International Symposium on the Ageing Management & Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants (2010) 18-28

Evaluation Procedures for Wall Thinning due to Flow Accelerated Corrosion and Liquid Droplet Impingement
Seiichi Koshizuka 1), Masanori Naitoh 1), 2), Shunsuke Uchida 1), 2), and Hidetoshi Okada 2) 1) Graduate School of Engineering, University of Tokyo, 7-3-1, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan, koshizuka@sys.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp 2) Institute of Applied Energy, Shimbashi SY Bldg., 8F, 1-14-2, Nishi-Shinbashi, Minato-ku, Tokyo, 105-0003, Japan, mnaito@iae.or.jp

ABSTRACT
Overlapping effects of flow dynamics and corrosion are important issues to determine reliability and lifetime of major structures and components in light water reactor plants. Flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) and liquid droplet impingement LDI are typical phenomena due to both interactions. In order to evaluate local wall thinning due to FAC and LDI, a 6-step evaluation procedure for each has been proposed. (1) For FAC wall thinning evaluation, Corrosive conditions along the flow path and mass transfer coefficients at the structure surface are calculated to evaluate high risk zones for FAC occurrence, and then, wall thinning rates are calculated with the coupled model of static electrochemical analysis and dynamic double oxide layer analysis at the identified high FAC risk zones. (2) For LDI local wall thinning evaluation, Trajectories of liquid droplets in high velocity steam, their collision densities and velocities on the pipe inner surface are calculated to evaluate high risk zones for LDI occurrence and then, local wall thinning rates are calculated at the identified high LDI risk zones. For the region with higher steam velocity wall thinning rate is determined mainly by erosion (LDI (erosion)), while for that with lower velocity (for instance lower than 100m/s) it is determined by corrosion process (LDI (corrosion)). (3) The FAC wall thinning model has been validated by comparing the calculated results with the measured ones at a PWR plant, while the LDI model is now on validation process. 1. INTRODUCTION Systematic approaches for evaluating flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) are desired before discussing application of suitable countermeasures for FAC in nuclear power plants (NPP). First, the major parameters for FAC, e.g., corrosive conditions, turbulence of flow and material composition, are evaluated along the whole flow path of the cooling system and then future FAC occurrence is evaluated to identify locations where a higher possibility of FAC occurrence exists. At these identified high FAC risk zones, the FAC rate is evaluated to determine the residual time for applying countermeasures and the suitable procedures to mitigate FAC for long operating periods without any serious adverse effects 1). Lots of basic equations related to FAC have already been reported2)-4). Computer program packages for FAC evaluation, e.g., CHECWORKS5), COMSY (WATHEC)6),7) and BRT-CICERO8), are available but, unfortunately, details of their theoretical basis and of the data bases of the program packages are not available due to intellectual property rights. Both of traceability of the computer program package and its validation are required for making policy of plant reliability by applying it. Liquid droplet impingement (LDI) has been reported at NPPs and FPPs9). Especially at air vent lines of feed water heaters of BWRs, liquid droplets included in high speed steam flow collide with the inner surfaces of sharp piping bends. LDI is also divided into two processes; one is dominated by the flow dynamics (physical and mechanical) process and the other is dominated by the corrosion (chemical) process10). Lots of empirical formula related to LDI have been also reported mainly on erosion processes6),11),12) but only a few on corrosion processes10).

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International Symposium on the Ageing Management & Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants (2010) 18-28

Single phase flow water flow

Flow accelerated corrosion (FAC) orifice base metal magnetite layers

Locally accelerating corrosion due to increasing mass transfer caused by flow dynamics Mitigated by water chemistry control (e.g. oxygen addition)

Two phase flow Steam flow

Erosion-corrosion (tiger strip pattern corrosion) collision of droplets Locally accelerating corrosion due to collision of droplets at nodes of standing sonic wave of steam flow in piping

Mitigated by application of low alloy steel ([Cr]>0.2%) hematite layers magnetite layers base metal Liquid droplet impingement (LDI) (shotgun pattern corrosion) Steam flow bare base metal surface base metal hematite/magnetite layers Locally accelerating corrosion due to liquid droplet collision at bend of piping LDI is divided into LDI (erosion) and LDI (corrosion)

Figure 1 Major phenomena of wall thinning under single and two phase flow conditions

In this paper, the focus is on the corrosion process to cause FAC and LDI. Major mechanisms of FAC and LDI are determined and a wall thinning evaluation method based on a coupled model of the static electrochemistry model and dynamic double oxide layer model is proposed to evaluate FAC and LDI rates. 2. FAC AND LDI OCCURRENCE 2.1 Definition of FAC and LDI FAC in single phase flow is determined by the corrosion process with accelerated by flow dynamics and it is designated as FAC in the narrow sense, while that in two phase flow is divided into two types; one is erosion-corrosion (tiger strip pattern corrosion) and the other is LDI (shotgun pattern corrosion). The three types of FAC are illustrated in Figure 110). LDI is also divided into two types; one is determined by mechanical process (designated as LDI (erosion) and the other is determined by corrosion process (designated as LDI (corrosion)). LDI on the turbine blades is a typical pattern of LDI (erosion), which is often mitigated by improving surface hardness, e.g., application of stellite alloy coating. Air vent lines of feed water heaters are often damaged by corrosion accelerated by LDI, which shows a typical pattern of LDI (corrosion). In the case of LDI (corrosion), even if there are small holes, lower pressure in the piping than ambient one results in in-leakage but not out-leakage, which does not cause serious environmental damage. However, even though the damage is not serious, the trouble itself should be reported to the government with its roof cause and countermeasures for avoiding the same kind of troubles. 2.2 Major Parameters to Determine FAC and LDI (corrosion) The key factor to determine FAC is the oxide film on structure surfaces which develops as a result of corrosion and, at the same time, controls the corrosion rate in its role as a protective film. The major parameters13)-16) to determine FAC are divided into material parameters, flow dynamics parameters and environmental parameters. Metallic ions, mainly ferrous ions (Fe2+), are released into the water at the boundary layer where some of the supersaturated Fe2+ ions become oxide particles and they deposit on the metal surface to become a magnetite oxide layer. The oxide layer plays an important role in preventing more release of Fe 2+ (corrosion reaction). The thickness of the boundary layer is much affected by flow dynamics. For these processes, oxygen concentration ([O2]) in the boundary layer also plays an important role for oxidizing magnetite to hematite, which contributes to achieving much higher corrosion resistance. Temperature and pH of water are also important environmental factors to determine FAC. Ferrous ion concentration in the water, [Fe2+], is calculated with a chemical reaction model based on the obtained flow pattern, and then calculated [Fe2+] is fed back to the environmental factors for the wall thinning calculation. Chromium content in the steel is also an important factor to determine FAC. Items of FAC risk for each parameter overlap to form a high FAC risk zone as shown in Figure 2 a)13). The necessary conditions for FAC occurrence are designated as overlapping conditions of each FAC risk zone. In other words, FAC can be mitigated by controlling each parameter so that it stays outside the FAC risk region. Wall thinning should be evaluated at least for the location pointed out by the first step evaluation.

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corrosive conditions [O2]<5 ppb ECP<-0.3V flow pattern mass transfer coeff. >threshold pH pH<9.2

temperature 120<T<180

Evaluation of wall thinning rate

corrosive conditions ECP, pH flow pattern steam velocity distribution high LDI risk zone

Evaluation of wall thinning rate*

high FAC risk zone

[Fe2+] [Fe]<1/2[Fe]sat : coupled analysis : individual analysis

droplet collision location size and velocity of droplets Evaluation of droplet-oxide film interaction

Cr content [Cr]<0.2%

Evaluation of droplet trajectory

materials

* LDI (corrosion): coupled electrochemistry & oxide layer models LDI (mechanical): empirical formula a) FAC risk zone b) LDI risk zone

Figure 2 High FAC and LDI risk zone indicated by regions of risk for FAC and LDI

The major parameters that influence LDI (corrosion) are categorized into four groups: flow pattern, corrosive conditions, droplet impingement properties, and material properties, as shown in Figure 2 b)13). The parameters in the flow pattern group are steam flow velocity distributions and droplet number density. In the corrosive conditions group, the parameters are ECP and pH. In the droplet impingement properties group, the parameters are distributions of droplet diameters and droplet velocity. The parameter in the material properties group is residual stress in oxide layers and base metals. The high LDI (corrosion) risk zone is identified by evaluating the amounts of overlapped contributions from these parameters. 2.3 Evaluation Procedures Six calculation steps were prepared for predicting FAC occurrence and evaluating wall thinning rate (Figure 3 a)).
Step 1 1D CFD code Step 2 1D O2-hydrazine reaction code Step 3 3D CFD code Step 4 Chart analysis Wall thinning Step 5 calculation code Step 6 Final evaluation
Distributions of flow velocity and temperature in the cooling system Corrosion conditions, e.g., [O2] and ECP, in the cooling system Distributions of mass transfer coefficients Danger zone evaluation Distributions of wall thinning rate and ECP Evaluation of residual life and the effects of countermeasures

Step 1 3D CFD code

Steam flow pattern and steam quality

3D droplet flow Droplet orbit, impingement angle, Step 2 calculation code velocity and density Step 3 LDI calculation
Impact pressure, density and oxide rupture

Damage zone evaluation Step 4 Chart evaluation Distribution of wall thinning rate and ECP Wall thinning Step 5 calculation code LDI (corrosion): coupled models LDI (erosion): empirical formula

Step 6

Evaluation of residual life and Final evaluation effects of countermeasures

a) FAC Figure 3 Evaluation steps for FAC and LDI

b) LDI
Flow dynamics analysis Corrosion (chemical) analysis System analysis

Flow pattern and temperature in each elemental volume along the flow path are obtained with a one-dimensional (1D) plant computational flow dynamics (CFD) code17) and then corrosive conditions, e.g., [O2] and electrochemical corrosion potential (ECP), along the flow path are calculated with the O 2-N2H4 reaction code13). Precise flow patterns about the structure surface are calculated with a 3D CFD code15) and then distributions of mass transfer coefficients at the surface are obtained. The high FAC risk zone is evaluated by coupling major FAC parameters obtained by steps 1 through 3. At the indicated high FAC risk zone, wall thinning rates are calculated with the coupled model of static electrochemical analysis and dynamic double oxide layer analysis. As a final evaluation, residual lifetime of the pipes and applicability of countermeasures against FAC are evaluated in step 6. The total processes have been assembled as a computer program package. The basic strategy for assembling the program package is to assemble the traceable procedures, to verify the models and programs by experimental data and then to validity the program package by plant data. Evaluation procedures six calculation steps were also prepared for predicting LDI (erosion) and LDI (corrosion) occurrence and evaluating local wall thinning rate (Figure 3 b)). The details of the evaluation procedures for LDI (corrosion) are presented in the paper10).

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International Symposium on the Ageing Management & Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants (2010) 18-28

3. DETERMINATION OF WALL THINNING RATE 3.1 Wall Thinning Rate due to FAC Mass transfer coefficients One of the key parameters to determine FAC is thickness of the boundary layer and mass transfer coefficients between the bulk water and the boundary layer. The flow pattern along the flow path is very complicated, especially downstream from the orifice, where a backward current results in complicated flow pattern with high turbulent energy and a large mass transfer coefficient. The complex flow pattern which enhances FAC should be analyzed by combination of 1D, 2D and 3D-CFD codes13),18). In order to obtain precise flow velocity distributions at the innermost surface on the pipe, 2-3D k- methods with wall functions were applied13),15). It was confirmed that the k- calculations with the wall functions gave the same results as the large eddy simulation calculation, but with a lower mesh number and a lower CPU time. Coupled electrochemistry and oxide layer models Wall thinning rate has been calculated with the coupled models of the static electrochemistry analysis and dynamic oxide layer growth analysis 15),16) (Table 1).
Calculation targets Input Table 1 Evaluation code system for FAC [O2], [Fe2+] Wall thinning rate and ECP [anodic/cathodic current density] [oxide film formation] Reactor parameters: Reactor parameters: [O2] , T, pH, km, icorr, geometries, T, flow velocity (v), oxide film thickness, ECP heat flux (Q), surface/volume rate, oxide properties temperature (T) mixing rate 1D CFD N2H4-O2 reaction code Static model Dynamic model 2-3D k-e CFD (Electrochemistry) (Oxide layer growth) coupling calculation 3D LES T, v distributions [O2] and [Fe2+] current density (icorr,), ECP oxide film thickness along the flow path distributions wall thinning rate oxide properties (Fe2O3/Fe3O4 ratio) Flow pattern

Computer programs Output

Anodic and cathodic current densities and ECP were calculated with the static electrochemistry model and ferrous ion release rate determined by the anodic current density was applied as input for the dynamic oxide layer growth model. Thickness of oxide film (oxide layer) and its characteristics were applied for the electrochemistry model to determine the resistance of the cathodic current from the bulk to the surface and anodic current from the surface to bulk. At the metal surface, anodic and cathodic current densities balance to result in zero net current density. Release rate of metallic ions from the metal without an oxide film on the surface increases with potential, while it is mitigated by the oxide film developed on the surface. When [O 2] is low, cathodic current density is low and anodic current density is high because oxide film does not develop well on the surface under low oxidant conditions. At the hydrogen generation potential, protons in water (H +) are reduced and electrons are taken, which increases anodic current density. ECP is determined by hydrogen generation potential, where the metallic ion release rate (corrosion rate) is sufficiently high. When [O2] is high, cathodic current density is high but anodic current density is low because a well developed oxide film mitigates metallic ion release from the metal surface. The intersection of anodic and cathodic current density lines shifts to higher potential, while the anodic current density (corrosion rate) is lower than that for low [O2]. The electrochemistry model shows the static balance of charge at the oxide surface with a given oxide film thickness, while the oxide layer growth model shows the dynamic balance of oxide film and film thickness is calculated as a result of accumulated mass balance of metal released from the base metal. In the oxide film growth model, ferrous ions are released from base metal through the oxide layers, which consist of magnetite inner and hematite outer layers. The models and programs have been verified by experimental data15,16). Validation of the computer programs In order to confirm applicability and accuracy of FAC evaluation methods based on the coupled FAC model of static electrochemical analysis and dynamic oxide layer growth analysis, wall thinning rates calculated with the proposed methods were compared with those measured for the secondary piping of a PWR plant. The relationship between the measured values and the calculated/measured ratio is shown in Figure 419). In the figure, the measured value and the calculated/measured ratio are averaged at each measured zone. Their standard deviations are shown with the error bars. The calculated/measured ratios at the condensate

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International Symposium on the Ageing Management & Maintenance of Nuclear Power Plants (2010) 18-28
condensate feedwater heaters demineralizer

1.6
calculated/measured ratio (-)

1.4 1.2 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0 0.2

calculated/measured ratio (-)

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

main condenser deaerator SG

target accuracy (within a factor of 2)

condensate water line (146C)

feed water line (222C)

target accuracy (within a factor of 2)

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 measured (arbitrary unit) a) Condensate water line ( 146)

measured (arbitrary unit) b) Feed water line (222C) Figure 4 Comparison of the calculated wall thinning rate with the measured at a PWR plant

1.2

water line are around 1.0 from low measured values through large ones, while those at the feed water line increase as the measured values decrease. The target accuracy for the evaluation model as a factor of two for pipe wall thinning due to FAC was confirmed by comparing the analytical results with the measured ones in Figure 6. There are still some out of the region of factor of two. One of the causes for the discrepancies between the measured and calculated might come from too low thinning rate with large errors by UT measurements. Of cause, calculation procedures should be improved, while measurement accuracies should be also improved. Mitigating the discrepancy between the calculated and measured values at low measured regions is a future subject for consideration, and the root reasons for underestimation should be carefully investigated to establish the proposed six-step procedure as a standard code for FAC evaluation 3.2 Wall Thinning Rate due to LDI LDI (erosion) and LDI (corrosion) LDI is divided into two types, LDI (erosion) and LDI (corrosion). The boundary between the LDI (erosion) and the LDI (corrosion) is not clearly defined. For instance, interactions of droplets and wall surfaces are varied by location of interaction, steam velocity, droplet diameter, surface conditions (whether liquid film is existing), droplet amount, and so on. Generally, under higher steam velocity, droplet collision velocity on the pipe wall is so high to erode the pipe materials mechanically, while under lower steam velocity the droplet collision velocity is rather low to erode materials but enough high to erode oxide film on the pipe surface. Schematic diagram of the relationship between LDI (erosion) and LDI (corrosion) is shown in Figure 510). Wall thinning rate due to LDI (erosion) is expressed as a function of steam velocity. In the figure Heymanns empirical formula [15] was applied for the wall thinning rate. Wall thinning rate due to LDI (corrosion) is much affected by corrosive conditions, e.g., pH and [O2]. Even if steam velocity is enough high but lower steam quality with too much mist density, pipe surface is covered with liquid film, which prevent erosion of the materials, and FAC might be observed under higher surface velocity of liquid film.
determined by corrosion 101
wall thinning rate (mm/y)

determined by erosion

LDI (corrosion) 100 mist diameter/density 10-1 environment factors LDI (erosion) 10-2 0 200 400 steam velocity (m/s) 600

Figure 5 LDI (erosion) and LDI (corrosion)

Collision of droplets at wall surface In the air vent lines of the feed water heaters, two phase flow with high quality is fed to the main condenser and the velocity in the pipe is approximately 200 m/s, which can

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be determined by pressure of steam at the heater and pipe configuration between the heater and condenser. Flow pattern of steam of two phase flow with a quality greater than 0.9 can be calculated as a single phase flow with a mass density corresponding to that of a mixture of steam and droplets20). The steam flow distribution is calculated with the 3D CFD code18). Assuming that all the shapes of droplets are rigid spheres and the force acting on the droplet is only drag force, droplet trajectory can be calculated by the motion of equation, Eq. (1)10),21). mpdvp/dt = 1/2Cd(dp2/4)g|vpug|(vpug) (1) For the droplet trajectories calculation, a homogeneous velocity (200 m/s) distribution was assumed at the entrance of the pipe. The droplet trajectories were affected by steam velocity, initial droplet velocity, droplet size and drag coefficient. Droplets with larger diameter impinged on the pipe wall closer to the inlet. Oxide film rupture A droplet impinging on oxide layers applies pressure onto them, possibly resulting in abrasion of oxide layers. In the zirconium oxide at the interface between oxide layers (ZrO2) and zirconium alloy base metal, high compressive stress of ~100 MPa was observed, which was from the difference in lattice constants of ZrO2 and base metal22). The compressive stress increased as the oxide grew and the oxide ruptured at the stress of around 200 MPa23). The difference in lattice constants of steel (-Fe, 0.287 nm)24) and magnetite (0.840 nm)25) might result in high compressive stress in the oxide film at the oxide metal boundary23). From the analogy of ZrO2 film rupture, it was assumed that the compressive stress in the oxide layers was ~100 MPa initially and oxide film ruptured when it exceeded ~200 MPa due to droplet impingement and then initiation of LDI (corrosion) took place. Generally the metal surface was covered by oxide film, which protected the base metal against further corrosion, while, as a result of droplet impingement, oxide film was removed locally, bare metal was exposed to the corrosion environment directly and then oxide film was regenerated quickly. Oxide film growth rate could be calculated with the coupled model of the static electrochemistry analysis and oxide layer growth analysis, while duration between oxide film rupture events could be determined with droplet impingement model. By coupling both models, local wall thinning rate due to LDI (corrosion) could be calculated. 4. DISCUSSIONS 4.1 Evaluation of Droplet Collision Velocity on Pipe Inner Surface Interactions of droplet and materials Interactions of droplets and materials at the pipe surface are affected by droplet collision velocity. Impact pressure at the metal surface was calculated as a function of the contact time of droplet and surface by the MPS (Moving particle semi-implicit) method26). The calculated results are shown in Figure 627) ,28). High impact pressure is observed just after the first contact and it is moderated by propagating into surrounding materials. The peak pressure is moderated by existing liquid film at the surface. Liquid film with the thickness of 10% of droplet diameter can decrease the peak pressure to about two thirds of that without liquid film.
400 800 300
pressure (MPa) 5 m

200 delayed time due to liquid film droplet diameter50 m droplet collision velocity200 m/s 0 0 10 20 time elapsed after collision (s) 30

pressure (MPa)

without liquid film

with liquid film

600

Measured* without liquid film with liquid film Empirical formula Rochesters Cooks Heymanns

400

100

200 * Maximum space-averaged pressure 0 100 200 droplet collision velocity (m/s) 300

Figure 6 Effects of liquid film on moderation of droplet impact pressure at metal surface

Figure 7 Relationship between droplet collision velocity and maximum impact pressure

The calculated maximum impact pressure is compared with the estimation values based on empirical formula for impact pressure29)-31).

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Heymanns formula29) P = 3CVr P = CVr (2+(2k-1)Vr/C) Cooks formula30) P = CVr (1+kVr/C) Rochesters formula31) P = 0.7CVr

0.03<Vr/C<0.3 Vr>0.3

(2) (3) (4) (5)

As a result of comparison between the MPS calculation and the empirical formula, it was suggested that Heymanns formula can be applied for estimation of the maximum impact pressure due to droplet collision at the pipe wall surface. Maximum impact pressure caused by droplet collision is calculated also by the MPS method as a function of droplet collision velocity in Figure 7 28). The threshold impact pressure for oxide film break, 200 MPa, corresponds to the droplet collision velocity of 100 m/s. When droplet velocity is larger than 150 m/s, oxide film is broken by droplet collision continuously and materials without protection by oxide film is corroded seriously and often eroded. When droplet velocity is smaller than 150 m/s, oxide film is not broken by single droplet collision continuously and materials with protection by oxide film is corroded slowly and often corroded by assistance of droplet driven surface flow, which is designated as liquid droplet impingement accelerated corrosion. The same threshold velocity has been driven by corrosion analysis and erosion analysis as shown in Figure 8. 4.2 Evaluation of Wall Thinning Rate due to LDI (erosion) Wall thinning rate due to LDI (erosion) is calculated by Heymanns formula, which is shown in Eq. (6) 13) . log(Re ) = 4.8log(Vr) log(NER) 16.65 + 0.67 log(dp) + 0.57J 0.22K (6) Rationalized erosion rate per unit injecting droplet amounts, Re, can be determined by applying droplet collision velocity, droplet diameter and other constants. Calculated rationalized erosion rate, Re, for droplet diameter of 100 mm is shown as a function of droplet collision velocity in Figure 8. Mist concentration in the steam is not determined by thermodynamic calculation. For instance, mist content in the main steam is determined by combined efficiencies of steam-water separators and steam dryers, while that in steam of vent lines from feed water heater is determined combination of geometry of vent line nozzle and stability of liquid level around the nozzle, parameters of which cannot be designed and controlled at a certain target value. Wall thinning rate calculated by the calculated rationalized erosion rate are shown in Figure 8 for several mist contents around 1 %. If the mist content cannot be measured at the plant, uncertainty in mist content and then uncertainty in wall thinning rate caused by mist content uncertainty should be accepted as a design margin.
mist content (%) 1 5 0. 2 Re droplet diameter: 100 m

10
thinning rate (mm/y)

10-6 10-8 10-9 10-10 10-11

Heymanns Re (-)

10-7

100 10-1 10-2

10-12 200 400 600 Vr (m/s) Figure 8 Estimation of erosion rate based on Heymanns Formula 0

4.3 Evaluation of Wall Thinning Rate due to LDI (corrosion) When droplet collision velocity is smaller than 150 m/s, wall thinning is determined mainly by corrosion process. LDI accelerated corrosion, LDI (corrosion), is expressed as a function of local mass

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transfer coefficient and environmental conditions. Local corrosion rate of carbon steel is calculated as a function of mass transfer coefficient for three different corrosive conditions, e.g., neutral without oxygen, neutral with oxygen and pH of 9.2 without oxygen (Figure 9). Under moderated corrosive conditions, e.g., neutral with oxygen and pH of 9.2 without oxygen, corrosion rate reaches a certain constant level at relatively low mass transfer coefficient.
102
wall thinning rate (mm/y)

101 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 pH: 7, [O2]: 1 ppb pH: 7, [O2]: 200 ppb pH: 9.2, [O2]: 0.1 ppb 10-4 10-3 10-2 10-1 100 mass transfer coefficient, hm (m/s) Wall thinning rate due to LDI (corrosion)

Figure 9

Mass transfer coefficient in single phase flow is affected by main flow rate and local turbulence due to orifice and bending. In the case of two-phase flow surface flow velocity is affected by slipped liquid droplets and liquid film flow. Flow velocity of normal liquid film seems to be too low to enhance corrosion, while droplet collision enhanced liquid film flow is determined by droplet velocity and density, which result in the same order of flow velocity as droplet velocity and finally sufficient large mass transfer coefficient can be estimated to accelerate corrosion. Especially vent lines in BWRs, where steam condition is neutral with sufficient amount of oxygen (around 1 ppm), steam flow with the velocity of around 100 m/s results in enough high mass transfer coefficient and then corrosion rate at the major part of interest is a constant. However the detail evaluation of local flow rate caused droplet collision is still future problem. Verification and validation of the computer program package for LDI are now on progress. 5. CONCLUSION The conclusions are summarized as follows. (1) For FAC wall thinning evaluation, (i) High FAC risk zones were evaluated by applying the six step evaluation procedures (ii) Wall thinning rates was calculated with the coupled model of static electrochemical analysis and dynamic oxide layer growth analysis at the identified high FAC risk zones. (iii) Verification and validation of the computer program package have been successfully done by comparing the calculated results with the measured at laboratories and at a PWR plant. (2) For LDI wall thinning evaluation, (i) High LDI risk zones for LDI evaluated by applying the six step evaluation procedures (ii) Local wall thinning rates at the identified high LDI risk zones was calculated. (iii) For the region with higher steam velocity than 200 m/s wall thinning rate is determined mainly by erosion (LDI (erosion)), while for that with lower velocity than 100m/s it is determined by corrosion process (LDI (corrosion)). (3) Make a final evaluation of residual life and the effectiveness of countermeasures. Acknowledgements Development of the analysis model has been supported by the Innovative and Viable Nuclear Energy Technology Development Project of the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry, as Development of Evaluation Method on Flow-induced Vibration and Corrosion of Components in Two-phase Flow by Coupled Analysis (2005-2007). The authors express their sincere thanks to the sponsor who gave them the chance to develop the model and to draw attention to many related research achievements. The evaluation of the model by comparing the calculated results with the measured has been carried out as a part of the project studies sponsored by the Nuclear and Industrial Safety Agency (NISA). The authors express their sincere thanks to NISA for its sponsorship and acceptance of publication of the results. 25

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NOMENCLATURE C: velocity of sound in steam (m/s) Cd: friction coefficient (-) (0.5) dp: droplet diameter (m) J: constant (-) (0 for liquid droplet impingement) k: constant (-) (2 for water) K: constant of geometry (-) (0 for plane surface, 1 for curvature) mp: mass of a droplet (kg) NER: erosion resistance number [36] P: impact pressure Re: rationalized erosion rate (m3-eroded materials/m3-collided droplet) ug: 3D steam velocity (m/s) vp: 3D droplet velocity (m/s) Vr: droplet collision velocity (m/s) l: density of water (kg/m3) g: density of steam (kg/m3) ABBREVIATIONS -FLOW: an advanced computational fluid dynamics analysis code BWR: boiling water reactor CFD: computational flow dynamics ECP: electrochemical corrosion potential FAC: flow accelerating corrosion FPP: fossil fuel power plant IGSCC: intergranular stress corrosion cracking k-method: a Reynolds number averaged Navier-Stokes simulation method LDI: liquid droplet impingement NPP: nuclear power plant PLASHY: a parallelized version of -FLOW PWR: pressurized water reactor RELAP5: a 1D plant flow dynamics calculation code 1D, 2D, 3D: one-, two-, three-dimensional REFERENCES [1] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, Y. Uehara, H. Okad and S. Koshizuka, Evaluation Method of Corrosive Conditions in Cooling Systems of Nuclear Power Plants by Combined Analyses of Flow Dynamics and Corrosion, Power Plant Chemistry, 9 [3], 143 (2007). [2] L. E. Sanchez-Caldera, The Mechanism of Corrosion-Erosion in Steam Extraction Lines of Power Stations, Ph. D. Thesis, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, Massachusetts (1984). [3] G. J. Bignold, K. Garbett, R. Garnsey and I. S. Woolsey, Erosion-corrosion in nuclear steam generators, in Proceedings of the Second Meeting on Water Chemistry of Nuclear Reactors, 5, British Nuclear Engineering Society, London, (1980). [4] D. H. Lister and L. C. Lang, A Mechanistic Model for Predicting Flow-assisted and General Corrosion of Carbon Steel in Reactor Primary Coolants, Proceedings of the International Conference on Water Chemistry of Nuclear Reactor Systems, Avignon, France, April, (2002) [5] V. K. Chexal, R. B. Dooley, D. P. Munson, R. M. Tilley, 529, IWC-97-57 (1997). [6] W. Kastner, M. Erve, N. Henzel and B. Stellwag, Nucl. Eng. Design, 119, 431 (1990). [7] H.G Heitmann and P.Schub, Initial experience gained with a high pH value in the secondary system of PWRs, Proc. Third Meeting on Water Chemistry of Nuclear Reactors, BNES, London, 243 (1983). [8] S. Trevin, EDF Knowledge of Flow-Assisted Corrosion in PWR Type NPP, ENTECH050089 (2005) [9] R. B. Dooley, Flow Accelerated Corrosion in Fissile and Combined Cycle/HRSG Plants, Power Plant Chemistry, 10 [2], 68 (2008). [10] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, H. Okada, Y. Uehara, S. Koshizuka, R. Svoboda and D. H. Lister, Effects of Water Chemistry on Flow Accelerated Corrosion and Liquid Droplet Impingement Accelerated Corrosion, Power Plant Chemistry, 11 [12], 704 (2009).

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[11] F. J. Heymann, Toward Quantitative Prediction of Liquid Impact Erosion, ASTM STP, 474, 212 (1970). [12] Y. Isomoto and H. Miyata, Erosion Phenomenon Caused by Water Droplet Impingement and Life Prediction of Industrial Materials, Zairyo-to-Kankyo, 57, 146 (2008) (in Japanese). [13] M. Naitoh, S. Uchida, S. Koshizuka, H. Ninokata, N. Hiranuma, K. Dosaki, K. Nishida, M. Akiyama and H. Saitoh, Evaluation Methods for Corrosion Damage of Components in Cooling Systems of Nuclear Power Plants by Coupling Analysis of Corrosion and Flow Dynamics is (I), Major targets and development strategies of the evaluation methods, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 45 [11], 1116 (2008) . [14] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, Y. Uehara, H. Okada, N. Hiranuma, W. Sugino and S. Koshizuka, Evaluation of Flow Accelerated Corrosion of PWR Secondary Components by Corrosion Analysis Coupled Flow Dynamics Analysis (II), Evaluation of corrosive conditions in PWR secondary cooling system, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 45 [12], 1275 (2008). [15] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, Y. Uehara, H. Okada, N. Hiranuma, W. Sugino, S. Koshizuka and D. H. Lister, Evaluation of Flow Accelerated Corrosion of PWR Secondary Components by Corrosion Analysis Coupled Flow Dynamics Analysis (III), Evaluation of Pipe Wall Thinning Rate with the Coupled Model of Static Electrochemical Analysis and Dynamic Double Oxide Layer Analysis, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 46 [1], 31 (2009). [16] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, Y. Uehara, H. Okada, S. Koshizuka and D. H. Lister, Evaluation of Wall Thinning Rate due to Flow Accelerated Corrosion with the Coupled Models of Electrochemical Analysis and Double Oxide Layer Analysis, Proc. 14th Int Conf. Environmental Degradation of Materials in Nuclear Power Systems Water Reactors, Virginia Beach, VA, Aug. 22-27, 2009, ANS, 2009 (in CD). [17] The RELAP5 Code Development Team, RELAP5/MOD3 Code Manual Volume 1: Code Structure, System Methods, and Solution Methods, NUREG/CR-5535, INEL-95/0174 Vol. 1, Idaho National Laboratory (1995). [18] R. Takahashi, K. Matsubara, H. Koike, Implementation of a Consultative Expert System for Advanced Fluid Dynamics Analysis Code - Flow, Proc. 2nd International Forum on Expert System and Computer Simulation in Energy Engineering, ICHMT, Erlangen, Germany, Mar. 17-20, 1992, p.4-L-1, University of Erlangen (1992). [19] S. Uchida, M. Naitoh, Y. Uehara, H. Okada, T. Ohira, H. takiguchi, W. Sugino and S. Koshizuka, Evaluation of Flow Accelerated Corrosion of PWR Secondary Components by Corrosion Analysis Coupled Flow Dynamics Analysis (IV), Comparison of Wall Thinning Rates Calculated with the Coupled Model of Static Electrochemical Analysis and Dynamic Double Oxide Layer Analysis and Their Values Measured at a PWR plant, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 47 [2], 184 (2010). [20] H. Okada, S,Uchida, Y. Uehara, M. Naitoh, S, Koshizuka, Evaluation of Local Wall Thinning of Piping due to Liquid Droplet Impingement by Coupled Analysis of Corrosion and Flow Dynamics, Proc. the 13th International Topical Meeting on Nuclear Reactor Thermal Hydraulics (NURETH-13), 2009 (Kanazawa City, Japan), N13P1177 (in CD). [21] A. Minato (AdvanceSoft Co., Tokyo, Japan), Private communication [22] J. Godlewski and R. Cadalbert, A New Method of Residual Stress Distribution Analysis for Corroded Zircaloy-4 Cladding, Proc. Int. Symp. On Material Chemistry in Nuclear Environment, Tsukuba, Japan (1992). [23] S. Uchida, Corrosion of Structural Materials and Electrochemistry in High Temperature Water of Nuclear Power Systems, Power Plant Chemistry, 10 [11], 630 (2008). [23] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 87th Edition, Ed. By D. R. Lide, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 4-159 (2006). [25] CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 87th Edition, Ed. By D. R. Lide, CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 4-160 (2006). [26] S. Koshizuka, Y. Oka, "Moving-Particle Semi-implicit Method for Fragmentation of Incompressible Fluid", Nucl. Sci. Eng., 123, 421 (1996). [27] J. Arai and S, Koshizuka, Numerical Analysis of droplet Impingement on Pipe Inner Surface Using a Particle Method, J.Power Energy Systems, 3 [1], 228 (2009). [28] J. Xiong and S, Koshizuka, Numerical Analysis of Droplet Impingement Using the Moving Particle Semi-implicit Method, J. Nucl. Sci. Technol., 47 [3], 314(2010). [29] F. J. Heymann, High-Speed Impact between a Liquid Drop and a Solid Surface, J. Applied Physics, 40-13, 5113 (1969). 27

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[30] S. S. Cook, Erosion by Water-hammer, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A, 119, 481 (1928). [31] M. C. Rochester, J. H. Bruton, Influence of Physical Properties of the Liquid on the Erosion of Solids, ASTM STP, 567, 128 (1974). [32] F. J. Heymann, Conclusions from the ASTM Interlaboratory Test Program with Liquid Impact Erosion Facilities, Proc. 5th Int. Conf. Erosion by Liquid and Solid Impact, 20-1 to 20-10 (1979).

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