UNIT 5

Objectives

STRUCTURE OF INDIAN INDUSTRY

The main purpose of this unit is to help you to: understand Indias Industrial sector get an overview of Indias Industrial growth experience analyse the various dimensions of the structure of Indian industry discover and explain structural changes in the industrial sector, and understand the ownership pattern of the industrial sector.

Structure
5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 Introduction Industrial Growth Experience: An Overview Structural Changes in the Indian Industry Ownership Pattern of the Industrial Sector Summary Key Words Self Assessment Questions Furthers Readings

5.1 INTRODUCTION
Before the rise of the modern industrial system in the world economy, Indian producers (largely artisan classes) had a world-wide market. Indian muslim and calicos were in great demand worldover. Indian industries not only supplied all local needs but also enabled India to export its finished products. Indian exports consisted chiefly of manufactures like cotton and silk fabrics, calicos, artistic ware, silk and wollen clothing. The impact of the British rule and the industrial revolution that took place in Britain led to the decay of the Indian handicrafts. Instead, machine-made goods started coming to India. The gap created by the decay of Indian handicrafts was not filled by the rise of modern industry in India because of the british policy of encouraging the imports of manufactured products into and export of raw materials from India. The British Government in India provided discriminatory protection to some select industries since 1923. This protection was accompanied by the most favoured nation clause of British goods. Despite this factor, because of the pioneering zeal and fostering care (Prof. Lokanathans phrases) of the early Indian entrepreneurs, some industries such as cotton textiles, sugar, paper, matches, and to some extent, iron and steel did develop in the country. But capital goods industries were not fostered during the British period. The industrial pattern of India on the eve of planning (1950) was marked by low capital intensity, predominance of small enterprises, limited development of factory sector and imbalance between consumer goods and capital goods industries. This lop-sided pattern of industry with the predominance of consumer goods industries had to be corrected through economic planning in the post-Independence period. 37

Structure of Indian Economy

5.2 INDUSTRIAL GROWTH EXPERIENCE: AN OVERVIEW

The progress of industrialisation during the four decades and more since the beginning of the planning era has been a significant feature of the Indian economic development. The process of industrialisation, initiated as conscious and deliberate policy under Industrial Policy Resolutions of 1948 and 1956 involved heavy investments in basic and heavy industries besides those in consumer goods industries. As a result of efforts for rapid industrialisation, a firm industrial base has been achieved. Industrial production grew by about 5 times and India now is the tenth most industrial country in the world. India now has a well-diversified industrial sector covering the entire range of consumer, intermediate and capital goods industries. The progress the country has made in respect of industrial sector is clearly reflected in the commodity composition of Indias foreign trade. The share of imports of manufactured goods in foreign trade has steadily declined, while industrial products, particularly engineering goods have become a growing component of Indias exports. Further, the rapid progress in industrialisation has been accompanied by a corresponding growth in technological and managerial know-how for efficient operation of the most modern and sophisticated industries and also for planning, designing and construction of such industries. India could achieve self-sufficiency in consumer goods. Growth of basic and capital goods industries has been particularly impressive. India can now sustain the future growth of key sectors of the economy primarily through domestic production, with only marginal imports. Further, the infrastructure including Research and Development capability, consultancy and design engineering services, project organisation services and innovative capability to improve and adapt technologies to suit the domestic factor endowment have shown an impressive record of progress. Now we turn to industrial growth rates. Table 5.1 gives industrial growth rates during various plan periods. The growth rates are annual percentage changes in general index of industrial production. During the Third Plan period, but for the concluding year of the plan period, the annual growth rate exceeded 8 per cent. The average annual growth rate during the period was 8.22 per cent. During the subsequent three annual plans the growth rates fell significantly, except during 1968-69 when growth rate was 6.7 per cent. The period was marked by low growth rates, the average growth rate for the period being 2.83 per cent. The industrial growth recovered significantly during the Fourth Plan period but the average growth rate during the period (4.4 per cent) was significantly lower than that during the Third Plan period (8.22 per cent). The industrial growth performance during the Fifth Plan was a significant improvement over the preceding years after the Third Plan period. The average growth rate during the Fifth Plan period was 6.24 per cent. During the period the highest growth rate was recorded during the year 1976-77 (9.5 per cent) Subsequent to the Fifth Plan, the growth rate recorded during the annual plan 1979-80 was negative i.e., -1.6 per cent. During the Sixth Plan period the industrial sector not only recovered but registered an annual growth rate of 5.9 per cent. During the subsequent Seventh Plan period (1985-90) the industrial growth proceeded at a substantial rate and the average annual growth rate during the period was 8.5 per cent, the highest growth rate achieved since the end of the Third Plan.

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Table 5.2 gives trends in industrial production during the period 1998-99 to 2002-03. The base year for the index numbers is 1993-94. It can be seen from the Table that the general index of industrial production increased from 145.2 to 176.6 during the period. The industrial production has three components in it: mining manufacturing and electricity. The index of production in mining increased from 125.5 in 1993-94 to 139.6 in 2002-03. The index of manufacturing during the same period increased from 148.8 to 183.1 and the index of electricity generation increased from 138.4 to 164.3. Now, let us look at the manufacturing sector growth record. Manufacturing is a major segment of the industrial sector. Tables 5.3 (A) and 5.3 (B) give data relating to growth of manufacturing sector. At the aggregate level, the annual rate of growth of manufacturing has fluctuated considerably in the 90s. Both the Index of Industrial Production and National Accounts Statistics (NAS) figures on manufacturing value added show that there was negative growth in 1991-92, the first year of reforms. Thereafter the growth increased steadily and reached a peak of about 14 per cent in 1995-96. The rate has decreased since reaching a growth of about 3 to 4 per cent in 1998-99. The index however shows that there has been an improvement in 1999-2000 (7.1 per cent growth rate). The rate of growth of gross value added by the manufacturing sector as a whole and its registered segment is remarkably similar in the 1990s. After registering a decline in 1991-92, the value added of the registered manufacturing sector recovered steadily in the next few years but started decelerating in 1995-96. The compound annual rate of growth of gross value added by the registered manufacturing sector was 5.91 per cent between 1990-91 to 1998-99. The corresponding rates between 1950-51 to 1965-66, between 1980-81 to 1990-91 were 7.03 per cent and 7.66 per cent respectively. Activity 1 a) Mention the components of the industrial sector. b) From Table 5.2 compute the average percentage changes in indices of mining, manufacturing and electricity during the period 1998-99 to 2002-03. c) From Table 5.2 indentify the highest growth rates and attempt an explanation. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................

Structure of Indian Industry

39

Structure of Indian Economy

5.3 STRUCTURAL CHANGES IN THE INDIAN INDUSTRY

In this section we will look at several dimensions of the structure of Indian industry. As industrial development proceeds in an economy, several structural changes take place in the industrial sector. Historically, industrial development has proceeded in three stages. In the first stage, industry was concerned with the processing of primary products. Milling grain, extracting oil, tanning leather, spining vegetable fibres, preparing timber, and smelting ores. The second stage in the evolution of secondary industry comprises the transformation of materials making bread and confectionary, footwear, and metal goods, cloth, furniture and paper. The third stage consists of the manufacture of machines and other capital equipment to be used not for the direct satisfaction of any immediate want but in order to facilitate the future process of production W.G. Hoffman (The Growth of Industrial Economies, Oxford, 1958) gives operational criteria of the degree of industrial development. He classified all industrial output into two categories, consumer goods and capital goods and classified various stages in terms of the ratio of consumer goods to that of capital goods output. In the first stage the consumer goods industries are of overwhelming importance, their net output being on the average five times as large as that of capital goods industries. This ratio is 2.5:1 in the second stage and falls to 1:1 in the third stage and still lower in the fourth stage. This classification emphasises the increasing role of the capital and producer goods industries in the economy as industrial development takes place. In the post-independence period economic planning for overall development succeeded in laying firm foundations for future economic development. The heavy-industry strategy formulated and implemented from begining from the Second Five Year Plan helped in creating a strong industrial base. Capacities in substantial quantities have been created in basic, key and heavy industries. Table 5.4 and 5.5 throw light on one dimension of structural change (changes in the composition of output) in Indias industrial sector. One striking feature of the period of planning was that the structure of Indian industries had changed in favour of basic and capital goods sector. The study of structural transformation of the Indian industries reveals that there was a clear shift in favour of basic and capital goods sector. This group accounted for about 50 per cent of productive capital in 1959 but in 1991-92, its share in productive capital rose to nearly 79 per cent. In total employment, its share rose from 25 per cent to 52 per cent between 1959 and 1991-92. Similarly, the contribution in value added improved from 37 per cent to 56 per cent during this period. Basic industries which include iron and steel, fertilisers, chemicals, cement, non-ferrous metals have thus improved their position significantly under the impact of industrialisation. Several capital goods industries hitherto unknown have been brought into to existence and developed. On the other hand, during the same period the share of consumer goods industries such as textiles, sugar, paper, tobacco, etc., declined in terms of productive capital, employment and value-added. Activity 2 a) Refer to RBI, Report on Currency and Finance and give the composition of each of the following categories of Industries: 1. Basic goods 2. Capital goods 3. Intermediate goods 4. Consumer goods

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b) Explain the meaning of intermediate goods. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... Activity 3 Read carefully Table5.4 and answer the following: a) What is the average percentage change in index of basic industries during 1981-82 to 2001-02. b) Giving examples of consumer durables, find out the average percentage change in the index of consumer durables during 1981-82 to 2001-02. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... Size of Industrial Units Another Structural Dimension The size of an industrial unit can be measured using different criteria. Output, total assets, fixed capital, and employment are some of the major criteria to measure size of the industrial units. Changes in the average size of the industrial units represent an important structural change of the industrial sector in an economy. We turn to this structural dimension in this section. As future managers you must know about this important dimension of the structure of industry. We may list the circumstances under which a large firm or a small one would be more efficient. Such synthesis provides guidance for making the proper choice of the optimum size for the firm. A large firm would be more efficient in situations where: a) the product is standardized and can be produced on mass scale with longer production runs such as iron and steel, sugar, industrial chemicals and fertilizers; b) the product and/or machines used in its production are large in size such as automobiles, ships and electricity generation; c) the economies of linked processes are significant as in the case of pulp and paper industry and steel among others; d) the markets for the product are concentrated and/or transport costs are considerably low in comparison to the price of the product; e) there are occasional indivisibilities in different units or operations of the plant which are to be belanced; and f) research activities are essential to compete in the market such as in chemical industries.

Structure of Indian Industry

41

Structure of Indian Economy

A small firm would be more efficient if all these above conditions are not satisfied, that is, where: a) the production factors, e.g., men and machines, are divisible or adaptable; b) the product is to be made an individual specification or where varieties or product differentiation are required in the market for existence, i.e., standardization and mass production is an economical. Examples are ornaments and clothing; c) the raw materials and markets for the products are geographically dispersed and transport costs are quite significant, e.g. bread and brick-making; d) the demand conditions change frequently as a result of which quick adjustments are needed to adapt to such changes, e.g., garment making; e) the nature of work done changes frequently due to technical conditions e.g., agriculture and allied industries; and f) the supplies of the raw materials and potential market for the product are small. Complete seperation of situations for large scale and small-scale units is not possible. There are many industries where small scale and large scale production is carried on side by side. Examples are engineering industries, cloth making, shoe making and several consumer products. In fact, if we go through the industrial structure of a country, we will find such situation in most of the industries. Small units in an industry exist along with larger ones mainly because (i) they may be relatively new and it is normal to grow large from small beginnings in due course of time, (ii) they may be supplying finished products to the larger units under some type of sub-contracting, and (iv) they may be producing a highly specific variety of products in a differentiated product industry. All such small units may be equally efficient as the bigger units.

5.4 OWNERSHIP PATTERN OF THE INDUSTRIAL SECTOR

After independence India wanted to adopt planned economic development. We have gone through several Five Year Plans. We opted for a mixed economy with both private and public sectors, complementing each other rather than competing. The scope of each sector was well-defined in the industrial policies announced from time to time by the Government. Industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 was the major policy announcement. We will learn about these policies in detail in the next two units. Here our interest is to describe the structure of Indias industrial sector on the basis of ownership pattern. Table 5.6 gives structure of ownership of industrial factory sector in 1997-98. The public sector accounted for 7 per cent of total number of factories, 24 per cent of employees, 32 per cent of net fixed capital and 28 per cent of net value added by the industrial factory sector. Public sector includes enterprises of the Central Government, State and local governments. The Private sector including cooperative sector accounted for 91 per cent of total number of factories, 69 per cent of employees, 55 per cent of net fixed capital and 59 per cent of value added. This sector has four components: i) Corporate enterprises, ii) Partnerships, iii) Individual proprieterships, and iv) Cooperative enterprises. Joint sector (enterprises owned jointly by private and public or government interests) accounted for 1.8 per cent of total factories, 6.7 per cent of employees, 12 per cent of net fixed capital and 12 per cent of value added. 42

Regional distribution of industrial activity and industrial concentration are two more dimensions of the structure of Indias industrial sector. You are advised to take down notes on these two aspects by going through the publications given under Further Readings. We will learn about public and private sectors in detail in the next two units. Activity 4 Refer to Table 5.6 and attempt the following: a) List a few observations about the structure of public sector. b) Comment on the size of: i) cooperative sector, and ii) joint sector. c) Explain the organizational form in the private sector. ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... ..................................................................................................................... .....................................................................................................................

Structure of Indian Industry

5.5 SUMMARY
In this unit we acquainted you with several aspects of Indias industrial sector. You have learnt about Indias industrial growth experience. We looked at the structure of the Indian industrial sector from several dimensions: Composition of output, size, and ownership pattern.

5.6 KEY WORDS

Industrial Sector : Industrial Sector has three components: Mining, Manufacturing, and Electricity. Gross Value added in Manufacturing : It is the value of output of manufacturing minus the value of intermediate inputs. Gross value added is gross of depreciation. Structural Changes : Changes in average size of the industrial units, in ownership pattern of the industrial sector and so on.

5.7 SELF-ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS

1) Explain the major structural characteristics of Indias industrial sector. 2) As industrialisation of a country proceeds, the relative important of consumer goods industries declines and that of capital goods industries increases Justify this proposition by using the relevant data. 3) Going through the Unit-carefully, Comment on the declaration of industrial growth thesis.

5.8 FURTHER READINGS

Dutt Ruddar and Sundaram, K.P.M., Indian Economy. Lakshmana Rao, V. Essays on Indian Economy, Essay No. 3, New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1994.

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Structure of Indian Economy

Appendix 2

List of Statistical Tables

Table 5.1 Table 5.2 : Industrial Growth Rates During Plan Periods : Trends in Index of Industrial production (Base 1993-94)

Table 5.3(A) : Annual Rate of Growth of Manufacturing Sector. Table 5.3(B) : Annual Rate of Growth of the Registered Manufacturing Sector Table 5.4 Table 5.5 Table 5.6 : Industrial Production: Use Based Classification : Average Annual Growth Rate of Industrial Production : Ownership Pattern in Indian Industries (1997-98)

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Table 5.1: Industrial Growth Rates During Plan Periods Plan Year Index Growth Rate Growth Rate during Plan Period

Structure of Indian Industry

(Base 1970=100) Third Plan 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 55.8 60.4 66.1 72.3 78.6 82.8 83.3 84.3 89.9 96.8 101.3 106.4 110.6 111.5 115.1 122.8 134.4 140.0 150.7 148.2 154.1 8.2 9.5 9.3 8.8 5.3 0.6 1.2 6.7 7.6 4.7 5.0 3.9 0.8 3.2 6.7 9.5 4.2 7.6 (-) 1.6 4.0

8.22

Annual Plans

2.83

Fourth Plan

4.4

Fifth Plan

6.24

Annual Plan Sixth Plan

(Base 1980-81 = 100) 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 Seventh Plan@ 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 109.3 113.9 120.8 129.0 142.1 155.1 166.4 180.9 196.4 212.8 214.0 218.9 232.0 8.6 4.1 6.1 6.8 8.7 9.2 7.3 8.7 8.6 8.3 0.6 2.3 6.0

5.9

8.5

Annual Plans @ Eighth Plan

4.45

(Base 1994-94 = 100) 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 Ninth Plan 1997-98 1998-99P 108.4 122.3 129.1 136.6 143.0 8.6 12.8 5.6 5.8 4.7

7.0

Base : 1980-81 = 100; from 1990-91 onwards P Provisional

Source : Centre for Industrial and Economic Research, Industrial Databook, 2000-01.

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Structure of Indian Economy

Table 5.2 : Trends in Index of Industrial Production (Base : 1993-94 = 100) Sector Weight Period Mining & Quarrying 10.47 Index Growth Rate (per cent) 3 -0.8 (-1.8) Index Manufacturing 79.36 Growth Rate (per cent) 5 4.4 (86.9) Index Electricity 10.17 Growth Rate (per cent) 7 6.5 (14.9) General 100.00 Index Growth Rate (per cent) 9 4.1 (100.0)

1 1998-99

2 125.4

4 148.8

6 138.4

8 145.2

1999-2000

126.7

1.0 (1.4)

159.4

7.1 (87.9)

148.5

7.3 (10.7)

154.9

6.7 (100.0)

2000-01

130.3

2.8 (4.9)

167.9

5.3 (87.3)

154.4

4.0 (7.7)

162.6

5.0 (100.0)

2001-02

131.9

1.2 (3.8)

172.7

2.9 (85.3)

159.2

3.1 (10.9)

167.0

2.7 (100.0)

2002-03 P

139.6

5.8 (8.4)

183.1

6.0 (86.2)

164.3

3.2 (5.4)

176.6

5.8 (100.0)

P : Provisional Note : Figures in brackets are relative contributions, computed as the ratios (in percentage terms) of the change in the index of the respective industry group to the change in the overall index adjusted for the weight of the relative industry group. Source : Central Statistical Organisation.

Table 5.3 (A) : Annual Rate of Growth of Manufacturing (Per cent) Year Index of Industrial Production (Manufacturing) 9 - 0.8 2.2 6.1 9.1 14.1 7.3 6.7 4.4 7.1 Gross Value Added of Gross Value Added of NAS Manufacturing Registered Manufacturing at Constant Prices at Constant Prices 6.1 -3.7 4.2 8.4 10.7 14.9 7.9 4.0 3.6 5.0 -2.3 3.1 11.5 13.2 15.5 8.1 3.4 3.9

1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-2000

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Source : Economic and Political Weekly, January, 2002.

Table 5.3 (B) : Annual Rate of Growth of the Registered Manufacturing Sector Year 1952-53 1953-54 1954-55 1955-56 1956-57 1957-58 1958-59 1959-60 1960-61 1961-62 1962-63 1963-64 1964-65 1965-66 1966-67 1967-68 1968-69 1969-70 1970-71 1971-72 1972-73 1973-74 1974-75 1975-76 1976-77 1977-78 1978-79 1979-80 1980-81 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 Gross Value Added of Registered Manufacturing Sector at Constant Prices (Per cent) 0.5 4.4 11.1 12.3 11.1 4.7 2.9 10.1 12.4 9.1 9.7 11.3 8.3 3.3 0.1 -3.3 6.8 17.4 2.4 1.8 3.2 4.9 1 1 12.5 6.7 10.9 -2.1 -1.6 7.7 9.6 14.7 8.4 2.3 5.8 7.1 10.6 13.9 5.0 -2.3 3.1 11.5 13.2 15.5 8.1 3.4 3.9 Compound Annual Rate of Growth of Manufacturing Year CARG of Gross Value Added of Registered Manufacturing Sector at Constant Prices (Per Cent) 7.03 7.47 7.66 5.91

Structure of Indian Industry

1950-51 to 1965-66 1955-56 to 1965-66 1980-81 to 1990-91 1990-91 to 1998-99

Source : CSO, National Accounts Statistics (various issues).

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Structure of Indian Economy

Table 5.4 : Industrial Production : Use Based Classification Year 1 Basic Goods 2 Capital Intermediate Consumer Consumer Consumer Goods Goods Goods Durables Non-durables 3 4 5 6 7

Base : 1980-81 = 100 Weight 1981-82 1982-83 1983-84 1984-85 1985-86 1986-87 1987-88 1988-89 1989-90 1990-91 1991-92 1992-93 1993-94 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 39.42 110.9 118.7 125.8 139.8 149.3 163.2 172.2 189.2 199.4 213.1 226.9 232.9 254.9 269 291.4 315.1 337.3 16.43 106.7 110.6 123.5 127.2 140.7 166.3 192.8 206.4 251.5 291.7 266.8 266.4 255.4 318.8 376 398 382.2 20.51 103.7 107.7 115 126.2 135.7 141.2 145 161.5 168.9 176.9 173.2 182.6 203.9 211.4 236.3 259.5 277.4 23.65 113.8 112 113.8 122 137.3 145.7 160 166.2 177 189 190.8 194.2 202 219.6 251 261.3 273.3 2.55 110.9 121 140.5 178.8 212.2 241.3 259.6 317.5 325 359.7 320.5 318.1 369.4 407.2 554.2 584.4 642 21.1 114.1 110.9 110.5 116.1 129.5 134.1 147.9 148 159.1 168.3 175.1 179.3 181.7 196.9 214.3 222.2 228.7

Base : 1993-94 = 100 Weight 1994-95 1995-96 1996-97 1997-98 1998-99 1999-00 2000-01 2001-02 35.57 109.6 121.4 125 133.6 135.8 143.3 148.5 152.5 9.26 109.2 115 128.2 135.6 152.7 163.3 166.2 160.6 26.51 105.3 125.7 135.9 146.8 155.8 169.5 177.4 180.1 28.66 112.1 126.5 134.3 141.7 144.8 153 165.2 175.1 5.36 116.2 146.2 152.9 164.9 174.1 198.7 227.6 253.7 23.3 111.2 122.1 130.2 136.5 138.1 142.5 150.8 157

Source : Central Statistical Organisation, Government of India.

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Table 5.5 : Average Annual Growth Rate of Production 1974-79 1980-85 1985-90 1993-94 to 2000-01

Structure of Indian Industry

V Plan Basic industries Capital goods Intermediate goods Consumer goods (a) (b) Durables Non-durables 8.4 5.7 4.3 5.5 6.8 5.4

VI Plan 8.3 7.1 6.2 6.5 15.2 5.3

VII Plan 7.4 15.7 5.5 6.6 12.1 5.4 5.8 7.5 8.5 7.4 12.4 6.1

Source : Government of India, Ministry of Industry, Handbook of Industrial Statistics (1987) and RBI, Handbook of Statistics on Indian Economy, 2001.

Table 5.6 : Ownership Pattern in Indian Industries (1997-98)

Partners No. of Productive capital Employees Factories Rs. Crores (*000) Net value Wage per added Worker (Rs.) Rs. Crores

Public Sector

9,516 (7.0)

1,88,032 (32.1)

2,387 (24.0)

44,358 (28.4)

62,936

Joint Sector

2,479 (1.8)

71,637 (12.2)

669 (6.7)

18,819 (12.1)

66,644

Private Sector 1,23,106 (90.8)

3,25,889 (55.5)

6,838 (68.9)

92,503 (59.3)

32,342

Unspecified

450 (0.3)

972 (0.2)

31 (0.3)

267 (0.2)

Total

1,35,551 (100.0)

5,86,530 (100.0)

9,925 (100.0)

1,55,947 (100.0)

Note :

Figures in brackets are percentage of total.

Source : Annual Survey of Industries (1997-98).

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