cit.n. 14),Chs. 1,2. Theissueof see ComasSolA: Roca,Laftsicaenla Cataluha and Fontsere, Josep a in by was theseconstraints discussed Fontsere "Sobreles cienciesd'observati6 within working 1937,2, rpt.in Ciencia,1982,2:284-285. NovaIbWrica, Catalunya," del de del 16 J. Tinoco, para la historia Observatorio Madrid(Madrid:Talleres Instituto Apuntes de and Lafuente ManuelSelles,El Observatorio Ciidiz 1951);and Antonio y GeogrAficoCatastral, de (Madrid:Ministerio Defensa,1988). (1753-1831) see for werethemostappropriate a colonialsetting: studies and astronomical 17 Metereological 1900-1930 Overseas, Expansion German and Imperialism ExactSciences: Cultural LewisPyenson, in of Empire Reason:ExactSciences Indonesia, Peter (NewYork/Berne: Lang,1985),and Pyenson, (Leiden:E. J.Brill,1989). 1840-1940 Revue du au de de "Les 18 P. de Bvregille, observatoires la Compagnie Jesus debut XXe si&cle," See 1906,3rd ser.,9:10-72, 493-579. Scientifiques, des Questions
SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS
133
In thelatenineteenth a increased popularity century specialcircumstance the ofastronomy Spain. From 1860through in 1912 a seriesoftotaleclipses the of suncouldbe observed from Iberian the As several peninsula. a consequence, foreignastronomical expeditions visitedSpain; thespectacular nature thepheof had a greatimpacton publicopinion, nomenon and hitherto-isolated Spanish astronomers could interact withtheirmore sophisticated from counterparts abroad. Highly important physics nineteenth-century were engineering to in Spain the schools.These schools,foundedor reorganized around 1850, enjoyedmuch higher prestige than university faculties; theywereconceivedon the French model,so thatphysics especially and mathematics important were components oftheir As programs. in France, was physics "sold"mostly itsroleinthetrainfor ingofengineers. is notsurprising, It that therefore, engineers a played leading role in introducing mathematical physical new and ideas and theories intoSpain. Gumersindo Vicufia JoseEchegaray, de and at professors theprestigious Escuela de Caminos(CivilEngineering School)ofMadrid, were prominent exponents of thermodynamics Maxwellian and in electrodynamicsthelastquarter thenineof 19 teenth century.A measure engineers' of in significance Spanish science found is in thecomposition theReal Academiade CienciasExactas,Fisicasy Natuof rales,founded 1847in Madridand considered mostprestigious in the scientific in institution Spain.By 1865,whenEchegaray elected member theAcawas a of demia,of thethirty-six elevenwereengineers, acadcmicos, sevenhigh-ranking military five officers, physicians, three pharmacists, astronomers, physitwo two and theremainder cists, werea miscellaneous group. The contributions (mainly or textbooks, series general of of articles) these engineers almost were never original,butthey fostered modernization theteaching knowledge mathethe of and of matical physicsin particular. The weaknessof mathematical and physical at training thesciencefaculties, where physics studied itsownsake,and was for the lack of opportunities sciencegraduates for and scientists maintained the influence theseengineers of untilthefirst decadesofthetwentieth century, and eventhatlate manyphysicists mathematicians studied engineering and had at
schools.20 III. A NEW INSTITUTION FOR A NEW CENTURY: THE JUNTAPARAAMPLIACION DE ESTUDIOS E INVESTIGACIONES CIENTiFICAS
In theend thesocial crisisthatresulted from losingthewaragainst United the Statesin 1898 had beneficial consequences Spanishculture science.We for and have alreadypointedout thatlack of educationwas identified one of the as causesofthedefeat. Although manyreforms beenimplemented, at least had or
19 On Echegaray and mathematical in physics Spain see JoseM. SanchezRon,"JoseEchegaray: Matemdtico ffsico-matemdtico," Echegaray, SanchezRon (Madrid:Fundaci6n y in Jose ed. Banco Exterior, 1990),pp. 13-132;andSanchez Ron,"La fisica matemdtica Espaha:De EchegarayRey en a Pastor," Arbor, 1990, No. 532,pp.9-59. Echegaray, a versatile character, theNobelPrizefor won literaturein 1904. In Francealso a good manycontributors physics to weregraduates the Ecole of Polytechnique the Ecole Naval: see Terry or Shinn, Savoirscientifique pouvoir et social: L'Ecole Polytechnique, 1794-1914 (Paris: Presses la Fondation de Nationale Sciences des Politiques, 1980). 20 Sanchez Ron,"La fisica matemdtica" n. 19).Themilitary navalauthorities (cit. and hired many highly trained engineers allowed and them leisure publish the to theoretical in treatises many areas.
134
JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL
of during secondhalf theninethe educational system in promoted, theSpanish no on of (e.g.,thecreation institutos themodelofFrench teenth century lycees), its In reached end.21 1900, of existed thecentury as Ministry Education specific of (Ministry Public y de however, Ministerio Instrucci6n the Pu'blica BellasArtes and Instruction Fine Arts)was established. with to if It wouldbe difficult,notimpossible, linkthatministry anyclear-cut of through rapidsuccession governa line,ifonlybecauseit persisted political to tooksomemeasures all orientations, of which ideological ments different of on mainly theelehowever, centered was Thatimprovement, improve education. in appropriate schools), wasinfact as and primaria secundaria mentary (the level as in was of a country which71.5 percent thepopulation illiterate lateas 1900. At high 44.5percent.) theuniversity had to (By 1930thepercentage lowered a still of appliedonlyto theorganization but wereintroduced, they levelnewreforms attenwhich was essentially "theoretical" little (i.e., thatis, to teaching, studies, tionwas paid in thecurriculum practical of As the applications). for faculties to roomsin which accounts agreethatby 1900thefew all sciences, contemporary In be couldhardly calledlaboratories. 1917,referwere experiments performed of Carracido, professor 190 for ring hisbudget 1887through 1,JoseRodriguez to in of dutiesat thefaculties chemistry Madrid(a chairwithteaching biological "Duringfourteen as and complained follows: medicine, pharmacy, sciences), all was as chemistry taught ifitweremetaphysics, theministers biological years, parwereno differences amongthedifferent unanimously (herethere opposing a to for indispensable establishingmostnecessary ties)therequest theelements annuof a in approved budget 6,000pesetas Finally, 1901theCortes laboratory." of of faculties theUniversity Madrid;but material thefive for allyforscientific for a low quarterly, per thatstillmeant ridiculously amount chair:38.25 pesetas chairs.22 to example, each of thechemistry revolutionary a Againstthatbackground, new and, by Spanishstandards, in de Puiblica January was institution createdby the Ministerio Instrucci6n de werein power: Junta the para Ampliaci6n Estudios 1907,whentheliberals not institution onlyfrom Cientificas. was a revolutionary It e Investigaciones context: other no but of thestandpoint Spain'spasthistory, in theinternational tried thattimeto coveras much at of publicor private, anycountry institution, and this provedautonomous indepenorigin, Junta ground. Despiteitsofficial under conservative at its govdent especially though times, throughout existence, seriousdifficulties. it ernments, encountered of of and thanks theefforts influence a small to group inThe Junta created was and a Librede Ensefianza, private progresrelated theInstituci6n to tellectuals who in founded 1876 bya fewprofessors had been institution siveeducational the of in universities 1867-1868(before revolution Septemtheir from expelled
21 Theestablishmentthese in as of to was institutes important thedevelopment science, graduates of and Spanish twentieth-century physicists mathematileading Several jobs couldfind atthem. physics somefor at centers, PedroPuigAdam)taught these A. cians(e.g.,JoseMariaPlans,Miguel Catalan, entire career. their de dela (Madrid: Imprenta espafola Estudios histbrico-criticos ciencia 22 Jose Carracido, Rodriguez p. from 1988),quoting AltaFulla/Mundo Cientifico, del "Alrededor Mundo,"1917;rpt.Barcelona: The was after greatly theJunta created. Junta improved laboratory in 389. The situation Carracido's for in and for expenses upkeep instruction exchange deskspaceand of borea portion thelaboratory's in it for use ofthelaboratory thespecialcourses offered chemistry.
135
ber 1868),owing their to liberal The first was ideas.23 Junta's president Santiago Ramony Cajal, thegreat who histologist wonthe1906NobelPrizefor medicine and physiology. Cajal, whohad to learnanatomy digging corpses from by up the graveyards thehelpofhisfather,country with a knew wellthedifficulfull doctor, tiesfaced scientists young by and students science Spain.He heldthepostof of in president theJunta of until deathin 1934.The moving his of spirit theJunta was, its Jose however, secretary, Castillejo, professor Romanlaw and a discipleof of theinstitucionista Francisco Ginerde los Rios.24 initiatives ideas Castillejo's and wereapproved moreoften thannotbythepermanent boardoftwenty-one memberswho composedtheJunta. The aim oftheJunta to helprenew improve Spanisheducational was and the at system all levels, promoting developing onlytheexactand natural and by not but sciences, disciplines history, like philology, art,and philosophy. law, Believingthatone of themainproblems Spain was thelack of knowledge what in of was goingon in moredeveloped countries, Junta the made it a basic policyto sendgraduate as students, wellas schooland university abroad.The professors, decreecreating Junta 1907 was explicit thispoint:"The country the in on that lives in isolationholds up progress and becomesa decadentone. Because of this,all the civilizednationstakepartin thatmovement international of scientific relationship [thatwe are witnessing present], at including not only the smallEuropeancountries, also nationsthatseem farawayfrom but modern life,such as China and even Turkey, whose colonyof students Gerin manyis fourtimesthe Spanishone; thatis, [we are] last but two amongall theEuropeans."25 Duringitsexistence (1907-1938) theJunta received approximately 9,000 requestsfor of grants, which morethan2,000were granted (22%). As to thecountrieschosen,29% of the holdersof the scholarships wentto France,22% to 14% Germany, to Switzerland, to Belgium, to Italy, to GreatBritain, 12% 8% 6% 4% to Austria, 3%to theUnitedStates. the560university and Of professors who appliedfor grant, (13%) taught faculties sciences, (38.7%)at facula 73 at of 216 tiesofmedicine, (9.4%) at faculties philosophy, 150(26.7%)at faculties 53 of and oflaw.The percentages eachdiscipline all arelisted for (not here)aresignificant: pedagogy, 18.5%;medicine, 18.6%;art,10.6%;law,9.7%;chemistry, history, 6%; 5.7%;natural sciences, philology literature, engineering, phys5%; and 4%; 3.6%; ics,2.4%;mathematics, andphilosophy, 2%; 1%.26 Thesepercentages might seem
23 Vicente CachoViu,La Instituci6n deEnsehanza Libre (Madrid: Rialp,1962);Antonio JimenezLandi,La Instituci6n Librede Enseflanza su ambiente: origenes y Los (Madrid:Taurus, 1973);and Jimenez-Landi, Instituci6n deEnsehanza, II: Periodo La Libre Vol. 2 vols. parauniversitario, (Madrid: Taurus,1987). 24 On Castillejo see Luis PalaciosBafiuelos, Castillejo, Jose fttima etapade la Instituci6n Librede Ensehanza (Madrid: Narcea,1979);Carmela Gamero Merino, movimiento Un europeo renovaci6n de pedag6gica: JoseCastillejo (Madrid:CSIC, 1988);and IreneClaremont Castillejo, Married de "I a Life Stranger: withOne of Spain's Enigmatic Men," MS (April1967). We are grateful Prof. to LeonardoCastillejo, University College, London, providing copyofthislastdocument. for a 25 "Predmbulo Real Decretode 11 de Enerode 1907,creando Junta del la para Ampliaci6n de Estudios Investigaciones e Cientificas," Legislacibn in (Madrid:Junta paraAmpliaci6n Estudios, de 1910),pp. 6-7. 26 Thesenumbers drawn are from Memorias theJunta the that published biannually. theJunta On see also Francisco Laporta, Alfonso RuizMiguel, Virgilio Zapatero, Javier and Solana,"Los origenes culturales la Junta de para Ampliaci6n Estudios," de Arbor, Jan.1987,No. 493, pp. 17-87; July/
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ROCA-ROSELL AND JOStM. SANCHEZ-RON ANTONI
but by favored theJunta, whatthey was to indicate thatphysics notparticularly in was nota majordiscipline Spain. The Junta's revealinsteadis thatphysics Internait the is a to commitment thediscipline clearfrom letter sent Rockefeller Board: tionalEducational
studies scifor fundamental by have Physics chemistry beenconsidered theJunta and in granted scholarships physics 1907 and 1924,theJunta Between entific progress. to for for and chemistry 66 professors graduates laboratory and work, one ortwoand 25 in viz.: in countries, in Germany scholars; in somecases for three years different 5; Switzerland in France15;in theUnitedStates10;in England in Holland2; in 17; Belgium1; in Russia 1; in Monaco 1.27
scientific standing the that was The Junta also convinced improving country's individuals abroad.For whatwouldhappenwhen morethansending required thoseindividuals returned Spain? In the opinionof thosewho createdthe to on scientists; the had from trained Junta, universities no wayofprofiting so many scientific one potential. Consequently, ofthe thecontrary, wouldspoiltheir they centers itsowninwhich of adaimsfrom very the was Junta's beginning to create the two such centers, could be done. In 1910 it established vanced research and the Instituto Nacional de Ciencias FisicoCentrode EstudiosHistoricos the might and the to Naturales, designed control laboratories departments Junta that or The Laboratorio Investigaciones de Fisicaswas founded support create. of still other But to general aspects sameyear. before turning it,wemust consider theJunta. of no required smallamount the was To carry theprogram Junta planning out thaton research matters Spanish the had treasury Pastexperience shown money. the to and was farfrom Nevertheless, contrary all expectations, Junta generous. to was was able to securea budget meager, farsuperior thatrethat,although the at or including uniceivedbyanyother Spanishinstitution center thetime, generosity, though for the versities. is hardtospecify reason thisunprecedented It and the wouldreveal great of ability persevera detailed history study theJunta's with ministers differof but ance ofCastillejo especially, also ofCajal, in dealing as as in under the survived entpolitical regimes different the stripes; fact, Junta of the dictatorship GeneralPrimode Rivera(1923-1930), and the monarchy, the To Castillejo played samerole (1931-1936/9). someextent SpanishRepublic de and to the Laboratorio Investigaciones in relation the Juntain general to of on that physics played behalf Fermi's Fisicasinparticular OrsoMarioCorbino as of a of in Fascist Rome.Corbino, senator theKingdom Italy wellas laboratory in of a professor experimental of (he physics wasalso minister publicinstruction and funds Fermi his for to influence be ableto secure political 1921)had enough the efforts despite basically of It rigid that, group.28 wasalso as a result Corbino's
in M. Ron,ed.,La Junta articles Jos6 Sanchez pp. 1987,No. 499/500, 9-137; andthevarious August 80 de para Ampliaci6n Estudiose Investigaciones Cientificas afos despues,1907-1987,2 vols. (Madrid:CSIC, 1988). Board(IEB), 1.2, Educational 27 JoseCastillejo Wickliffe Rose, 21 July1924,International to New Hills,Tarrytown, York. Pocantico Center, Archive 41.577,Rockefeller in Placein Physics," his TheScienof Groupand theRecapture Italy's 28 Gerald "Fermi's Holton, Univ.Press,1978),pp. 155-198. Case Studies (Cambridge: Cambridge Imagination. tific
137
of a chairintheoretical structure theItalianuniversity, was at physics created the of that couldbe filled it Fermi. thus University Rome,andin sucha way It only by seemsthatin countries with social,political, the and characeconomic, cultural teristics Italyand Spain between of 1910 and 1940an adequatepolitical shelter was necessary maintaining stableresearch for a Neither group. ItalynorSpain had yetreached stageofsocial,economic, educational the and that development made overtly not surprisingly, a fewrepoliticalpatronage unnecessary; only searchgroups thenexisted either in country. The first of budget theJunta was 328,000pesetas, greater the partof which (150,000)went thatinitial yearto scholarships abroad;24,000pesetas wasspent on scientific material different of kinds. The budget increased with steadily, some variance allocation in that reflect changing political circumstances. in 1912 Thus theLaboratorio Investigaciones de Fisicasreceived from Junta the 29,876pesetas for in apparatus, 16,013pesetas 1913,butwhen 1914thestate and in authorized 789,655pesetasfor Junta, the only6,495went theLaboratorio. following to The with samebudget, Laboratorio the year, the received 23,440pesetas. the During 1920sthebudget increased in considerably; 1923 it reached1,609,693 pesetas, with38,953forthephysics In laboratory. 1933,whena newInstituto Nacional de Fisica y Quimica replacedthe old Laboratorio, Junta's the budgetrose to of 3,649,721 pesetas, which Instituto the received morethan300,000.29 then By theJunta's was budget meeting ofGeison'sconditions thesustained one for successofa research school-namely, it"must that haveormust quickly acquiresufficient powerin the local and nationalinstitutional setting secureadequate to financial support and an institutionalized commitment [the]enterprise."30 to Butevenas theJunta obtained increasing amounts money of from treasury, the the laboratories the universities, at engineering schools,and other institutions had limitedsuccessin securing new funds. Some laboratories werecreatedin especially Madrid;Barcelona had fewer Saragossa and fewer still.In 1903,to citeonlyexamples thecapital, Laboratorio Radioactividad installed in a de was underthe direction the chemistJoseMufiozdel Castillo,and in 1907 a of Laboratorio MecanicaAplicadadirected Leonardo de by Torres Quevedo.Howthe ever, physics laboratories (general physics, thermodynamics, electricity and and magnetism, acoustics and optics)oftheFaculty Sciencesat Madridwere of stillin a poorcondition.31 Whenin 1925August Trowbridge, formerlyphysics a professor Princeton then at and director EuropeofthePhysical Biological for and SciencesSectionof the International EducationalBoard,visitedMadrid (for reasonsdiscussed SectionVI), he stated in thatthe"regular laboratories the of
29 Figuresobtained fromthe Memorias publishedby the Junta, e.g.,Memoria correspondiente los a anos 1912 y 1913 (Madrid: Juntapara Ampliaci6n de Estudios, 1914); and fromthe Libros de Actas (notebooks) kept at the Junta Archives, Residencia de Estudiantes, Consejo Superior de InvestigacionesCientificas(CSIC), Madrid. 30 Geison, "Scientific Change, EmergingSpecialties, and Research Schools" (cit. n. 4), p. 26.
JoseM. SanchezRon,EstebanTerradas: Cienciay tecnica la Espaha contemporanea en (Barcelona:

INTA/El Serbal, 1990); and Mariano Tomeo Lacrue, Biografia cientificade la Universidad de Zaragoza (Zaragoza, 1962).
investigaci6n Madrid (Madrid: Asociaci6n Espafnolapara el Progresode las Ciencias, 1913), pp. de 155-163, esp. "Laboratorios y catedra de ffsica la Facultad de Ciencias." For some information de on Barcelona and Saragossa see Roca Rosell, Lafisica en la Cata/una(cit. n. 14); AntoniRoca Rosell and
31 ForMadrid circa1913seeResenade losprincipales establecimientos y laboratorios cientificos
de
138
was or in in or instruction research physics chemistry carried University" which than better is considering-physics a little out were"in myopinionnotworth the and in has (chemistry aboutnonewhatever) possibly chemistry equipment sciencehavesomevalue,buttakenas a whole,I coursesin elementary lecture laboratories."32 in worseconditions University have neverseen anywhere whatwas considagainst voiceswereraisedin theuniversity Not surprisingly, Espafolaparael At of situation. theCongress theAsociaci6n ereda mostunjust of for de Progreso las Ciencias(SpanishAssociation theAdvancement Science) of professor general JoseGonzalezMarti, heldin Sevillein 1917,forexample, thathe at in at physics Madrid,declared one of themainlectures themeeting denied resources was understand acceptthattheJunta offered nor couldneither workof thedirectors, eventhemajority thescientists and Since totheuniversity. supof the personnel, effect thestate university were laboratories, ingat theJunta intotwo Marti, dividetheprofessors "to Gonza'lez was,insisted of port theJunta out unabletocarry at exclusively theuniversity with categories," thoseremaining that argued He, becauseoflackofresources.33 as wellas others, research original of efforts impossithe decentralization research was theJunta making necessary cenin wouldremain theendtheonlyrealscientific ble,and thatitslaboratories tersthroughout Spain. tried GonzalezMartihad already before Sevillecongress the In fact, years five with helpoftworight-wing the of professors to to giveforce hiscritique theJunta of also del of JoseMufioz Castillo, a member the oftheMadridFaculty Sciences, 19 a of and Feliu, member theSenado.On 13July 12thephysiCortes, Bartolome de Fisicas, at then working theLaboratorio Investigaciones Vecino, cistJeronimo that warnedBlas Cabrera,its director, Gonzalez Marti(who had been one of and "to the at teachers theuniversity) planned abolish Junta theLaboCabrera's to centers that spendtogivesalaries theassisand ratorio, touse themoney these for at and Arguments tantswho help withexperiments universities institutes. becausetheroleofthe is thattheLaboratorio uselessas a center suchabolition: On occasionCabrera, and is professors notresearchers."34 that university totrain of the and obtaining support a and quickly energetically, Castillejo, Cajal reacted Yet may professors. thewidesupport nothave of university number Spanish large later somewho for in sincere all instances, lessthanthirty years beencompletely
Center. 32August Archive Rose, to Trowbridge Wickliffe 4 May 1925,IEB 1.2,41.577,Rockefeller these ("on of of laboratories theFaculty Pharmacy thewhole the also Trowbridge mentioned chemical of number the and to not enough takecareofall applicants thegreater aregood. . . [although] large of the under intolerable conditions"); laboratories theDepartto are students forced work university Theselaboratoand devoted physics chemistry. to in ("no instruction theparts of ment PublicHealth and with Ordnance the the connected and thelaboratories labs riesare testing pureand simple"); someinis and in ("Heretheequipment physics chemistrygood, Army of Corps theSpanish Engineer in for who officers volunteer training theselines.Thereis a semiis struction givento younger of be must members the as though thescientists with staff permanent connected theselaboratories, See in to training research"). also they establishment, arenotlikely be menofanyscientific military i visit of the discussion Trowbridge's to Madridin ThomasF Glick,"La Fundaci6Rockefeller (Barcelona: Veguillas de in La Espanya: crisidels laboratoris," Histbria la fisica,ed. Luis Navarro Actas de en de "Estadode la ensefianza la ffsica las universidades Espafia," GonzalezMarti, 33 Jose de Espaholapara el Progreso las Ciencias,1917,1:35-57. de SextoCongreso la Asociacibn of CSIC. The complete history 13 Archives, 1912,Junta to Vecino Blas Cabrera, July 34 Jer6nimo (bookin in thisepisodewillbe documented JoseM. SanchezRon,"El mundode Blas Cabrera" preparation).
CIRIT, 1988), pp. 367-371.
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in 1912 sided withtheJunta critics it. On theother of appearedas ferocious not hand,in 1912itwould havebeeneasytoanswer personal a letter from imthe posingand vehement Cajal in thenegative. As to Gonza'lez Marti'sarguments 1917,it is difficult saywhether uniin to a form more and distribution resources of equitable would haveallowed univerthe sity professors becomemore to creative scientists. tactic The chosen theJunta, by and indirectly mostprobably and thepoliticians, fact in unwittingly by yielded splendid fruits, in especially, not though only, thecase ofphysics. centralizaThe tionof scientific in research theLaboratorio Investigaciones de Fisicas and its isolation from other centers Spain meantthatit was easy, factalmostunin in avoidable, establish "schoolofphysics" to a there. Isolation, lack continuity, of satisfactory professional opportunities scientific elsewhere, and competence, a minimum levelofsuccessare elements seldomfailto produce that whatcan be called a school, evenwhenseveral branches physics of werebeingcultivated sias multaneously, was thecase withour Laboratorio.
IV. BLAS CABRERA'SRESEARCH PROGRAM
Blas Cabrera(1878-1945), the director the Laboratorio Investigaciones of de Fisicas,was Spain'sforemost in physicist thefirst ofthetwentieth half century; indeed,he was the first physicist anyinternational of stature thehistory in of Spanishscience.36 Bornin Arrecife, in Lanzarote, theCanary he Islands, traveled to Madridin 1894with aimofstudying butsoonmoved theFaculty the law, to of Sciences, his obtaining degree in (licenciado) 1900.To qualify thedoctoral for exin amination thephysicomathematical in section, addition submittingdisto a it sertation, was necessary follow to three courses: theoretical experimental and astronomy, mathematical physics, meteorology. and Cabrera's thesis, submitted in October1901,dealtwith topicin meteorology, diurnal a the variations the of wind, didnotinvolve experimental and any work. far weknow hadno suAs as he pervisor, something frequent (indeed,almosttherule)at thetime.37 Soon after his obtaining doctorate, Cabrera revealed himself a prolific as researcher, publishingeight papersbetween 1903 and 1904 on topicsdealing withelectrolytes and withelementary questions electromagnetism. of In January 1903,just at thetimethatCabrerawas launching career rehis in a search, professional society physicists chemists, SociedadEspanhola of and the de Fisicay Quimica, created. was Perhaps timewasripefor institutionalithe the zationofphysics chemistry Spain.One purpose thenewsociety to and in of was publisha journal,theAnalesde la SociedadEspafola de Fisica y Quimica.Its first issue,a modestbookletof forty pages,appearedin March 1903; Cabrera
35 E.g.,thephysician Enrique Sufier, attacked Junta who the pitilessly hisLos intelectualesla in y tragedia espahola(Burgos: Editorial Espafiola, 1937). 36 A few aspects Cabrera's andcareer considered En el centenario Blas Cabrera of life are in de (Las Palmas:Universidad Internacional "PerezGaldos,"[ca. 1978]).Fora full study Sanchez see Ron,"El mundode Blas Cabrera" (cit.n. 34). 37 Blas Cabrera, Variacibn diurnadel viento (Santa Cruzde Tenerife: Imprenta A. J.Benitez, de 1902).Thelackofa supervisor againparallels caseinFrance, the where technically were thethere no sisdirectors, presidents theexamining only of in jury-although practice president a professor the was whoworked with student organizing dissertation. the in the
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alIn that to two contributed papers thatissue,something no one elsedid.38 fact, de del the had though Laboratorio itsownpublication, Trabajos Laboratorio the for the Fisicas,theAnalesconstituted maininstrument thepubliInvestigaciones and at performed theLaboratorio itssuccesof of cation theresults theresearches the did of the Although scientists theLaboratorio notcontrol sor,theInstituto. in their publishing papers had never anydifficulty they Analescompletely, clearly of one fulfilled ofGeison'scharacteristicsa sucthe respect, Laboratorio it.In this school." "research cessful of the Initially, members thenewSociedadEspaholade FisicayQuimicanumwho (39) waspharmacists, wouldprewhom largest the group bered249,among The in than moreinterested chemistry physics. nextlargest havebeen sumably cametheen(38); then of in by was group formed professors thefaculties sciences sciin thehistory Spanishphysicomathematical of present (36), always gineers and Ph.Ds, 14 29 teachers, licenciados 34 ences.Therefollowed nonuniversity 7 clearly identified 9 of at assistant professors thefaculties sciences, astronomers, groupof 30 other and 7 men,2 priests, a miscellaneous as chemists, military persons.39 and of Professor Electricity Magnetism was In March1905Cabrera appointed had of at theMadridFaculty Sciences.Up to thenmostofhisworks dealtwith of Whenin 1909 he was electeda member theReal and magnetism electricity. for he FisicasyNaturales, choseas thesubject his Academiade CienciasExactas, with in address(delivered 1910), "The Etherand Its Relationship inaugural he someofwhoseworks already Einstein, Matter Rest."He did notmention at at them thetime(in understand he apparently did notcompletely knew, although was from Einstein's standpoint he particular, did not perceivehow different conof the Cabreraunderstood meaning Einstein's Soon,however, Lorentz's).40 of and tribution becamethemaininterpreter his ideas in Spain.41 for at of By 1910 Cabrerawas at the summit his profession; theAcademy, example,he and Gonza'lezMarti-much olderthanCabrera-were the only that it para Amtruephysicists. Consequently, is notsurprising whentheJunta it for for laboratory looking a director thephysics pliacionde Estudiosstarted
Enrique 38 Cabrera onlytwochemists, his 68 published papersin theAnalesthroughout career; For (111 and 76,respectively). a bibliometrical more published del MolesandJoseMufioz Castillo, "Aspectos in of analysis the paperspublished theAnales,see ManuelValeraand PedroMarset, de de e bibliometricosinstitucionales la Real SociedadEspafiola Fisicay Quimicaparael periodo 1750y 1850,ed. La espaholantesu historia: cienciaen Espaha entre 1903-1937,"in El cientifico de SantiagoGarma(Madrid:Diputaci6nProvincial Madrid,1980),pp. 391-432. 39 Forthe 1904,No. 14,pp.255June listseeAnalesde la SociedadEspaholadeFisicay Quimica, 346 were there the he when analyzed Sociedadin 1920,when results 264. ThomasGlickhadsimilar to of evolution themembership the in see members: Einstein Spain (cit. n. 8). Forthenumerical bibliometricos" n. 38), p. 413. (cit. "Aspectos Sociedadsee Valeraand Marset, en (Madrid:Real Academiade con El 'tery sus relaciones la materia reposo 40 Blas Cabrera, de para el Progreso las Ciencias, Espafiola of meeting theAsociaci6n Ciencias,1910).At thefirst thatexplained of a held in Saragossain 1908,Cabrerapresented paperon thetheory electrons only Einstein's theory as He of concepts light. mentioned electromagnetic and Maxwellian Hertzian to of On theory. the introduction relativity Spain see Glick, electron of a refinement Lorentz's Recepin "Relativity Spain,"in TheComparative in Einstein Spain(cit.n. 8); andThomasF Glick, ed. tionofRelativity, Glick(Boston:Reidel,1987),pp. 231-263. de de (Madrid:Publicaciones la Residencia de Principio relatividad 4' See, e.g., Blas Cabrera, see 1986),where also theintroCientifico, Altafulla/Mundo 1923;2nd.ed.,Barcelona: Estudiantes, de pp. JoseM. SanchezRon,"Blas Cabreray el principio relatividad," v-xxi. duction,
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it its of wanted create, fixed eyeson theyoung to and professor electricity magAnd sinceCabrerawas essentially experimentalist, netism. an interested espeof ciallyin themagnetic as of properties matter, wellas in someaspects physical he candidate lead an experimental to chemistry, was an appropriate center covering and somebranches chemistry of physics (especially, physical chemistry). Eventhe"theoretical" werenever papershe published intended original as conbut if tributions, rather reviews, notpopularizations, thenewtheories as of of otherphysicists. This lack of original theoretical talent was one ofCabrera'smainweaknesses as a physicist. all whether Indeed, thescientists, or who physicists chemists, gatheredat theLaboratorio Instituto and their shared same the throughout existence exclusively experimental to approach physics chemistry. significant and No theoretical paperevercame out of either incarnation theinstitute. reasonis of The difficult specify. to at of Perhaps thebeginning thecentury, when theoretical physicswasnotyet wellestablished Spain,thefocus experiment unavoidable in on was for group physicists chemists a of and to in starting do research a country without a tradition original of scientific It investigation.wasthen easiertomanipulate apparatusthanto elaborate theories, sincethe mathematicians the especially of werealso trying consolidate country to themselves modernprofessionals, as attention paying to puremathematics theexpense appliedmathemostly at of matics.42 Indeed,it is striking the situation Spain resembled how in thatin a as country differenttheUnitedStates, as where, John as Servos shown, has mathematics was making great but in strides, mainly areasremote from needsof the experimental scientists.43 Soon after the assuming directorship theLaboratorio, of Cabrera askedfor one of the scholarships granted theJunta. doubthe realizedthatit was one by No to thing be a successful in physicist Spain,publishing there easilyand often, and to quiteanother be a competitive international physicist. 12 April1912the On Junta himthescholarship, five granted "for months, with400 pesetasmonthly, plus600 for travel, 500 for and material, visit to physics laboratories towork and on magnetism France,Switzerland, Germany."44 in and Cabrera the spent grealer ofhisgrant part periodat theZurich Polytechnikum, in working thelaboratory theFrench of physicist Pierre Weiss, whowasbythen a scientist an established with reputation theEuropean in scientific community, esin of pecially thefield magnetism. Cabrera's projected almost stay cameto nothing:The Spanish physics professor academico and arrived Zurich in early May in 1912,together hiswife with and son,without either knowing Weissorhaving informed himofhis forthcoming It was onlywithdifficulty, visit. although rather that quickly, he and thechemist Enrique Moles(headofthechemistry section of
42 On this see point Sanchez Ron,"La fisica matemitica Espafia" n. 19).One exception en (cit. was theattention totensor paid calculus the1920sand 1930s, in owing thepopularity Einstein's to of theory general of in relativity Spain.However, Spanish physicists mathematicians) notmake (or did original contributions thistheory to during period. this 43 John W. Servos, "Mathematics thePhysical and Sciencesin America, 1880-1930," Isis, 1986 77:611-629.MostSpanish physicists chemists went and who abroaddid so to perfect their skills in thelaboratory. maindifferencethat Spainthetrend The is in lasted theCivilWar(1936),while till in theUnitedStatesit beganto change significantly around1914. 44 Librosde Actas, Junta para Ampliaci6n Estudios, de Junta Archives, CSIC.
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and the Laboratorio,who accompanied him to Zurich) attractedWeiss's interest confidence.45 not only career, The monthsspentin Zurich werecrucialin Cabrera's scientific dealt withthe studyof weaklymagnetic because most of his researchthereafter to substances,but also because he wouldjoin forceswithWeiss in trying provethe whichwas, accordingto theFrenchprofessor, existenceofthe"Weiss magneton," Throughouthis career,Cabrera accuthe naturalunitof molecularmagnetism.46 mulated a wealth of carefullyselected experimental measurements that he thought proved the existence of this magnetic unit, which was nevertheless unit of magneticmomentby the "Bohr eventuallydisplaced as the fundamental fivetimes biggerthan the Weiss unit. Indeed, one of magneton,"approximately of the theconclusionsto be drawnfrom history Spanish physicsfrom1907, when the Juntawas created,until 1936, the yearwhen the Spanish Civil War began, is interests, especially those theyacthat physicistsseldom abandoned theirfirst confirms the or abroad. Cabrera's case certainly quired while studying working rule.47 only in a non-quantumcontext, Because the Weiss magnetonwas meaningful of whereas the Bohr magneton,which was deduced fromthe quantification the electron orbits, was a proper quantum construct,Cabrera's commitmentto position,especiallyafterabout 1930. Weiss's view oftenplaced him in a difficult For example, at the 1930 Solvay Conference,whichwas devoted to magnetism, Cabrera could only concede that the in of then so known thephysics theatom, ifone considers thephenomena far all or molecules in with atoms with is of theory remarkable dealing success thequantum in atoms.... Allcasesofparamagnetismgas as which be considered polynuclear can of with by degree exactitude this and maybe interpreted a high to belong thisgroup theory. the Weiss magnetonappeared clearlyonly in the more complex In particular, chemical structures, becausetheatom'ssurbe developed, cannot accurately theory the where quantum the with apdeformed....[T]hepersistence which Weissmagneton faceis heavily to cannot attributed be unitof atomicmoments pearsin thesecases as thenatural so results the has quantitative purechance.In thecase of rareearths, theory given to not difficult to ascribe that that observations it is certainly nearto theempirical of hencetheverification theWeiss of the agreement valueofa proof itsexactitude;
than experience Cabrera; more international had chemist, much andcompetent a 45 Moles, prolific under CarlDrucker. of Institute Leipzig, in 1908till 1910he worked theOstwald from des des "Surla rationalite rapports moin Weiss, 46 Weiss the introduced magneton 1911: Pierre 1911,1:900-912,965-988. de Journal Physique, et moleculaires le magneton," magnetiques ments or The "Weiss's Magneton: SinofPride a Venial Qu6dec, see magneton Pierre of Fora study theWeiss (p. Quedecstates 360):"Their and Cabrera, to HSPS, 1988,18:349-375.Referring Weiss Mistake?" years." wouldlastnearly thirty of on jointcombat behalf themagneton or 47 Foranother learned a young and by influence thelessons models of of instance theprofound Jr., on abroad,see thearticle WilliamH. Perkin, by Jack whenstudying scientist inexperienced of ideology reAdolf Baeyer's von forgot out, points never as Perkin, Morrell volume. in Morrell this as of onlyin theintensity thephenomenon; is The case oftheMadridLaboratorio peculiar search. abroad. from them had scientists to import Junta wereno modelsavailablein thecountry, there
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In is it that magneton stillmorecertain. ouropinion is evident themechanics elecof is tronic established systems notyetcompletely [emphasis added]. In otherwords, Cabrera was led to the conclusion that the problems in understandingthe Weiss magnetonin termsof the new quantum theory, fromdisfar creditingthat unit, meant that a new theoreticalformulation was needed: If one takesintoaccount wayin which newmechanics, one side,and the the the on idea oftheWeissmagneton, theother, on represent experimental the then results, one is ledtoconsider them successive as in approximationstheinterpretation ofreality.48
ofthosemeasurements beenmadebyCabrera, had whosenamethus appeared in thebookmorefrequently anyother than experimenter's.50 significant Other contributions Cabreraincludedhis modification theCurie-Weiss forthe by of law rareearths, thederivation an equationfor atomicmagnetic and of the moment thatincluded temperature the effect.51
48 Blas Cabrera, "L'etudeexperimentale paramagnetisme: magneton," Le magnitisme: du Le in Rapports discussions sixikme et du Conseil Physique, a Bruxelles 20 au 25 Octobre de tenu du 1930 (Paris:Gauthier-Villars, 1932),pp. 81-159,quoting from 149-150.John Vlecksaid later pp. Van of thecongress "byand large wascomposed peopleofvery that [it] of great but distinction, oftentimes without muchbackground magnetism, in someof whomdid notunderstand sympathize or with quantum mechanics. Weisswas a hold-out his Weissmagneton, for which nowrecognized be is to completely spurious, whichtooka great but deal of thetimeat thatCongress." Vleck,interVan viewwith Charles Weiner, Feb. 1966,p. 13,Center History Physics, 28 for of American Institute of Physics, York. New Nineyears before congress Vleck the Van himself thought In otherwise. a Harvard paperhe wrote: "The Weissmagneton probably is in connected somewaywith quantum the theory, foritoccurs regularly be explained a satisfactory bythetheory probability pure too to in way of and but chance, noquantitative explanation to according thequantum has beengiven." theory yet Quoted in Frederick Fellows, H. VanVleck:The Early H. "J. Lifeofa Mathematical Physicist" (Ph.D. diss., Univ.Minnesota, 1985). 49 See, e.g., Blas Cabrera, estructura los dtomos moleculas "La de y desdeel punto vistafisico," de An.Soc. Espah.Fis. Quirm., 1925,23:101-122,211-222,239-249;Cabrera, dtomo suspropieEl y dades electromagneticas (Madrid: EditorialPaez, 1927); and Cabrera,"Ideas actuatessobrela Las of 1934,1:53-63. On theearly of stages theintroduction thequantum material" Ciencias, ideas in Spain see Antoni Roca Rosell,"L'impacte la hip6tesi de quAntica Catalunya," El cientifico a in espafolantesu historia, Garma(cit.n. 38),pp. 383-387;and JoseM. SanchezRon,"La ciencia ed. espafiola internacionaliza: introducci6n la teoria se La de en cuintica Espafia (1908-1919)," Cinin quanta anys ciencia tecnica Catalunya de i a (Barcelona: Institut d'Estudis Catalans, 1987), 71-88. pp. 50 John Van Vleck,"Cabrera'sExperiments the EarlyTheory Paramagnetism," En el and of in centenario Blas Cabrera n. 36),pp. 21-30.VanVleck's de (cit. bookwasa pillar thequantum of theory of magnetism: Theory Electric Magnetic The of and Susceptibilities (Oxford: Oxford Univ.Press, 1932). 5'1SomeofCabrera's works summarized BlasCabrera, etparamagnetismestructure are in Diaet de la matiere (Paris: Hermann, 1937); and Cabrera,El magnetismo la materia(Buenos Aires: de Instituci6n Cultural Espafiola, 1944).
contributed,alone or with some of his collaborators in the Laboratorio and Instituto, its development.49 to Thus, when JohnVan Vleck reviewedthe literatureof measurements the magneticsusceptibilities rareearthsaltsforincluon of sion in The TheoryofElectricand Magnetic Susceptibilities, foundthatmany he
To someextent, suggestion an agreeable ofeluding problem, this was way the becauseit allowed to Cabrera keepbelieving theWeissmagneton, in whileat the same timeaccepting as quantummechanics a satisfactory for theory thetime not being, though clearly a final one.Indeed, Cabrera himself the promoted introductionof quantum in theory Spain through books,articles, lectures, and and
144
thoughby no means complete,view of Cabrera's approach to reA perceptive, search was expressed by the physicist Charles Mendenhall when he visited Madrid in March 1926 on behalf of the RockefellerInternationalEducation Board. In his reportto the IEB he stated: parof in interested thestudy magnetism, if is Prof. Cabrera largely, notexclusively, me He and of uponthetheories Langevin Weiss. impressed as in ticularly itsbearing out in interested working too somewhat much but ingenious, perhaps experimentally of couldbe used withthemaximum convewhich of nice arrangements apparatus me He a during longseriesof observations. showed a nienceby theexperimenter had which beenmadeintheshop instruments constructed beautifully of number very in much interest improvwhich indicated or but ofthelaboratory I sawlittle nothing out or ingapparatus in trying newideas.52 In 1928, thanksto thequalityof his work,and probablyalso to his positionas a Cabrera was electeda member community, of representative a marginalscientific of the Commission ScientifiqueInternationaleof the InstituteInternationalde Physique Solvay.In 1930 he was also made a memberoftheComite International in des Poids et Mesures in Paris, of which he became secretary 1933. In Spain, as thoughhe was neverso public figure Cajal, Cabrera got all the honorshe could of of reasonablyexpect,beingnamed rector the University Madrid and president of the Academy of Sciences and of the Sociedad Espafiola de Fisica y Quimica. to When the Spanish Civil War began in 1936, Cabrera soon wentwithhis family he the Paris,receivinga small salaryfrom Bureau des Poids et Mesures. Although planned to returnonce the war was over,the new political regimelet him know clearlythathe would not be welcome,no doubt because of his past relationwith orgathatFranco's regimesaw as a dangerousand leftist an the Junta, institution Conof to nizationthatcontributed the degeneration manySpanish intellectuals. wentin withsuch a situation,Cabrera,like so manySpanish intellectuals, fronted 1941 to Mexico City,in whose Facultyof Sciences he taughtuntil his death in 1945.
V. THE LABORATORIODE INVESTIGACIONES FISICAS
Fisicas was establishedby theJuntain 1910. The Laboratorio de Investigaciones It was housed in the so-called Palacio de la Industriay de las Artes,a largebuilding thatalso accommodated the Museum of Natural Sciences, TorresQuevedo's Laboratoryof Applied Mechanics, the School of IndustrialEngineers,and the the Royal Societyof Natural History.Initially, Laboratoriohad foursections:meit and physicalchemistry; had nine rooms (two spectroscopy, trology, electricity, foreach group,plus one forlibraryand seminars).3 Though therewereobvious constantin of such as the impossibility keepingthe temperature shortcomings,
52 Charles 24 of "Report Visit... in Madrid," March1926,pp. 1-2,IEB 1.2,41.579, Mendenhall, that comment Spanish with earlier our statement Mendenhall's agrees Center. Archive Rockefeller interests. first to difficult abandontheir it found very physicists in manner 1909; in that began operating a provisional indicate theLaboratorio 53 Somedocuments de de t6cnico para el fomento la de Quevedo,"Proyecto creaci6n un centro see LeonardoTorres see of CSIC. Fora description thelaboratory Archives, 2 cientifica,"Jan.1909,Junta investigaci6n establecimientos n. 31),pp. (cit. in Fisicas," Resehade losprincipales de "Laboratorio Investigaciones 167-173.
145
of or it the therooms, themechanical instability thefloors, was adequatefor inwas tended work, it which, theway, notrestricted to research; wasalsothe by only coursesforadvancedstudents. Laboratorio's dutyto offer These experimental related the research coursesusuallycoveredbasic techniques to dealt subjects with theLaboratorio, supporting at thus Olesko'sseemingly obvious but Kathryn often a form continue exist nor to disregarded point: schoolcouldneither without for advancedstudents. provision instrucsome mechanism instructing The for tionalso fulfills ofGeison'scriteria a successful one for research school-"a readilyavailablepool oftalented potential recruits."54 almost thesenior Moreover, all scientists theLaboratorio of were at professors theUniversity Madridandthus of ableto recruit research students as was easily, theLaboratorio practically only the place in townwhere licenciado a could expectto do seriousresearch. The surviving documents notallowus to knowexactly do whoworked the at Laboratorio 1910and 1911,butit seemsalmost during certain Cabrera that and EnriqueMolesdid mostofthepreliminary and inplanning research. Moles,for stance,designed sectionof physical the chemistry the modelof the following in Ostwald Institute Leipzig, where had studied.55 1912,however, he By there was the alreadya seniorstaff: physicists Cabrera,Jer6nimo Vecino,and Manuel MartinezRisco, and the chemists Moles, Angeldel Campo, JulioGuzmain, SantiagoPiha de Rubies,and Le6n Gomez-nearlyall ofthemfull assistant or professors theMadridFaculty Sciences, at of which meant they todivide that had theirtimebetween two institutions. judge from authorship the the To the of twenty-one paperspublished during 1912-1913and theeight progress in then, eighteen persons worked theLaboratorio thattime.56 at at By 1914 thestructure thelaboratory almostcomplete. of was Therewerefive central groups: directed Cabrera, dedicated physics, by and mainly suchrather to and miscellaneous general topicsas thephysical properties metals electric of in and magnetic and fields, optics;physical chemistry (Moles);magneto-chemistry (Cabrera); and electrochemistry electroanalysis (Guzmain); spectroscopy and (del Campo). At least untilthe 1920s thesewerethe main topicspursuedat the Laboratorio. scheme The was very simple: groups the werecentered a leader, on and the emphasis was upon physics,especiallymagnetism, and physical chemistry-the fields Cabreraand Moles. Sucha limited of and interconnected field interests someadvantages; particular, groups of had in the collaborated a to highdegree during first the years, whenCabreracoauthored paperswith Moles, Guzman,and Piha de Rubies.In thissense,too, one can speakof a "research in school," although at leastone aspectitdiffers the"ideal"research from school with "charismatic" a director posited Jack by Morrell.57 Although wasa comhe scientist administrator, petent and Cabrera farfrom was possessing scientific the stature charisma a Liebig,an Ostwald, Sommerfeld, a Fermi. or of a or
54 See Kathryn Olesko's M. article this in as volume, wellas Olesko, Physics a Calling: as Discipline andPractice the in Konigsberg Seminar Physics for (Ithaca, N.Y./London: Cornell Univ.Press, 1991); and Geison,"Scientific Change"(cit.n. 4), p. 26. 5 Moles described his activities Ostwald'slaboratory "Un cursote6ricoy practicode at in Quimica-Fisica," Analesde la Junta paraAmpliacibn Estudios Investigaciones de e 191 Cientificas, 1, 4:69-87. 56Memoria correspondiente ahos 1912y 1913(cit.n. 29). a los 57 Jack Morrell, B. "TheChemist Breeders: Research The Schools Liebig Thomas of and Thomson," Ambix, 1972,9:1-46.
146
scienout reached totheinternational years Laboratorio the early these During in standing the in waysand acquiredsomeinternational tific community several to and of level,itwasa policy theJunta theLaboratorio At process. thesimplest came,they many not in to scientists lecture Madrid;although very invite foreign Pierre Weyl, Hermann Sommerfeld, Arnold Einstein, Albert weredistinguished: for and Otto Weiss,ErwinSchrbdinger, Honigschmidt, Paul Scherrer, example. researchthe of policy sending Laboratorio was Evenmoreimportant theJunta's to ersabroad,as we saw in thecase ofCabreraand Moles,whowent Zurichon who and in all Junta scholarships 1912.Almost thephysicists chemists became received or permanently temporarily, in whether researchers theInstituto, senior to del abroad.Thusin 1909Angel Campowent Paristo and to grants study work AmRisco visited Urbain;in 1909-1910,ManuelMartinez withGeorges work for out with Peter Zeeman,carrying theresearch where collaborated he sterdam, to went Leipzigto work In Guzmain dissertation.8 1912-1913Julio hisdoctoral in six Pifia Rubiesspent months Genevaand Rusde Santiago CarlDrucker; with at in metrology the months Paris, studying three Vecinospent sia; and Jeronimo des BureauInternational Poids et Mesures.In 1916-1918JulioPalacios,who went of group theLaboratorio, diffraction wouldbecometheleaderoftheX-ray In Onneson lowtemperatures. 1921 with HeikeKammerlingh to to Leyden work wentto Paris,wherehe workedwith brother, JuanCabrera,Blas's younger In de Physiques. 1929 and Mauricede Brogliein his Laboratoire Recherches in who Cabrera'scollaborator, whilein exilein England 1932 Arturo Duperier, to wentsuccessively on the late 1930swon fameforhis research cosmicrays, he withPierre where worked he Strasbourg, Weiss,and to Paris,where worked scientific these history, In of Maurin. thelight Spain'spastscientific with Charles withwell-chosen objectives. group, a impressive constitute rather voyagers theseinterat to of the Besidesexposing recipients thegrants work thecenter, scientific of attention thewider Spainto theinternational visits brought national first Cabrera'sstayin Zurichmayhaveled Jakob Laub, Einstein's community. to to (December1915-March1916) in coauthor, arrange spenda fewmonths Univerat the Madrid.Laub,whohad occupied chairofgeophysics theNational with summer since1911,spent partofan Argentine of sity La Platain Argentina two in Madrid, Laub published World WarI. While before WeissinZurich Pierre alone and one withCabrera.59 one piecesof work, written abroadcouldpay of scholarships example thewayin which The moststriking a chemist the spectroscopy in group was thatof MiguelCatalan. Catalan, off Colat Fowler's laboratory theImperial since 1915,spent1920-1921at Alfred in London.Whenhe first joinedtheLaboratorio, legeofScienceand Technology of groupunderthe directorship Angeldel the workdone by the spectroscopy of of consisted at theUniversity Madrid, primarily a chemistry professor Campo,
58 Manuel Risco,Oeuvres rpt. de de Risco,La asimetria lostripletes Zeeman, inMartinez Martinez de Universitaires France,1976). (Paris:Presses scientifiques 59Jakob los iluminando bordesde difractada producida Laub, "Sobreuna especiede radiaci6n An. Rontgen," Soc.Espan.Fis. Quim.,1916,14:52-61;and Laub and BlasCacon los cuerpos rayos en ibid,1917,15:51gamma," de "Acerca la acci6nde los bordesde los orificios los rayos brera, (cit.n. 17),pp. 163-202,227and Imperialism ExactSciences Cultural 54. On Laub see Pyenson, "SilverHorizon:A Note on theLaterYearsof thePhysicist-Diplomat 228; and Lewis Pyenson, 1988, und Lateinamerikas, von fur Laub,"Jahrbuch Geschichte Staat,Wirtschaft Gesellschaft Jakob 25:757-766.
147
"spectrum of WhenCatalanreturned Spain,thenature analysis minerals."60 to of the spectroscopical works carried at theLaboratorio out changed dramatically. Whilestudying spectra manganese London,he discovered in the of multiplets.61 The discovery suddenfame theLaboratorio placeditat theforeto brought and of front theresearch then donein quantum being from time that physics. Indeed, onwards ofCabrera's one whenasking moreresources director for arguments, as oftheLaboratorio, that Spanish was the group (i.e.,Catalanand a few collaborators)shouldnotlose theprestigious had achievedin theworld position they of physics. It is well knownthat Catalan's discoveryrapidlyreceiveda theoretical interpretation ArnoldSommerfeld Munich.(This episodealso reveals from in the good effect the Junta's of in policyof bringing foreign In lecturers.) the of spring 1922 Sommerfeld visited Barcelona and Madridunder auspicesof the theJunta, on lecturing severalaspectsof quantum In theory.62 Madridhe met Catalan, alreadyback from London. As a result thatvisit,a collaboration of beganbetween Madridand Munich.On 20 June1924 Sommerfeld approached theInternational Educational Boardasking to grant scholarship Catalan it a to so thatthelatter could spenda yearat theMunichInstitute, he is married "as and has to provideforhis livinghimself." (Catala'nwas in facta highschool teacherand obtaineda university professorship-aspecialone, sponsored by theAcademy Sciences-in 1932.) Referring Catalan's"fundamental of to work on the spectrum mangan,"and the "exchangeof thoughts scientific of on questions"thatthetwohad had "continuously" sincetheir in meeting Spain, Sommerfeld wenton:
His work themangan-spectrum fitted on ... admirably with aspect thequanin the of tumtheory I which developed 1920in the"Annalen Physik" in der Vol. 63. I myself have interpreted a theoretical on basis in the "Annalen Physik" der Vol. 70, Mr. Catalan'sresults. Catalanhas sinceusedmymethod a series further Mr. in of importanttreatises (published "Analesde SociedadEspailola")on thespectrum Sc, in of Mo, Cr.He also gotvery goodresults thespectrum iron, study on of a thatgoestogether withhis work Washington Munich.63 in and
WithSommerfeld's support, Catala'n thegrant. got Appropriately, nextyear the (1925-1926),another grant from IEB sentKarlBechert, the with whomCatalan had collaborated Munich, Madrid.64 in to The very strength theLaboratorio thecentral of as institution Spainmainin taining contacts abroadhada corresponding drawback: those only whoremained in the Laboratorio upon theirreturn from scholarships abroadkeptdoingresearch.Thus MartinezRisco conducted none during tenurein Saragossa his
60 Fora description works progress 1914-1915 Memoria of in in see correspondiente aios 1914 a los y 1915(Madrid:Junta para Ampliaci6n Estudios, de 1916),on pp. 199-200. 61 Miguel A. Catalan, "Series Other and in Regularities theSpectrum Manganese," of Philosophical Transactions theRoyalSociety London,1922,223A: of of 127-173. 62 See "El profesor Arnold Sommerfeld," Revista Matemdtica Hispano-Americana, 4:81-86; 1922, andIbWrica, 1922,17:341.See alsoJose Sanchez-Ron, M. "Documentos unahistoria la fisica para de moderna Espaha:Arnold en Sommerfeld, Miguel Catalan, A. Angel CampoyBlasCabrera," del Llull, 1983,5:97-109. 63 Arnold Sommerfeld Wickliffe to Rose,20 June1924,IEB 1.2,Rockefeller Archive Center. 64 See Trowbridge Rose, 16 April1925,IEB 1.2,41.577,Rockefeller to Archive Center.
148
to and optics.Whenhe returned Madrid of (1914-1919) as professor acoustics little success. Vecinogota chair met in and theLaboratorio, 1919,hiswork with year; the in de inSantiago Compostela 1914andoneinSaragossa following theredeathin 1929. until of work significance hispremature he after did no scientific a whoin 1920obtained chairin Saragossa Cabrera, The samecan be saidofJuan were thesephysicists not If there. weassumethat of spent rest hiscareer the and research, doing in whoremained Madridandcontinued from different those very scientific or it that wasthelackofresources ofa congenial conclude then must we that And whenwe consider to theirresearch a stop. that atmosphere brought studies in importance scientific in the university Saragossawas probably third the led we Madridand Barcelona, are further to appreciate specialposition after Fisicas. de heldbytheLaboratorio Investigaciones
VI. THE INSTITUTO NACIONAL DE FISICA Y QUIMICA
in success theLaboratorio the 1920s,itbecameclearthat of Despitetherelative of the to available theJunta were enough copewith dynamics not to theresources there. Because, or of conducted projected being thedevelopment theresearches freknown, Cabrera were as mentioned, Catalan'sinvestigations internationally as on Castillejoforspecialfunds his behalf, on 18 July1923,to wrote quently of on his "to allowCatalanand hiscoworkers confirm researches theconstituents from specialists."65 the so whichhaveattracted muchattention spectra, turned thenewly to Castillejo resources, and suchrequests limited Faced with Foundation. Educational Board of the Rockefeller organizedInternational for the Foundation helpin improving contacted Rockefeller had Castillejo earlier 1919. in a to in situation Spain,during visit theUnitedStates August thesanitary Madridin March1922on behalf of Rose,nowdirector theIEB, visited Wickliffe the occasionand wrote He on Foundation. wasimpressed that oftheRockefeller for force" that groupwas "themosthopeful foundation's president Castillejo's enthua ... enlightened in are themselves with very progress Spain:"[they] giving of with to of countries, education a group foreign siasmtothepromotion contacts refor of and men,and to theproviding facilities scientific ofteachers scientific leavenand one in with They search connection theUniversity. area tremendous to are that without them talkwith beingconvinced in theendthey going cannot tookhimto visit 1924,and Castillejo Spainin January win."Rose againvisited at and natural of sciences, agriculture chemistry, themainlaboratories physics, for make donation a a IEB would the himoutas towhether sounded Madrid, then laboratory.66 and chemistry newphysics to laterCastillejowrotea memorandum the IEB in which Seven months Cabrera's completely) he noted that the Juntaowned (and thus supported of organic and bioin partCarracido's laboratory and supported Laboratorio of and of Pharmacy JoseCasares'slaboratory at logicalchemistry the Faculty at the Facultyof Sciences. He then made a plea for analyticalchemistry
de 66 See Memoria paraAmpliaci6n Junta 1922-3y 1923-4(Madrid: a los correspondiente cursos RF 2 Vincent, March1922, 1.62.885, Rose 1925),on pp. 128-136;andWickliffe toGeorge Estudios, Rose Wickliffe and Philanthropy: "Science E. quotedin Robert Kohler, Center, Archive Rockefeller 1985,23:75-95; on pp. 82-83. Education and theInternational Board,"Minerva,
65Blas Cabrera JoseCastillejo, July CSIC. Archives, 1923,Junta 18 to
SPANS FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS
149
Nacionalde Flsica y Quimicaafter compleion, 1932. in its Frgw 1. TheInstituto de Cienticas (CSIC). Courtesy theConsejoSuperior Investigaciones of
and the caliber thelaboratories themeager of support, emphasizing professional funds availableto them:
and some Allthese have contributions monographs, ofthem laboratories published offer opportuniin periodicals, in edited theJunta... [They] by others specialseries on homes them their for menfor going abroad, arescientific and tiestoprepare young return. of had to other branches sciand But... theJunta togiveitsattention money many in ence and education.... The totalamount by granted theJunta thelastyear... ... the material, salaries is so smallthat laboratoand 91,000pesetas equipment, for of from to 500 pese150 and rieslackadequatesupply material, thesalaries,ng tas a month notallowfulltimework. do to an of in trained scientists start institute physics Therearealready Spainenough of and chemistry graduate search for destined promote future to the progress work, natural and sciences, engineering agriculture. medicine, The Juntahoped that the Spanish government its part would provide for of to full work themost for members theInstitute important a) Resources secure time to for and scholarships others coverliving for b) money material; expenses; enough uat oftheuniversities engineering for and and c) opportunities theprofessors the so for of schools attend Institute as tomakeofita seminar thetraining teachers to in thehighest and of to foreign levels physics chemistry-, of d) means assistance invite to or professors direct specialresearches to teachnewmethods.67 Castillejo also mentioned earlier plans for eitherremodelingthe building in which the Laboratorio was housed or purchasingor rentingan ordinarybuildinsistedon ing-plans since abandoned. Thus "the chemists[who most strongly the need fora new building],the Juntaand the Spanish Governmentagree" that of the IEB might"eitherprovid[e]buildingsand equipmentforan Institute Physics and Chemistrywhich Spain shall maintain ... or giv[e] a contributionfor Institute."
67
in availablefor current the laboratories which couldbe immediately equipment until the future projectof a new the theirtemporary postponing quarters,
Castijkjo,
IEB 1.2,44.577,Rockefeller Center. Archive to 1924, memorandum theIEB, 21 July
150
Justin case theBoard decided to help onlywithequipment,Cabrera prepareda needed in the of list,appended to the memorandum, the materialsmost urgently Laboratorio. The list gives a good idea of the problemsthatthe Laboratorio was then facing: for apparatus thededepartment is enough there 1. MAGNETICCHEMISTRY.In this have already obtained constants (some of theresults termination themagnetic of of group study theiron But a others inpreparation). for complete are beenpublished, of the is Thiswouldrequire spenditure of apparatus essential. theinstallation X-ray the a 20 to 25,000pesetas, sumbeyond meansof theLaboratory. of constants the"rare of of for Furthermore theprosecution thestudy themagnetic at obtaining temperature,least low for of earths," apparatus liquefaction gasesandfor to thatof liquidair,is indispensable. work the METHODS. Forthis 2. ATOMICWEIGHTS BY MEANSOF PHYSICAL-CHEMISTRY indispensable, in is for of apparatus theproduction lowtemperaturesalso absolutely liquidair at any of as muchas there in Madridnoteventhepossibility obtaining is moment. the of studies Dr. Catalanhavereached 3. SPECTRUM ANALYSIS.The wellknown two it to To them is necessary acquire or limit ourlaboratory of equipment. continue For the and three of powerof resolution range. thisstudy "spectrographs" greater will investigaabovementioned The X-ray apparatus be useful. scopeoftheproposed tionmust on To it depend theequipment. start on a solidbasisa sumofabout50,000 will piecesof apparatus be required.68 pesetasforthetwoabove mentioned The InternationalEducation Board took the Junta's proposal seriouslyand sent Trowbridge Madrid. He reportedthat in the Laboratorio the "space for to is physicsis adequate forpresentneeds; thatforphysicalchemistry inadequateforneither[project]is it all well adapted to needs. The equipmentis well chosen forthe workwhich is being done, evidentlycare has been had to buy only what he the thisgeneralstatement, specified chiefimneeded." After was immediately mediate needs of the laboratory, pointingout that "Cabrera is veryanxious to in starta line of investigation X-rayspectraof those elementswithwhich he has he on been working the side of magnetism; has theman to do thework;he has the but materialson whichhe has carriedout themagneticwork, he lacks a partofthe the doubtedwhether GovTrowbridge auxiliaryapparatus."As to a new institute, would reallysupportthe project:"I gatheredby visitsto the Ministerof ernment but vague assurEducation and to theActingDictator [Primo de Rivera] nothing ances that the Governmentwas ready to do what was necessary,etc. and the answerto the Juntademand would be given assurance that the written definite soon." Nonetheless,Trowbridge concluded, that is to of I am convinced, a result myvisit Madrid, theJunta theagency as through in in to if country thepure to anything that which work, theI.E.B. proposes attempt the but A sciences. gooddeal maybe donewith twenty years fellowships, fornearly from different thatof a fellowship notvery itself beenadministering has Junta plan of nucleus foreign a haveas a result sufficient theBoard,and in myopinionthey there adequate are to and meninphysics chemistry makeitsafe, trained govprovided for sum to a ernment for guarantees support, invest considerable in a modelInstitute
68
Ibid. The English is Cabrera's.
151
and in Thereis no doubtbutthat Research Physics Chemistry. Spaincouldproperly and support suchan Institute thatit coulddo good service sciencegenerally.69 to
Less than a year later,another the Rockefeller from representative board, Charles E. Mendenhall, at corroborated physicsprofessor Wisconsin, Trowbridge's opinions:
The general in situation Madridas regards I and physics chemistry should, think, be very to the encouraging theI.E.B., bothfrom standpoint theattitude those of of whomit proposes benefit from extreme to and the need of suchassistance the as Boardproposes give. I to Thatis tosay, found smallgroup enthusiastic rather a of and active surprisingly workers housedin an utterly manner carrying and inadequate on their work as as with, far I couldsee,no localencouragement that comes except which from Junta.... I knowof no institution homeat whichcomparable the at work is underwaywhichis housedin suchprimitive inefficient and quarters.70
As therather complex negotiations between JEB, Junta, theSpanish the the and government have recently been analyzedelsewhere,71 need not discussthe we matter here, except pointoutthat executive to the committee theIEB decided of on 1 March1926"to giveto theJunta building an Institute Physics a for of and in Chemistry Madrid... to be completely finished equipped, and the provided sumwhich International the Education Boardshallbe calleduponto payunder thisresolution shallnotexceedfour hundred twenty thousand Dollars."For its part, Spanish the government expected donate landand provide was to the mainAfter visit Madridin 19317 Marcovich theIEB office Parisretenance. a to 1. of in that ported theSpanish government livedup to ourexpectations."721929 "has In it gavetheInstituto 100,000pesetasand in 1930 200,000pesetas. in Early 1931,theyear when monarchy abolished republic estabthe was (a was lishedon 14April), institute nearcompletion already partial the was and in operation. In September building the was completed, thebrandnewInstituto and Nacionalde Fisicay Quimicawashandedoverofficially theJunta thegovby to on ernment 6 February 1932.Pierre Weiss,ArnoldSommerfeld, Richard WillPaul and all statter, Scherrer, OttoHbnigschmidt, connected scientists the with of old Laboratorio, werepresent theceremony. at Soon after official the of opening theInstituto, April1932,LauderW.Jones in oftheIEB's Parisoffice, visited newcenter. reported New York: the He to
The entrance large, it is a full stories is and two high. is finished a bronzed It with on brick, thewallsandceiling there heavy are girders covered with very a reddish copper,and thewoodwork in richmahogany. lecture is The room, seating several hundred,is absolutely echo-proofed celotex, front with the tableextending theway all acrosstheroom, ofmahogany ebony, is and with every possible contrivance elecfor tricity, water, compressed and vacuum. gas, air The many research rooms amply are large, and equippedwiththemostmodern equipment great in profusion.
Visit... in Madrid"(cit.n. 52). F. Glick, "La Fundaci6n Rockefeller Espafia: AugustusTrowbridge las en y negociaciones para el Instituto Nacionalde Fisica y Quimica,1923-1927,"in La Junta anos 80 despues, SanchezRon (cit.n. 26), Vol. II, pp. 281-300. ed. 72 I. Marcovich to IEB, 5 Oct. 1931,IEB 1.2,Rockefeller Archive Center.
71Thomas
69 Trowbridge Rose,4 to May 1925(cit.n. 32). (Emphasis original.) in 70 Mendenhall, "Report of
152
JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON ANDANTONI ROCA-ROSELL
The mechanicians shophas all of thelatest drillpresses, lathes and other equipment conceivable. is more It modern more and luxuriously equipped than laboraany tory machine shopI haveseen. The ventilation air conditioning and equipment the Institute installed for is in thebasement general for ventilation, in each roomusedforchemicals, hood and a witha fanhas been installed. thehalls,all pipes and conduits placed in a In are doublewall, outer which, corregated painted the of of steel with aluminium, readily is demountable.73
Jones also lookedintotheresearch progress. saw Cabrera's in He laboratory, "where is conducting researches magnetism, he his on especially is concerned he with theories WeissofStrasbourg." Jones, the of To Cabrera appeared be workto ingalone,becausehe "neither norheard anyassistants saw of working him." with Jones was somewhat mistaken. Cabrerawas notentirely alonein hisresearches, butwasbythen very not energetic a group as leader. Moles,on thecontrary, had "four five to roomsin which has hisstudents he working problems atomic on of weight determination mercury, example; in for problems molecular in volumes he to and adsorption"; seemed theIEB delegate very "a and indivigorous active vidual."Catalan,who was working thenon problems related the spectra to of silicon and boron, the Raman spectra,and the manganese,molybdenum, had "all Zeemaneffect, five rooms, equippedwith latest mostup to date the and I spectroscopic equipment haveseen.He has at leastfour Hilger spectrometers, students." Therewere vacuum, glass,quartzand liquid.I saw onlytwoor three in on also groups electrochemistry with (Guzmain, four rooms) working problems of of in of determinations pH, electrical refining metals,and electroanalysis withcrystal molecular concerned and general; X-ray analysis (JulioPalacios),74 Madiof and as studies, wellas diffractionelectrons; organic chemistry (Antonio of Thislastgroup theoneoriginally theFaculty Pharmacy, was at which naveitia). The alsincethetimes Carracido. newbuilding of had theJunta beensupporting to loweditsremoval theInstituto. in difficult Spain,andthehectic from 1931to 1936were Theyears increasingly to climate socialand political pervading dailylifewasnotfavorable theneedsof the of work. intellectual However, despitemoremundane worries, government madeto theIEB byPrimode Rivera.75 theRepublic keptmostofthepromises is "Anexcellent of proof howwelldisposedthegovernment towards wrote us," which myreat "is from to Cabrera Paris, theincrease 200,000to300,000pesetas in of of questwasincluded theMinistry PublicInstruction thedraft thebudget by the mustcome before Constituent fortheyear1932. It is truethatthebudget the to but to House (Parliament) be approved, I am authorized tellyouthat govwill will ernment do everything possibleso thatthe mentioned figure not be
modified."76 entry), 1932"(diary 7th, and of "Institute Physics Chemistry. 8th,9thApril, 73 LauderW. Jones, Center. Archive IEB 1.2,41.580,Rockefeller 74 Jones was of that thought thedirector thissection T. Batuecas. wrongly 7 Several theauthorities theRepublic the or the with either Junta with had beenassociated of of when Instituto the of de e.g., Librede Ensefianza, Fernando los Rios,minister education Instituci6n was inaugurated. see Center; also Archive 76 Blas Cabrera E. to Wilbur Tisdale,26 Nov. 1931,IEB 1.2,Rockefeller published. 1935).Thiswas thelastMemoria de Ampliaci6n Estudios,
a "Resumen de cuentas," Memoria correspondiente los curses 1933 y 1934 (Madrid: Junta para
SPAIN'S FIRSr SCHOOL OF PHYSICS
153
--
inauguFWrgv2. OffDial
_8
ration theInstituto of NacionaldeFisicayQuimica, 6 Februay 1932.Bias Cabreraand theSpanish Minister Educaion, of E delos Rios,standin the center. Courtesy theCSIC. of
hereto analyze history thelastyears theInstituto the It is notourpurpose of of but Nacional de Fisica y QuimicaunderCabrera, it seemsclearthatalthough the was from pointofview the a great deal had beenachieved, future uncertain but of science.True,therewas now a splendidlaboratory, perhapsit was too it ironically pointedout in good forthe research housed,as Jonessomewhat thatthe"electrical which beeninstalled has equipment 1931,whenhe indicated Siemenslooked... to be complete, on perhaps thewhole by the Germanfirm in for which to be undertaken thenew is morecomplete thannecessary thework Institute."77 thenthebudget theInstituto of alloweditssix senior professors By and Madinaveitia)to dedicate (Cabrera,Moles, Catalan, Palacios, Guzma.n, of and moretimeto workat thecenter, thenewspace allowedthenumber reIn and to thesesix searchers students increase. 1933/34, example, for apartfrom holders, therewerenine seniorresearchers, twenty-one scholarship professors that and sixty-three assistants but was (unpaidstudents), there a danger theideas, this In becomeold-fashioned. physics, was certainly thelinesofresearch, might of but moment Catalin had probably thecase withtheaged Cabrera, thegreat also gone. Mendenhallsaw the potentialproblemwhen,in 1926, he wrote: in of and he points view, though is consid"[Catalan]is interested moremodern training an experimentalist, has had a very he narrow eredby his colleagues as with and seemsreluctant undertake to work experimental involving equipment familiar."78 whichhe is notalready
77LauderJones, (diary entry), 31 trip and "Logofprofessor W.Jones' toSpain,Pbrtupl Algeria" L Archive Center March,1 April1931,IEB 1.2,41.580,Rockefeler 78 Mendenhall, "Report Visit... in Madrid"(cit.n. 52). of
154
JOSEM. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL
Indeed, weexamine number papers physics if the of on published theAnales in de la SociedadEspahola FisicayQuimica, official de the journalofSpanish physicistsand chemists, thenwe find thatduring years1931-1936mostpapers the were X-ray on diffraction determination crystal and of structures: percent 46.5 of thetotal.In 1916-1930spectroscopy, 30 percent thepapers, beenthe with of had of subject greatest activity, whilein 1903-1915it had beenelectricity magand netism, with percent.79 40 Sincescientists working theJunta's in physics laboratories 72 produced percent thephysics of paperspublished theAnalesduring in 1910-1936,a figure shows Junta's that the importance Spanish for science,80 one is led to conclude thatCabrera thelead to Catalanbythe1920s, left and Catalan to Palaciosby 1930.
VII. CONCLUSIONS
We havereferred thedanger to thattheresearch performed theInstituto in was aboutto becomeold-fashioned; whatdid happenduring 1931-1936was thata newcenter with beganfunctioning, more personnel more and resources ever. than Butsincethis research center notstarting scratch, previous was from its afhistory and fected character, consequently all thegroups thesamepotential. its not had The Rockefeller's of meant funding theInstituto that physics physical and chemistry becameinstitutionalized theJunta in an established center, where group of researchers withaccess to good experimental facilities was alreadyin place. Whether scientists merit new of wouldcomeoutoftheInstituto a different was One issue,to be answered onlyin thefuture. can sayat leastthat new competent trained physicists being were sincenewlicenciados then there, to beginning work in the Instituto in becameuniversity the professors due course,after Spanish Civil War. in was The problem that, a sense,there no future. CivilWarwas not was The it and no onlycruel, was also primitive, it left place forscientists. Cabrera(and the took Castillejo)wentintoexile;Moles,whowas in jail fora timeafter war, overthedirectorship theInstituto, itwassimply of for but impossible thosewho remained do anyreal scientific to work: monarchist the Palacios,forexample, in had serious problems theRepublican the capitaland couldnotenter Instituto. Andwhenthewarwas over, newregime the turned Instituto, partofthe now the to de created Cientificas newly ConsejoSuperior Investigaciones (1939),over sciwho includedmanyfierce For severalyearsthe entists enemiesof the Junta. couldbe perthe Consejowas virtually onlyplace in Spain where anyresearch of of science towards school the and formed, theattitude thenewmasters Spanish undatedand unsigned, obviously but of Cabrerais shownin a document, preof who General paredin 1939byJoseMariaAlbareda, becamethefirst Secretary
tercio sigloXX,"Liull,1983,5:149del el durante primer "La ffsica Espafia en 79 ManuelValera, beof was in 173,on pp. 154, 161-168.The production physics aboutone third thatin chemistry: in against1,320chemistry paperswerepublished theAnales, tween1903 and 1937,426 physics de e bibliometricos institucionales la Real Sociedad papers:see Valeraand Marset,"Aspectos de Espafiola Fisica y Quimicaparael periodo1903-1937"(cit.n. 38). produced of of the 80 After Junta (219 laboratories papers), laboratories theUniversity Madrid the (38). See Valeraand 9 Observatory percent (49), and thentheMadridAstronomical 11.5 percent del tercio sigloXX" (cit.n. 79), pp. 161-162. durante primer el "La en Marset, ffsica Espafia
155
to as thenewinstitution. Referring theRockefeller Institute, itwas often called, author wrote: theunidentified
The of about[its]situation. physicists theschoolof to It is necessary think carefully in in Cabrerabelievethattodayphysics Spain is a private property [cotocerrado], will is which, oncethegroup established, nobody be able to enter. Theysaythatitis as is to evenimpossible pass a doctoral dissertation, there onlyone catedratico [full of is deducethatthereturn Cabrera essential, professor], Palacios.Fromthis, they to and thetransfer Madridof someofhis students.
cultivated thoserojos on the asserts The document that, thecontrary, physics by (reds)was of no interest:
The rays Catalan'sspectroscope becomeexhausted, he has notbeenable of have and work themostmodern the Cabrera's ... to perform on subject: Ramaneffect. magnetism becomeexhausted Oflittle has too. interest muy [van trilladas] Palacios's are no lattices We cannot ... remain condemned having morephysics to recrystalline search thanthatwhich produces technique ourphysicists the that learnt whenthey It to simwereyoung. is necessary bring foreign a physicist here, something cheaper, pler, and moreeffective to beginsending than peopleabroad.8" Not all of thesecriticisms wereunfounded,as we have alreadypointedout,but with"the past" was made impossibleby the fierce any continuity enmity thatlay
behindthesearguments, forward scientists put by clearly inferior thosethey to werecriticizing-indeed, suchcontinuity desired. no was Andwemust forget not is thatcontinuity an essential element a research of school.At theLaboratorio thirty yearshad passedsince 1910-not quitein vain,butwitha disappointing outcome nonetheless. division The produced theCivilWarwasa majorfactor by in thisbreakwiththe scientific past,but it was nottheonlyone. The Spanish state'sdecision favor to onlyone laboratory been,as already had pointed out,a risky one. Throughout almostthirty the yearsof its existence, Junta's the preferred of and laboratory physics chemistry beenisolated; had beena rara had it avisin Spanishacademia.Indeed, with new, the lavishly provided Instituto there was an obviousproblem: where wouldthenewphysicists chemists and formed there Thisproblem go? went beyond scientists theInstituto theJunta the of or auand thorities, itraisesmoregeneral questions abouttheinability Spainto take of of so advantage thescientific manpower generated. theend,it seemsevident In thata "research shool" associatedwitha singlecenter hardly can survive a in othersuchcenters. country lacking
81 JoseMaria Albareda, untitled Junta MS, Archives, CSIC.

Spain's First School of Physics - Blas Cabrera's Laboratorio de Investigaciones Físicas

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Spain's First School of Physics - Blas Cabrera's Laboratorio de Investigaciones Físicas

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Spain's First School of Physics: Blas Cabrera's Laboratorio de Investigaciones Fsicas Author(s): Jos M.

SchoolofPhysics: Spain'sFirst Bias Cabrera's Laboratorio de Investigaciones Fisicas

IT HAS LONG BEEN RECOGNIZED that"sciencedoes notflourish every-

OSIRIS 1993, 8: 127-155

JOSt M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON AND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON AND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

ROCA-ROSELL AND JOStM. SANCHEZ-RON ANTONI

SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

JoseM. SanchezRon,EstebanTerradas: Cienciay tecnica la Espaha contemporanea en (Barcelona:

31 ForMadrid circa1913seeResenade losprincipales establecimientos y laboratorios cientificos

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON AND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRST SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPANS FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS

IEB 1.2,44.577,Rockefeller Center. Archive to 1924, memorandum theIEB, 21 July

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON AND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

Ibid. The English is Cabrera's.

SPAIN'S FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS

JOSE M. SANCHEZ-RON ANDANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRSr SCHOOL OF PHYSICS

JOSEM. SANCHEZ-RONAND ANTONI ROCA-ROSELL

SPAIN'S FIRSTSCHOOLOF PHYSICS

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