PHYSI CS FOR

CLASSES VI I TO X
CONTENTS
Page No.
1. Class X 2
2. Class IX 25
3. Class VIII 43
4. Class VII 57
The publisher has taken all possible precautions in preparing the C.D. yet if any mistakaes
has crept in, the publisher shall not be responsible for the same.
Re-production of the whole or any part of the contents in English or any other language
without the written permission of the publisher is prohibited.
CLASS - X
MEASUREMENT OF LENGTH
Screw Gauge :
A screw gauge is used to measure the thickness of a thin glass plate
and the diameter of a thin wire or a small sphere. It works on the
principle of a screw in a nut and hence it is called screw gauge.
The distance travelled by the tip of a screw for one complete rotation
of its head is called the pitch of the screw.
Pitch of the screw,
P =
made rotations complete of . No
screw the by travelled ce tan Dis
Pitch of the screw, P =
n
x
Least Count, L.C.
=
divisions scale head of . No
screw the of Pitch
=
N
P
Diameter of a wire or thickness of an object =P.S.R +H.S.R. x L.C.
If the zeroth division of the head scale does not coincide with the
index line the screw gauge has zero error.
Positive zero Error : If the zeroth division of the head scale is below
the index line of the pitch scale, the error is said to be positive and
the correction is negative.
Negative zero Error: If the zeroth division of the head scale is above
the index line of the pitch scale, the error is said to be negative and
the correction is positive.
OUR UNIVERSE : GRAVITATION
F =
2
2 1
r
m m
G
where G is the Universal Gravitational Constant.
NEWTONS LAW OF GRAVITATION:
Every body in the universe attracts every other body with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of their masses and
inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.
The force acts along the line joining the two bodies.
2 2 2 2
2
Kg Nm or Kg / Nm
or
) kg ( x ) kg (
) metre ( x newton
G of Units

Acceleration due to Gravity : The uniform acceleration produced

in a freely falling body due to the gravitational pull of the earth is
known as acceleration due to gravity and is denoted by g.
2
r
GM
g
The values of G, M and r are :
Gravitational constant,
G =6.67 x 10
-11
N m
2
/ kg
2
Mass of the earth M =6 x 10
24
kg
Radius of the earthr =6.4 x 10
6
m
g =9.8 m/ s
2
The calculations show that g value on moon is 1.67 m/ s
2
and on
Sun it is 27.4 m/ s
2
Mass and weight:
Mass : The mass of a body is the quantity of matter contained in it.
It is an inherent, and fundamental property of the body.
It is independent of external factors like position and surroundings.
Thus, the mass of a given body will be the same at the equator as
well as at the poles of the earth, or for that matter, any where in the
Universe.
Weight of a body : The weight of a body, is the force with which it is
attracted by the earth towards its center, and is equal to the product
of its mass and the acceleration due to gravity
W =m g
One kilogram weight is that gravitational force which acts on a body
of mass 1 kg.
Assuming g =9.8 ms
-2
1 kg wt =9.8 Newton =1kgf.
The weight of one kilogram mass is 9.8 Newtons. Note that g varies
with height, depth and location. Hence weight also varies. But the
mass does not change.
In the Copernican solar system, the earth not only rotates on its
own axis, but also revolves round the Sun in a circular orbit. All
other planets in the solar system similarly rotate about their axes
and revolve round the Sun in different circular orbits.
The value of g is maximum at poles and minimum at the equator.
The value of g decreases as we move upwards as well as downwards
(inwards) from the surface of the earth.
Polemic theory is also known as Geocentric theory
Copernican theory is known as Heliacentric theory
KINEMATICS
For a body in motion, the relationship between its initial velocity (u),
its final velocity (v), its uniform acceleration (a) and the distance (s)
travelled by the body in time (t). These equations are given below:
v =u +at
s =ut +
2
1
at
2
v
2
-u
2
=2as
Motion of a Body Under Gravity :
Acceleration due to gravity g
As the bodies travel vertically s may be replaced by the height h.
Therefore, for bodies in motion under gravity, the above three
equations can be written as
v =u +gt, s =ut +
2
1
gt
2
v
2
-u
2
=+2gh
Equations of Motion for a Freely Falling Body :
The body falls with a uniform acceleration g under the action of
gravity. Such bodies are said to be freely falling bodies.
For a freely falling body, with initial velocity, u =0. The direction of
g and the direction of motion of the body are same (i.e., downwards).
Therefore, g is taken as positive.
V =gt, h =
2
1
gt
2,
v
2
=2gh
Equation of Motion For a Body Thrown Upwards :
The sign of g is negative for bodies projected vertically upwards.
V =u gt, h =ut -
2
1
gt
v
2
u
2
=-2gh
For a freely falling body, u =0.
Time of Ascent : Time taken by a body thrown up to reach the
maximum height is called the time of ascent and is given by
t
1
=
g
u
Time of descent : Time taken by a freely falling body to touch the
ground is called the time of descent and is given by
t
2
=
g
u
g
h 2

The time of ascent is equal to the time of descent.

The time of flight : Time for which a body remains in the air is
called time of flight and is given by the sum of the time of ascent and
the time of descent, that is.,
t =
g
u 2
The velocity of a body falling from a height on reaching the ground
is equal to the velocity with which it should be projected upwards to
reach the same height.
When a body is projected upwards, the velocity with which it travels
at any point on its path is equal to the velocity with which it moves
downwards at that point.
DYNAMICS
The study of motion of a body under the action of a force is called
dynamics.
A body is said to be in rotatory motion if every particle moves in a
curved path about a fixed point.
A body can have three types of motions, translatory, oscillatory or
vibratory and rotatory motions.
An external force always directed towards a center is necessary to
change a translatory motion into a rotatory motion.
Circular motion is a special case of rotatory motion.
The line joining the particle (under uniform circular motion) to the
center of the circle is called a radius vector.
Angular displacement : Angular displacement is the angle described
by the radius vector of a particle under going circular motion.
1 revolution =2 radians =360
0,
1 radian =57
0
18
1
or
57.29
0
.
The rate of angular displacement is defined as angular velocity
w=Angular displacement / time interval.
Time period : Time taken by a particle to complete one revolution s
called time period.
Angular velocity is constant in a uniform circular motion.
Radian : The angular subtended by an arc of unit length on a circle
of unit radius is called a radian.
In a uniform circular motion the magnitude of linear velocity of the
particle remains constant but its direction changes continuosly. v =
rw
Centripetal acceleration on a particle is directed towards the centre
of the circular motion.
Centripetal acceleration, a =
r
v
2
Centripetal force is directed towards the center of the circular path
of a particle.
Centripetal force, F =
2
2
mrw
r
mv

An imaginary co-ordinate system which is at rest or in uniform motion

is called inertial frame of reference Newtons laws are valid in this
frame of reference.
An imaginary co-ordinate system attached to an accelerated body is
called non-inertial frame of reference Newtons laws are not valid in
this frame of reference.
A centrifugal force : A radially outward force acting on a body in a
uniform circular motion which is observed in an accelerated or
rotating frame is called centrifugal force.
The magnitude of centripetal force and centrifugal force is same.
Centrifugal force is not a reaction force.
Centrifuge is a machine used to separate particles of higher mass
from those of lower mass in a given mixture.
Banking on Roads : When a road is curved the outer edge of the
road is slightly raised above the level of the inner edge to provide
centripetal force to the vehicles passing through that curved path.
This is called banking of roads.
Bancking Angle : The angle made by the line joining the outer
raised edge of the road to the inner edge with the horizontal line is
called banking angle.
The banking angle depends on the expected speed of vehicles and
the radius of curvature of the road i.e.,
tan =
rg
v
2
A satellite is a body orbiting around another body of larger mass.
When a sufficient horizontal speed is imparted to a body it revolves
round the earth. This is the principle of launching an artificial
satellite.
Simple Harmonic Motion :
Periodic motion : Any motion that repeats itself along the same
path in equal intervals of time is called a periodic motion.
Oscillatory Motion : If a particle in periodic motion moves back and
forth over the same path, then its motion is called oscillatory or
vibratory motion.
The to-and-fro motion of a particle about a mean position on a fixed
path such that the acceleration of the particle is always directed
towards the mean position and is directly proportional to the
displacement of the particle from its mean position is called a simple
harmonic motion.
The periodic motion of a particle is said to be a SHM, if
(i) The motion of a particle is vibratory about a mean position,
(ii) The acceleration of the particle is always directed towards the mean
position.
(iii) The magnitude of the acceleration (a) is directly proportional to the
displacement (x) of the particle from its equilibrium position, that is
a x
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
Electromagnetic Waves - Spectrum :
Electromagnetic Spectrum : The waves travelling with velocity of
light and consisting of oscillating electric and magnetic fields
perpendicular to each other and also perpendicular to the direction
of their propagation are called the electromagnetic waves. Such
waves with different ranges of frequency constitute an electromagnetic
spectrum.
Visible spectrum : The wavelength of the visible spectrum extends
from about 0.4 m to 0.7 m. that is, from violet colour to red colour.
Visible spectrum is emitted when the excited valence electrons in
atoms jump back to their normal states.
Infrared (IR) spectrum : Infrared radiations have wavelengths larger
than those of visible light. i.e., from 0.7 m to about 100 m. They
are emitted by molecules when they change their states of rotational
or a vibrational motion.
Micro waves : Mi crowaves are el ectromagneti c waves wi th
wavelengths in the range 10m to 10m. These waves are commonly
produced by electromagnetic oscillators with high frequency (10
9
-
10
11
c/ s) in electric circuits.
Radio waves : Radio waves have wavelengths from 1 m to about 100
km. They are produced by the electromagnetic oscillators of low
frequency. These radiations are created when electrons are
accelerated in a suitable electronic circuit.
Ultraviolet (UV) spectrum : The radiations of wavelengths shorter
than the visible light ranging from about 0.4m to 1 nm are called
ultraviolet (UV) radiations. These radiations are produced by the
transitions of the electrons in atoms.
X-rays: X-rays are produced in discrete wavelengths in individual
transitions among the inner electrons of an atom. X-rays in
continuous wavelengths can also be produced when incident electrons
are decclerated inside the target atoms. Wavelengths of X-rays range
from 0.001 nm (0.01A
0
) to 10 nm (100 A
0
).
Gamma (Y) rays : Gamma rays are electromagnetic radiations with
shortest wavelengths ranging from 0.001 nm to 0.1 nm or from 0.001
A
0
to 1 A
0
Natural radioactive substances like U
235
emit these -
radiations.
SOUND
Natural and forced Vibrations :
Natural Vibration : When a body is set into vibration and then left
to itself, the vibrations are called natural or free vibrations.
Damped Vibration : The periodic vibrations of decreasing amplitude
are called damped vibrations.
Forced Vibration : When a body executes vibrations under the action
of a strong external periodic force whose frequency is different from
its natural frequency, then the vibrations of the body are called forced
vibrations.
Resonance : Resonance is the phenomenon in which if one of the
two bodies of the same natural frequency is set into vibrations, the
other body also vibrates under the influence of the first body.
Progressive Wave : When a wave originating in a source continues
to travel forward in a medium without returning back to the source,
it is called a progressive wave.
On reflection from a rigid or fixed end, a wave undergoes a phase
change of

or 180
0
.
Stationary Wave : Stationary wave is defined as a resultant wave
formed when two waves of equal frequency and amplitude travel in
opposite directions along the same path.
Stationary waves are characterized by nodes and antinodes.
The distance between two successive nodes or antinodes is equal to
2

.
In a stationary wave, energy remains trapped in a fixed region.
Velocity of sound in air is given by
V =

P
Where is the density and P is the pressure of the air. is the ratio
of specific heat of air at constant pressure, C
P
, and the specific heat
at constant volume, C
V.
Velocity of sound is given by v =
v
Where v is the frequency and

is the wavelength of the sound waves.

Stationary waves are formed, in a resonating air-column.
Always an antinode is formed at the open-end while a node is formed
at the closed end.
In the first mode of vibration, the length of air column
4
1

l
and in
the second mode
4
3
2

l
The velocity of sound in air is found from V =2v (l
2
- l
1
)
LIGHT - NATURE OF LIGHT
AND
SOURCES OF LIGHT
Nature of Light :
According to corpuscular theory, light consists of a stream of tiny,
light and perfectly elastic particles called corpuscles.
The velocity of light is different in different media.
According to the corpuscular theory of light, various colours of light
are supposed to be due to different sizes of corpuscles.
According to corpuscular theory, the velocity of light in a denser
medium is greater than that in a rarer medium which has been
proved to be wrong.
Corpuscular theory could not explain the phenomena of interference,
diffraction and polarization of light.
According to Huygens theory, light travels in the form of waves.
The imaginary three dimensional surface formed by the particles of
a medium which are vibrating in the same phase is called a wavefront.
The wavefronts can be of different shapes depending on the size
and shape of a light source and distance from it.
Interference :
The Principle of superposition of waves states that when one or more
waves travel through the same portion of a medium simultaneously,
the resultant displacement at any point is the vector sum of the
displacements due to individual waves.
The physical effect of superposition of waves from two sources vibrating
with same frequency and amplitude is called the interference of
waves. The physical effect is in the form of variation in the amplitude
of resultant wave in a given portion of the medium.
Diffraction :
The bending of a wave or its deviation from its original direction of
propagation when it meets a small obstacle is called diffraction.
The bending of the light waves around an obstacle whose dimensions
are comparable to the wave length of the incident light and hence
its spreading into the geometrical shadow is called diffraction.
Visual photometry : Visual photometry is the science of measuring
brightness or relative luminous intensities of light emitted by different
sources using certain standards and techniques.
Luminous flux : Luminous flux is the amount of radiant(light) energy
flowing from a source of light per unit time and is expressed in ergs
per second.
Luminous intensity : Luminous intensity at a point of source of
light is defined as the luminous flux emitted from it per unit solid
angle.
Candela (cd) : Candela (cd) is defined as the luminous flux emitted
per unit solid angle along normal to the surface by onesixtieth (1/
60) square cm area of a black-body radiator (source) kept at the
temperature (2046 K) of solidifying platinum.
Lumen (Lm) : Lumen is the amount of light energy emitted per
second by a uniform (point) source of one candela within a cone of
unit solid angle.
Candle power : Candle power of a light source, in a given direction,
is the luminous intensity of the source in that direction expressed
in terms of candela.
Laser - A Spectacular Light :
The basic scientific principle behind a laser was first put forward by
Dr.Charles H. Townes in 1954 which later led to the development of
the laser.
Laser is an acronym for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission
of Radiation.
Laser light is distinguished from an ordinary light sources by its
(l)coherence (2) directionality (3)monochromacity and (4) high
intensity.
Spontaneous emission : The process of electrons being released on
their own from the excited states in atoms and emitting incoherent
light is called spontaneous emission
Incoherent light : In the spontaneous emission, electronic transitions
take place at random in time and the photons or light waves emitted
have no correlation in phase. Such light is called incoherent light.
Population inversion : The process in which number of electrons
(N
2
) in a higher energy state called metastable state of an active
medium is increased to a value greater than the number (N
1
) in the
ground state (i.e., N
2
> N
1
) called population inversion.
The process of achieving population inversion is called PUMPING.
Induced emission of light : When an external coherent beam is
incident on the active system in a state of population inversion, the
electrons are induced or stimulated to undergo simultaneous
transition from the excited state to the ground state emitting
amplified, coherent radiation. This process is called stimulated or
induced emission of light.
Laser is an extra-ordinary light emitted under stimulated and
amplified, conditions so that the beam is characterized by high
intensity, specific directionality, high monochromacity and high
degree of coherence.
Lasers have applications in various disciplines of science and
technology. They also find applications in industry, medicine, defence
and space science.
MAGNETISM
Theory of Magnetism :
Magnetic poles cannot be separated or isolated magnetic poles do
not exists.
Magnetic saturation : A magnetic substance can be magnetised to
a maximum limit called magnetic saturation.
The two poles of a bar-magnet have equal pole strength.
An elementary bar-marget have equal pole strength.
A magnet can be demagnetised by tapping, hammering, heating
etc.
Inverse Square Law of Magnetism :
Pole Strength : The ability of a pole of a magnet to contract or repel
another magnetic pole is called its pole strength.
The inverse square law : The inverse square law of magnetism states
that the force of attraction or repulsion between two magnetic poles
is directly proportional to the square of the distance between them
and acts along the line joining the poles.
2
2 1
r
m m
K F
Magnetic permeability : Magnetic Permeability ( ) of a medium is
defined as its ability to allow the magnetic lines of force to pass
through it, or to allow itself to be influenced by magnetic field.
The permeability of free space
0

=4 x 10
-7
Henry/ metre.
Relative permeability r

: The ratio of the magnetic force in a medium
to the magnetic force in free space is defined as relative permeability
r
of the medium.
The rel ati on between absol ute permeabi l i ty ) ( and rel ati ve
permeability r
of a medium is = r 0
The unit magnetic pole is that pole which repels with a force of
7
10

newtons from an identical pole kept a distance of 1 metre.

Magnetic field induction : Magnetic field induction or magnetic
flux density B is defined as the magnetic flux passing through a
unit normal area.
A
B

Magnetic Field due to a Bar Magnet :

Magnetic moment of a bar-magnet is measured by the product of its
pole strength (m) and its magnetic length (2l)
Magnetic moment of a bar-magnet is given by M= 2lm(A-m
2
)
Magnetic field Induction on the axial line is given by
3
d
M 2
4
B
0

N/ A-
m
Magnetic field induction on the equatorial line is given by
3
d
M 2
4
B
0

N/ A-m
Mapping of Magnetic Lines of Force due to a Bar Magnet :
Neutral Point : A point where the magnetic field induction (B) due
to a bar-magnet is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to
the horizontal component of earths magnetic field induction (B
0
) is
called a neutral point.
When neutral points are at a point on equatorial line of a bar-
magnet, the relation between magnetic moment of the magnet and
the distance of the neutral point is M =390 d
3
A-m
2
When neutral points are at a point on axial line of a bar-magnet, the
relation between magnetic moment of the magnet and the distance
of the neutral point is M =195 d
3
A-m
2
Magnetic Properties of Materials :
Intensity of magnetisation : The magnetic moment acquired by a
substance per unit volume is defined intensity of magnetisation.
Magnetic susceptibility ( ) : Magnetic susceptibility of substance
is defined as the ratio of the intensity of magnetisation (I) and the
intensity of applied magnetic field (H).
Retentivity : Retentivity of a magnetic material is the property by
virtue of which it retains certain amount of intensity of magnetization
when the applied magnetic field is made zero.
All materials can be classified into dia, para and ferromagnetic
materials.
Diamagnetic substances are those in which the resultant magnetic
moment of individual atoms is zero.
Ferromagnetic substances are those in which the resultant magnetic
moments of individual atoms align themselves in parallel because of
a special effect in them giving rise to spontaneous magnetisation.
The relative permeability ( r ): The relative permeability for a
diamagnetic substance is approximately equal to1, for a paramagnetic
substance it is more than 1 while for a ferromagnetic substance it is
very high.
The magnetic susceptibility ( ) : The magnetic susceptibility of a
diamagnetic substance is small and negative, and it is small and
positive for a paramagnetic substance while it is a very large and
positive for ferromagnetic substance.
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
Ampere : Ampere is an amount of current in a conductor when the
net flow of charges per second through its cross-section is one
coulomb.
Electromotive force (e.m.f.) : The electromotive force (e.m.f.) is
defined as the amount of work done by the seat (cell) on charge
carriers to force them to go to the point of higher potential.
Simple Electric Circuits :
Static Electricity : The study of electric charges at rest is called
static electricity.
Current electricity : The study of various effects of electric charges
in motion is called current electricity.
Current : The net charge flowing through a cross-section of a
conductor in unit time is called current. Its unit is ampere i =
t
q
coulombs / second or ampere.
Current in a conductor is said to be one ampere, if the rate of flow of
charge through a conductor is one coulomb.
Electric potential : Electric potential at a point is defined as the
work done in moving a single positive charge from infinity to that
point. It s measured in volts. V =
q
w
Potential difference : Electric Potential difference between two points
is said to be one volt, when one joule of work is done in carrying one
coulomb of positive charge from one point to the other.
When negative terminal of a cell is connected to the positive terminal
of the next cell and soon, then the cells are said to be connected in
series.
When all positive terminals of two or more cells are connected to a
common point and similarly all the negative terminals to another
common point, then the cells are said to be connected in parallel.
When cells are connected in series, the total p.d. applied by them
will be equal to the sum of the e.m.f.s of individual cells. i.e., E =E
1
+
E
2
+E
3
+ .
Electrical Resistance - Ohms Law and its Verification :
Electric resistance : The electric property of a conductor which
opposes the flow of electrons through it is called electric resistance.
Ohms Law : At constant temperature, the potential difference (V)
across a conductor is directly proportional to current (i) through it.
V=iR.
The unit of resistance is Ohm and is denoted by the symbol

(Omega)
Resistance of a conductor is said to be 1

, if a potential difference
of one volt between its ends causes a current of 1 ampere in it.
Law of Resistance :
The resistance of a conductor depends on material and dimensions
such as length, area of cross-section and temperature.
Resistance of a conductor is directly proportional to its length.
Resistance of a conductor is inversely proportional to its area of cross-
section.
Resi stance of ohmi c- conductor i ncreases wi th i ncrease i n
temperature.
Resistance of a conductor, R =
a
l

where is specific resistance.

The specific resistance of a material is defined as the resistance of a
conductor of unit length and unit area of cross-section. Its unit is
Ohm metre.
Resistance in Series and Parallel :
In a circuit resistors connected end-to-end are said to be in series,
if the same current exists in all of them through a single path.
When resistors are connected in series:
(i) The same current passes through all of them. i.e. ......... i i i
2 1

(ii ) The voltage of the battery is divided among them i.e., ......... V V V
2 1
+ + .
(iii) The equivalent resistance of the combination is equal to the sum of
the individual resistances i.e., ......... R R R
2 1
+ + .
(iv) The equivalent resistance of the combination is more than that of
any individual resistance.
In a circuit, resistors connected to common terminals are said to be
in parallel, if identical p.d. exists across all of them.
When resistors are connected in parallel :
(i) The total current of the circuit is divided among them.
(ii) Same p.d. exists across all of them. i.e., ......... V V V
2 1
+ + .
(iii) The reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of the combination is
equal to the sum of the reciprocals of the individual resistances.
i.e.,
........
R
1
R
1
R
1
R
1
3
2 1
+ + +
(iv) The equivalent resistance of the combination is less than that of any
individual resistance.
Resistance of a circuit increases when the resistors are connected
in series and decreases when connected in parallel.
J oules Law :
Electrical energy or Electrical work done W=Vq, where V is voltage
and q is electric charge.
W =Vit, where V =voltage, i =current and t =time.
W =i
2
Rt, where i =current, R =resistance and t =time.
Electric Power : Rate of electrical work done is defined as electric
power.
Electric Power, P =Vi =i
2
R =
R
V
2
where, V =voltage, i =current and R
=resistance.
Wattage : Wattage of an electrical appliance is defined as the rate at
which electrical energy is consumed.
1 KW =1000 W and 1 MW =10
6
W.
J oules Law : A given amount of work done in different ways produces
the same quantity of heat in all cases and is directly proportional to
heat produced (W Q).
W=J Q, where J =mechanical equivalent of heat or J oules constant.
The work required to be done to produce a quantity of heat of 1
calorie is 4.18 J oules
J =4.18 J oules / Calories.
When current passes through an element, the heat developed Q
i
2
Rt.
Watt-Hour : Watt-Hour is defined as the electrical energy consumed
by an appliance of a wattage of 1 watt in an hour.
The units of household consumption of electrical energy is Kilo-
Watt-Hour (KWH).
1 KWH =1000 WH.
1 WH =3600 Watt-second.
Faradays Laws of Electrolysis :
Electrolysis : Electrolysis is the process of decomposition of solution
into its constituents, when an electric current passes through it.
When an el ectri c current passes through the el ectrol yte
4
CuSO solution, it dissociates into
+ 2
Cu
and
2
4
SO ions.
Faradays first law of electrolysis :
It states that the mass of ions liberated from an electrolyte is directly
proportional to the strength of the current (i) and the time (t) for
which the current passes.
i.e., (m it).
The electrochemical equivalent (e.c.e.) of an element is defined as
the mass of its ions liberated at the electrode, when one coulomb of
electricity is passed through the electrolyte.
q
m
Z
Faradays Second law of electrolysis :
When the same quantity of electricity passes through different
electrolytes, the masses of ions liberated at the respective electrodes
are proportional to their chemical equivalents.
From Faradays second law of electrolysis, it can be shown that :
(i)
3 2 1 3 2 1
E : E : E m : m : m
(ii)
3 2 1 3 2 1
E : E : E Z : Z : Z
(iii)
3 2 1 3 2 1
Z : Z : Z m : m : m
Electroplating : Electroplating is a process of coating a thin film of
costlier or less corrodable metals on a base metal.
Electrotyping : Electrotyping is a method of obtaining exact copy of
an engraved block containing letters or figures by the method of
electrolysis.
Magnetic Effects or Electric Current :
Maxwells Cork-Screw Rule : When the head of a cork-screw is
rotated such that the tip of the screw advances in the direction of
the current, then the direction of rotation of the head represents
the direction of the magnetic field around the conductor.
Amperes Right Hand Rule : When a current carrying conductor is
held in right hand such that the thumb points along the direction of
the current, then the remaining fingers indicate the direction of the
magnetic field around the conductor.
The magnetic induction at a point due to a straight current carrying
conductor is inversely proportional to the distance from it.
Magnetic induction at a point is directly proportional to the strength
of the current.
B =
r
i

2
0
Force acting on a current carrying conductor placed in an external
magnetic field is given by F =i/ B.
Flemings Left Hand Rule : Stretch the thumb, forefinger and central
finger of left hand perpendicular to each other such that if the
forefinger is in the direction of the magnetic field and the central
finger in the direction of the current then the thumb represents the
direction of force on the conductor.
Principle of Working of an Electric Motor:
Electric motor converts electrical energy into, mechanical energy.
Principle of an electric motor : When a current carrying rectangular
coil is placed in an uniform magnetic field, it is acted upon by a
torque which rotates the coil continuously.
Electro-Magnetic Induction :
The phenomenon of electromagnetic induction is the prodution of
electricity by a changing magnetic field associated with an electric
circuit containing no sources.
Electromagnetic induction : The setting up of an induced e.m.f. in
a coil in a closed circuit by a relative motion of a magnet and the coil
is called the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
Faradays law of electromagnetic induction : The Faradays law of
electromagnetic induction states that the induced e.m.f. in a closed
circuit (coil) is equal to the negative rate at which the magnetic flux
through it changes
i.e., . dt / ) N ( d
B

Lenzs law : The induced current will appear in such a direction
that it opposes the charge that produced it.
Flemmings Right Hand Rule : When the thumb, the fore finger
and the central finger of the right hand are stretched mutually
perpendicular to each other and are held such that the Forefinger
is along he direction of magnetic Field (B) and the thuMb is along
the direction of Motion (M) of the linear conductor, then the Central
finger points along the direction of the induced Current (i) or e.m.f.
Dynamo : A dynamo is an electrical device which converts mechanical
energy i nto el ectri cal energy uti l i si ng the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction.
The principle of working of a dynamo is the law of electromagnetic
induction.
Self induction : The production of an induced e.m.f. in an isolated
coil due to a change in the current in the same coil is called self
induction.
dt
di
L
Mutual induction : The production of an induced e.m.f. in one coil
due to changes in current in another close by coil is known as mutual
induction.
Transformer : A transformer is an electrical device which either
increases or decreases the magnitude of an alternating voltage by
utilising the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction.
A transformer works on the principle of electromagnetic induction
using mutual inductance of two coils.
MODERN PHYSICS
Atomic Model : The description of the distribution of mass and
positive and negative charges in an atom is called an atomic model.
First Postulate of Bohr : The electrons in an atom revolve around
the nucleus in circular orbits just like planets revolve around the
sun.
Second Postulate : The electrons revolve only in certain permitted
orbits called Stationary Orbits and do not radiate energy while in
such orbits.
Third Postulate : The electron has a definite energy in a stationary
orbit. Whenever an electron jumps from one stationary orbit to
another. absorption or emission of energy takes place. The energy
absorbed or released is equal to the difference in the energy of the
two stationary orbits involved.
The smallest unit of an element is called an atom.
According to Thomsons atomic model, positive charge is distributed
uniformly over the entire body of the atom while the electrons are
embedded in it.
Thomson model failed to explain observed spectra emitted by an
atom.
According to Lenard, a lot of empty space exists in an atom.
Lenard atomic model could not explain the stability and mass of an
atom.
Rutherfords atomic model consists of positively charged massive
nucleus at the centre with electrons revolving around it.
Rutherfords atomic model failed to explain the stability of an atom.
Bohrs atomic model assumes stationary circular orbits of definite
energy for electrons with nucleus at the centre.
Atomic Number, Atomic Mass and Mass Defect :
Atomic Number (Z) : The number of protons in an atom is defined
as Atomic number.
The total number of protons (Z) and neutrons (N) in an atom is defined
as its (Atomic Mass Number) or Mass Number (A). A =
Z+N.
Mass defect : Mass defect is the difference between the sum of the
individual masses of constituents in a nucleus and the mass of the
nucleus itself.
Mass defect = sum of individual mases of constituents of the nucleus
- actual mass of the nucleus.
Mass and Energy are mutually convertible. The principle of mass-
energy equivalence is given by E=

mc
2
.
1 MeV =1.6 x 10
-12
J oules
1 amu =931.5 MeV.
Radioactivity :
Natural Radi acti vi ty i s the phenomenon of spontaneous
disintegration of an unstable heavy nuclei of Z>83.
The , and radiations are emitted by radioactive nuclei.
particle is a doubly ionoised helium atom identified as He
4
2
.
-particules are electrons originating in the nucleus.
rays are electromagnetic radiations.
When particle is emitted, the atomic number of the atom increases
by 1 unit and the mass number remains unchanged.
The emission of ray does not alter either the atomic number or
mass number.
The Thorium, Uranium and Actinium series are represented by 4n,
4n+2 and 4n+3 series respectively.
Law of Radioactive Disintegration : In any radioactive substance,
the number of atoms disintegrating per second is directly proportional
to the number of atoms present.
The half-life period (T) of a radioactive substance is defined as the
time required for half of its atoms to disintegrate.
Isotopes :Isotopes are the atoms of the element having same mass
number but different mass number.
Isobars : Isobars are the atoms of different elements having same
mass number but different atomic number.
Isotones : Isotones are the atoms having same number of neutrons
but different number of protons.
Aritificial Transmutation :
Aritificial Transmutation : The process of transformation of one
element into another by bombarding it with high energy particles is
known as artificial transmutation.
Artificial radioactivity : Artificial radioactivity is the process of
converting a stable element into an unstable one with radioactive
nature.
Nuclear fission : Nuclear fission is the process in which a heavy
nucleus, when bombarded with neutrons, splits into two nuclei of
nearly equal mass with the release of enormous amount of energy.
Chain Reaction : A chain reaction is a series of nuclear fissions
caused by neutrons released in each fission.
Moderator : Moderator is a substance that slows down the neutrons
in a nuclear reactor.
Fusion : Fusion is a reaction in which light nuclei are combined
together to form a heavier product nucleus with the release of
enormous amount of energy.
ELECTRONICS
An extrinsic semiconductor is one which contains small quantities
of selected impurities introduced into an intrisnsic semiconductor.
Doping : The process of introducing impurities in small quantities
into a material is called doping.
P-type : A p-type semiconductor is formed when a small quantity of
acceptor impurity is added to the pure semiconductor.
N-type : A n-type semiconductor is formed when a small quantity of
donor impurity is added to a pure semiconductor.
J unction Diode - Properties and Uses :
p-n junction : A contact surface between p-type and n-type
semiconductors in a diode is called a p-n junction.
The depletion region in a junction diode is free from charge carriers
(holes or electrons).
The p-n junction consisting of -p-type and n-type semiconductors
provided with two terminals is called a junction diode.
A p-n junction diode conducts in forward bias condition.
In reverse bias condition diode does not conduct.
A p-n junction diode offers a high resistance under reverse bias
condition.
Diodes are used in rectifier circuits.
Transistors - Properties and Uses :
Transistors : A transistor consists of two p-n junctions formed by
sandwiching either a p-type semiconductor or a n-type semiconductor
between a pair of opposite type semiconductors.
A transistor consists of 2 p-n junctions.
A transistor consists of 3 terminals namely, emitter, base and
collector.
The two types of transistors are : p-n-p and n-p-n.
Transistor acts as an amplifier.
Radio and Television - Basic Principles of Working :
Modulation : The process of fixing messages to r.f. carrier waves is
called modulation.
Demodulation : The process of extracting information from the
modulated r.f. carrier waves is called demodulation.
Scanning by a TV camera is a process of dividing an image on the
screen into a very large number of squares formed by sets of horizontal
and vertical straight lines.
Electromagnetic waves in radio frequency (r.f.) range are used for
Raido and TV communication.
Radio waves travel through space over long distances.
The frequencies used in radio communications are in the range of
300KHz to 30MHz.
The frequencies used in TV communications are in the range of 30
MHz to 300 MHz.
Modulation is of two types (i) Amplitude Modulation (AM) (ii)
Frequency Modulation (FM).
Iconscope is a camera consisting of a cathode ray beam and a Photo-
Cell.
Computer - Basic Principles of Working:
A semiconductor consisting of combinations of large number of diodes
and transistors in it is an intergrated circuit (IC) or CHIP.
A microprocessor is a combination of ICs.
Data and instructions are supplied to the computer through an input
device.
Control Unit (CU), Arithmetic-Logic Unit (ALU) and MEMORY
constitute a Central Processing Unit (CPU) of a computer.
The digit 0 or the digit I is called a BIT.
A group of 8- bits is called a BYTE.
A group of instructions is called a program.
A machine language depends on the hardware of a computer.
CLASS - IX
OUR UNIVERSE
Light year : Light year is a unit of distance for expressing astronomical
distances. It is the distance travelled by light in one year. i.e.
ly =9.46 x 10
12
km.
Rocky portion of the earth is composed of three layers-the crust, the
mantle and the core.
Crust contains three types of rocks-igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic.
Mantle is made up of iron and magnesium silicates.
Core is of two layers - the outer liquid core and the inner solid core.
Inner core comprises mostly of iron and nickel.
Volcanoes and gysers are the evidence of internal heat.
Earthquakes are the result of strain in the rocks of crust and mantle.
A volcano is vent or opening in the earths surface to let out the hot
molten liquid, gases and pieces of rock with pressure.
Magma : Molten rock is called Magma.
Lava : When magma comes out of the vent onto the surface it is
called lava.
Igneous rocks : Igneous rocks formed from the soldification of lava
are called Igneous rocks.
Life began on earth first in water about 3.5 billion years ago.
Evolution : Evolution is the process of gradual change in the forms
of life from the simplest organism in the past to the highly evolved
man of the present day.
MEASUREMENT
Least Count : The smallest length that can be measured by the use
of a vernier scale along with a given main scale is called the least
count (L.C.) of the vernier.
s ' D . S . V of . No
D . S . M 1
N
S
. C . L
Vernier Callipers : A mechanical device which combines a main scale
and a vernier scale whose least count is much smaller than that of a
main scale is called a Venier Callipers.
The main scale reading (M.S.R) is always smaller of the two values
between which the zero of venier scale lies.
The diameter of the cylinder =M.S.R +V.C.D X L.C.
Positive Zero Error : If the zeroth division of the vernier scale is to
the right of the zeroth division of the main scale, the error is said to
be positive and the correction is negative.
Negative Zero Error : If the zeroth division of vernier scale is to the
left of the zeroth division of the main scale, the error is said to be
negative and correction is positive.
Time : Time is the interval between two events.
The unit of time is second
One Second is defined to be
400 , 86
1
of a mean solar day.
Second is the time taken for completing 9,192,631,770 vibrations of
a cesium atom of atomic mass number 133.
Length of the simple pendulum : The distance from the point of
suspension to the centre of the bob is called the Length of the simple
pendulum.
Period of Oscillation : The time taken by the pendulum for one
complete oscillation is called the Period of Oscillation(T) of the
pendulum. The number of oscillations (n) the bob makes per second
is called its Frequency.
Amplitude of Oscillation : The length of the arc from the equilibrium
position of the bob to its extreme position of oscillations on either
side is called the Amplitude of Oscillation.
1st Law of simple pendulum : The period of oscillation of a simple
pendulum, of constant length, is independent of the the amplitude,
provided the amplitude is small. (angular amplitude does not exceed
5
0
).
2nd Law of simple pendulum : The period of oscillation of simple
pendulum of constant length is independent of the size, shape, mass,
and material of the bob (provided it is not very light such as a cork).
3rd Law of simple pendulum : The time period of oscillation of a
simple pendulum is directly proportional to the square root of the
length of the pendulum, or
T
L
is a constant, for a given place.
The actual length of the object using vernier callipers = M.S.R +
V.C.D. x L.C.
Zero Error : If the zero of the main scale does not coincide with the
zero of the vernier scale, then the vernier is said to have zero error.
Beam balance : A beam balance is used to measure the mass of a
substance.
Physical balance : A physical balance is used in the laboratory to
find out the mass of a substance correct to a milligram.
We use clocks to measure time.
Atomic clocks measure time most accurately.
The time period for a seconds pendulum is 2 seconds.
KINEMATICS
Uniform acceleration : A body moves with uniform acceleration when
it undergoes equal changes in velocity in equal successive intervals
of time, however short these intervals may be.
We use the folowing symbols :
initial velocity - u m/ s
time - t s
final velocity - v m/ s
uniform acceleration - a m/ s
2
and distance travelled -
s m
The three equations of motion are
1. v =u +at 2. s =ut + at
2
3. v
2
=u
2
+2as
DYNAMICS
Definition of Work : Work is said to be done when a force (F), acting
on a body moves it through a distance (S) in the direction of the
force.
i.e., W =F.S.
Unit work =Unit Force x Unit displacement.
The unit of work in the C.G.S. system is erg & and M.K. system is
J oule(J ).
Erg : It is the amount of work done when a force of one dyne moves
a body through one centimetre, from its point of application and
along the direction of the force.
1 erg = 1 dyne cm.
J oule : It is the amount of work done when a force of one newton
moves a body through one metre from its point of application and
along the direction of the force.
1 J = 1Nm.
The unit of work in S.I. system is newton-metre.
1 kg.wt =9.8 newtons, 1kg.m. =9.8 J
The equation of work, W =F X S cos
Force and displacement are vector quantities, work is a scalar
quantity.
Definition of Power :
Power is the rate of doing work.
Power =
t
W
P ,
time
work

The unit of Power =Unit of work / Unit of time

Unit of Power : The unit of power in SI system and MKS system is
Watt and C.G.S. system is erg per second.
) s ( Second
) J ( J oule 1
Watt 1
ond sec 1
erg 1
ond sec per erg 1
1 Watt =1 J oule / 1 second
=10
7
ergs/ 1 second
=1 Newton metre/ second
1 Horse power =746 watts.
1 Kilo watt =1.34 Horse power.
Energy : Energy is the capacity to do work.
P.E.=mgh
One kg-metre =9.8 J oules.
Potential Energy : Potential Energy is the energy possessed by a
body by virtue of its state.
Kinetic Energy : Kinetic energy of a body is the energy possessed
by that body due to its motion.
2
mv
2
1
. E . K
Law of Conservation of Energy : Energy can neither be created nor
destroyed. If it disappears in one form it reappears in another form.
It can be changed from one form to another. The total energy of the
system remains constant.
Renewable Energy Sources : The energy sources that can be
replenished, when once they are used up, are called renewable
energy sources e.g., Solar energy, wind energy, water-power and
bio-mass energy.
Non-Renewable Energy Sources : These energy sources, which, once
used up, cannot be replenished are called non-renewable sources
of energy.
Some of the alternative energy sources are water-power, wind energy,
sol ar energy bi omass energy, ti dal energy, garbage power,
Geothermal energy, nuclear energy etc.
Various sources of energy that are available for our use :
a) Wood
b) Charcoal
c) Coal
d) Petroleum
e) Nature Gas
f) Biogas
g) Water Power
h) Tidal Energy
i) Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion
j) Geothermal Energy
k) Wind Energy
l) Solar Energy
m) Garbage Power (Domestic Waste)
n) Nuclear Energy
o) Hydrogen
SIMPLE MACHINES AND MOMENTS
Moment of Force : The moment of a force is the product of the
magnitude of the force and the perpendicular distance from the
point of application of the force to the fixed point in the body.
M =F X d
The unit of force in S.I. system is Newton metre and C.G.S. system
is Dyne centimetre.
Principle of Moments : For a rigid body in equilibrium under the
action of forces in a plane, the sum of the clockwise moments
(negative moments) about any point is equal to the sum of the anti-
clockwise moments (positive moments). The sum of the upward forces
is equal to the sum of the downward forces.
The algebraic sum of the moments of forces about any point in that
plane=0.
A couple : A couple is a pair of equal, unlike, parallel forces which
acting on a rigid body at different points produce a turning effect in
the same direction.
Screw jack : Screw jack is a combination of screw and a lever and it
works on the principle of screw.
Pitch of the Screw : The distance between two consecutive threads
of a screw is called as the pitch of the screw.
Mechanical Advantage =
h
R 2
P
W

=
screw the of pitch
screw the of nce circumfere
Applications : This principle of screw is used in wood and metal
workshops, in book binding and cutting press, in microscopes, in
telescopes, in nut and bolt and in carpenters gimlet.
Gear : A gear is a toothed wheel that transmits motion and power.
The teeth are called cogs. The principle of wheel and axle is used in
gears.
Gears are also used to increase or decrease the number of rotations
or to change the direction of rotation of motion.
Arm of couple : The perpendicular distance between the parallel
lines along which the forces act is called the arm of the couple.
Moment of the couple : Arm of the couple x one force is called the
moment of the couple.
The principle of moments is applied in the construction of a beam
balance, in steelyard balances and in many other instruments.
The mechanical advantage of the wheel and axle is R/ r.
Mechanical advantage =
r 2
R 2

=
r
R
FLUID PRESSURE
Density : The exact way of expressing the heaviness and lightness
of bodies is called the density.
V
M
Volume
Mass
Density
The units of density are grams/ cm
3
in C.G.S system and kilograms
/ meter
3
in M.K.S.system.
Specific Gravity : The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of a
certain mass of the substance to the mass of an equal volume of
water at 4
0
C. Since the density is the mass per unit volume.
gravity Specific
water of density
ce tan s sub the of density
Laws of Floatation :
1. The weight of the floating body is equal to the weight of the liquid
displaced.
2. The centre of gravity of the floating body and the centre of buoyancy
are in the same vertical line.
Matter exists in three states. They are the solid, the liquid and the
gaseous.
Solids have a definite size and definite shape.
Liquid has a definite size but not a definite shape.
A gas has neither a definite size nor a definite shape.
Liquids with low viscosity are mobile and those with high viscosity
are viscous.
Density gives the heaviness or lightness of bodies and is defined as
the mass per unit volume.
Hydrometer : An instrument used for measuring the specific gravity
of liquids.
HEAT
Heat lost by a body at higher temperature =Heat gained by a body
(or bodies) at lower temperature.
(or)
Q (Lost) by a body =Q (Gained) by a body (or bodies)
Q =ms

T
T m
Q
S

m =Mass of the body

T =The raise (or) fall in temperature
S =Specfic heat of the material.
for m=1; T =1
0
C; s=Q
Thus specific heat s of a body is defined as the quantity of heat (Q)
required to raise the temperature of unit mass of a body, through
1
0
C.
Calorific value or specific energy of a fuel is determined by a device
called bomb calorimeter.
1 cal. =4.18 J
1MJ =10
6
J
Thermal Effeciency : The thermal efficiency of a heating device is
the ratio of heat utilised (Q
U
) to the total heat produced (Q
T
).
Thermal efficiency =
) Q (
) Q (
T
U
Thermal efficiency . =
) mS (
) T Ms (
Specific latent heat (L/ m): The heat required to convert unit
mass of a substance from a lower state to a higher state, without the
rise in temperature is called specific latent heat (L/ m).
Latent heat of fusion : The quantity of heat utilised by a substance
to change from solid to liquid state without rise in its temperature is
called latent heat of fusion.
Latent heat of vaporisation : The quantity of heat utilised by a
substance to change from liquid state to gaseous state, without the
rise in its temperature is called latent heat of vaporisation.
Coefficient of expansion : Expansion per original dimension per
degree raise of a body, is termed as coefficient of expansion. This is
a constant for a given material for a given dimension.
Coefficient of linear expansion : The Coefficient of linear expansion
is the increase in length per unit per degree raise in temperature.

T L
l
where is called the coefficient of linear expansion.
) ( e temperatur in raise x length original
length in increase

Coeffecient of superficial expansion: Coefficient of superficial
expansion is the increase in area of a solid per unit area per degree
raise in temperature ) 2 (

T A
a
where is called the coefficient of superficial expansion.
e temperatur in raise x area original
area in increase

The coefficient of cubical expansion: The coefficient of cubical
expansion is the increase in the volume per unit volume per degree
raise in temperature. ) 3 (

T V
v
where

is called the coefficient of cubical expansion.

e temperatur in raise x volume original
volume in increase

3 1 , 1 =2 and
3 2 1

Calorimetry : A study of measurement of heat and quantities involved

in it.
Calorimeter : A device whch is used to measure the quantity of
heat.
Calorie : It is a unit of heat (C.G.S.)
Fundamental principle of Calorimetry: Heat lost by abody =Heat
gained by abody (or bodies).
Specific heat : Heatrequired to raise the temperature of unit mass
of a substance through a degree. It depends upon the type of
material.
Calorific value : The amount of heat produced by a unit mass of a
substance when completely burnt (combusts).
Pressure coefficient ( ) : Increase in the presure to the initial
pressure, at constant volume per degree raise of temperature denoted
by (Rho). This principle is used in the construction of air (gas)
thermometre.
WAVE MOTION
Wave Motion : When a disturbance is created in a medium, the
parti cl es vi brate about thei r mean posi ti ons. Thi s type of
transmission of vibratory motion from one place to another place in
the medium is called wave motions.
Waves transport energy only and there is no transportation of
medium.
For the propagation of mechanical waves in a medium, the medium
should have the property of inertia and elasticity.
Types of Waves :
Waves can be classified as two types (1) Progressive wages and (ii)
Stationary wves.
(1) Progressive Waves : A wave which travels from a point into an infinite
medium and never returns to the origin is called a progressive wave.
Again progressive waves are of two types-transverse waves and
longitudinal waves.
Transverse wave : If the direction of vibration of particles is
perpendicular to the direction of propogation of the wave, the wave
is called transverse wave.
Longitudinal waves : If the particles in the medium vibrate along
the direction of propagation of the waves, the waves are called
longitudinal waves.
Stationary or Standing Waves : When two progressive waves of same
amplitude and wavelength travelling through a medium in opposite
directions are super imposed, then these waves are called stationary
waves or standing waves.
Velocity : The distance through which a wave travels in a medium
in one second is known as the velocity. The velocity of a wave is
given by the expression.
V =
Where is the frequency and
is the wavelength.
A wave transmits energy from one place to another place in the
medium.
The particles which have the same displacement and are moving in
the same direction are said to be in phase.
The distance between two consecutive crests or troughs or any
position and a similar position of a particle in the next wave in phase
with it is known as wavelength ( ).
The number of waves produced in unit time is called the frequency
of the wave ().
SOUND
Sound is a form of energy. It requires a medium such as solid,
liquid or gas for its propagation from one place to the other. They
cannot travel through vacuum.
Sound will be audible, if the frequency of the vibrating body is greater
than 20Hz and less than 20,000 Hz.
The waves of frequency lower than the audible limit are called
infrasonics.
Sound waves of frequency which are above the audible limit are
called ultrasonics.
Velocity of Sound is given by,
p
p
V

Velocity of Sound in Solids : The velocity (V) of sound is given by

p
Y
V
Y is youngs modulus of the solid and is the density of the solid.
Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating bodies.
The disturbance produced by a vibrating body in the surrounding
medium is called a wave.
Sound waves are logitudinal waves.
Sound waves produced compressions and rarefactions in the medium
in which they travel.
Sound cannot travel through vacuum.
Velocity of sound in solids is highest and least in gases.
LIGHT
Dispersion of white light through prism: When a beam of white
light passes through a prism, the white light is split up into its
component colours by the prism. This phenomenon is called
dispersion of light.
Spectrum : If sun light is dispersed through prism, it exhibits seven
colours. This is called spectrum.
A convex lens is thickest at its middle part than at its edges. A concave
lens is thinner at its middle part than at its edges.
Convex lens :
1. The objects appear enlarged when seen through it.
2. The object appears to move slightly on the opposite direction to the
motion of the lens.
3. All the rays converge after refraction.
Concave lens :
1. The objects appear shrunk when seen through it.
2. The object appears to move slightly on the same direction to the
motion of the lens.
3. All the rays diverge after refraction.
Human Eye : The Problem of vision are of two types :
(i) Myopia
(ii) Hypermetropia
(i) Myopia : Persons suffering with myopia can see objects nearer to
them clearly but distant objects appear blurred.
(ii) Hypermetropia : Persons suffering with Hyper metropia can see
clearly objects which are far from them but not the nearer ones.
Microscope : Microscope is an optical device whch makes image of a
small object to appear very large. When the size of the image is
larger than the size of the object, the image is said to be magnified.
The ratio of the size of the image (V) to the size of the object (U) is
called magnification factor
i.e.,
M
U
V

for
M
U
V

(i) if M>1 then magnified

(ii) if M<1 then diminished.
Refraction through prism : When light passes through a prism (i) it
always bends towards the base of the prism (ii) a prism divides the
light passing through it into its corresponding wavelengths. This
process is called dispersion of light. When Sun light passes through
prism it disperses into seven colours. i.e., seven wavelengths.
Critical angle : This is an angle of incidence for which the angle of
refraction is equal to 90
0
for a given pair of media.
Total internal reflection : This is a phenomena where the surface of
a refracting medium behaves as a reflecting medium (for certain
angles of the incidence).
Colours : Light with a fixed wavelength is called colour. Different
wavelengths of light cause different colours.
Lens : This is a refracting medium having a pair of combination of
either both convex or both concave surfaces.
Focal length :
) v u (
) uxv (
f
+

for convex lens.

) v u (
) uxv (
f

for convex lens.

MAGNETISM
Magnetic field : The space (or region) around a magnet in which a
force experienced by a mgnetic pole is called magnetic field usually
represented by letter B.
Magnetic line of force :
(i) Magnetic line of force is a line joining any two points (close to each
other) in the direction of magnetic field.
(ii) The number of magnetic lines of force present per unit area is
proportional to the intensity of magnetic field in the area.
(iii) The number of magnetic lines of force present per unit volume and
perpendicular to its cross-section is called as magnetic flux.
Meridians :
(i) The poles of georaphical meridian and the poles of the magnetic
meridian are oppositely named.
(ii) The geographical meridian and the magnetic meridian do not
coincide.
(iii) The geographical axis and the earths magnetic axis also do not
coincide (such lines are called skew lines).
ELECTRICITY
Electrification : The process of transferring electrons from one
surface to another surface by friction is called electrification.
Laws of Electric Forces :
1. Like charges repel and unlike charges attract each other
2. The charge on a conductor resides on its outer surface.
Coulombs Inverse Square Law :
2
2 1
0
d
q q
x
4
1
F
,
_

and
( )
2
2 1
d
q q
x K F
The value of K=1 when q
1
, q
2
and d are measured in C.G.S units and
the unit of F is measured in dynes. The medium is either air or
vacuum.
The value of K =
0
4
1

when q
1
,q
2
, d are measured in M.K.S. units
and the unit of F is measured in newtons.
Electrocopes : Electroscopes are the devices which can detect the
presence of an electric field.
Electric potential : Electrical potential is the magnitude of electric
charge present at a region of a body.
Potential Difference : Magnitude of potential is measured in VOLT
symbol V. The difference between two potential levels is called
Potential Difference.
Potential Difference P.D is measured by an instrument called
Voltmeter. The magnitude of charge (Q) is directly proportional to
the potential (V) of that body.
Q =CV
where c is called the capacity.
Current : The rate of flow of charge represents the magnitude of the
current
I
t
Q

Where t =time (sec)

Q =Charge (colombs)
I =current (Amperes)
Current passing through a conductor is measured by an instrument
called Ammeter.
Capacitors are the devices which can hold certain magnitude of charge
with them for sometime. The amount of charge stored by a capacitor
depends on the material used and its shape.
Static electricity : The electricity at rest is called static electricity.
Positive charge and Negative charge:
(i) These are relative terms. The body which transfers electrons is called
positively charged.
(ii) The body which acquires electrons is called negatively charged.
Electric field : The region or space of an electric charge in which an
isolated charged body experiences a force (either attraction or
repulsion).
MODERN PHYSICS
Cathode Rays :
Properities of Cathode Rays : Cathode rays are produced when the
pressure inside the discharge tube is nearly 0.01mm of Hg.
1. The rays travel in straight line and cast shadows, the rays leave
normal to the surface of the cathode.
2. The cathode rays have sufficient amount of kinetic energy. A mica
vane paddle wheel placed on the path of the rays will be rotated.
3. The rays produce fluorescence. When the rays are focussed on
substance like Zinc Sulphide, a green visible light is observed. When
focussed on diamonds, exhibits all colours depending on the quality
of the diamond.
4. The rays are deflected by a magnetic filed. This shows that the
cathode rays consists of particles.
5. The rays are deflected by electric field. The ray deflects towards the
positive electric field. This shows that cathode rays carry negative
charges and are known as stream of electrons.
6. The rays penetrate through thin foils (metal foils).
7. The rays when strike a heavy solid metal produce X-rays.
8. Cathode rays are made up of fast moving electrons. The velocity of
cathode ray is
10
1
of velocity of light i.e., 0.1 c.
9. Cathode ray particles (ie., electrons) have a mass of
1840
1
times the
mass of Hydrogen atom.
Applications : Cathode ray tubes are modified into the present day
television picture tubes, computer display tubes, glow signs for
advertisements and tube lights in the houses.
X-Rays were discovered by Roemgen in 1895. X-rays are produced
by impinging fast moving electron on a heavy metal.
Propeties of X-rays :
1. The rays travel in straight line.
2. The rays travels with velocity of light (i.e., 3x10
8
m/ s).
3. The rays are not deviated by a magnetic field. (i.e., x-rays are not
particles). The rays are not deviated by electric fields (i.e., x-rays are
not charged).
4. The rays cause fluorescence when fall on certain substances like
Zinc Sulphide.
5. The rays can ionise a gas, through which they pass.
6. The rays can penetrate through a matter, Which are ordinarily opaque
to the visible light.
7. The rays affect photographic plates.
8. The rays are harmful to the human body if exposed for a long
durations.
9. X-rays are electromagnetic waves.
Uses :
1. X-rays are widely used in medicine, industries and scientific
researches. In medicine, they are useful in detecting a fracture of
bone and other malformations of the body.
2. In industries X-rays are used to detect cracks in structures and to
blow holes in metals.
3. X-rays are very useful in crime investigation. In customs department
X-rays are used for detecting weapons and the items that are likely
to be smuggled.
4. X-rays are useful in scientific research in understanding structures
of molecules, crystal etc.
CLASS - VIII
OUR UNIVERSE
Our Universe consists of thousands of galaxies. Each galaxy consists
of millions of stars.
Stars have group of planets, revolving around them.
Solar System : The Sun is also a star belonging to Milky way galaxy.
The sun with all its planets, satellites, asteroids, is called solar system.
All the planets revolve around the sun in different elliptical orbits.
Stars are self luminous, where as planets are not so, planets reflect
light and heat falling on them.
Planets have satellites revolving around them. The Moon is natural
satellite of the Earth. The Earth completes one revolution around
the sun in 365 days and one rotation in 24 hours.
Small groups of stars are called constellations. Constellations in
Zodiac are called Zodiac signs. There are 12 Zodiac signs.
Meteors and Comets are objects coming from outer space. Comets
have period of revolution around sun.
MEASUREMENT
Least Count (L.C) : Least count of an instrument is the smallest
measurement that can be accurately with it.
cm 01 . 0 cm
10
1 . 0
. mm 1 . 0 . mm
10
1
. C . L
Length of the object =Main scale reading +[Vernier scale reading x
L.C]
=M.S.R. +(V.S.R. X L.C.)
The specific gravity or relative
Density of liqud=
water of vcc of mass
liquid of vcc of mass
Physical quantities are of two types (1) Fundamental quantities (2)
Derived quantities.
Length, Mass and Time are selected as fundamental quantities as
they are independent and their units are called fundamental units.
All the other quantities like area, volume, density etc, are called
derived quantities and their units are called derived units.
There are three systems of units C.G.S, M.K.S. and S.I. system.
Length of an object can be accurately determined using main scale
and vernier scale. Vernier callipers is an instrument used to
determine the lenght of objects accurately.
Area and Volume are derived quantities whose units can be derived
from the units of length.
Mass is a fundamental quantity which is constant for a given body.
It can be determined with common balance and more accurately
with physical balance.
Density : Density is a derived quantity which is the ratio between
mass and volume.
Relative density : Relative density is the ratio between density of
substance and density of water.
KINEMATICS
Scalar Quantity : A Physical quantity which has only magnitude
but no direction is called a scalar quantity or simply a scalar. Eg :
Length, mass, time, volume, temperature, etc.
Vector Quantity : A Physical quantity which has both magnitude
and direction for a complete description is called a Vector quantity
or simply called as a Vector example displacement, velocity, force
etc.
Speed : Speed is defined as the distance covered by a body in a unit
time interval.
Distance and speed are scalars.
Speed (V) =
) t ( erval int Time
) S ( travelled ce tan Dis
V =
) t (
) S (
C.G.S. Unit of speed is cm/ sec and MKS Unit is metre/ sec.
Distance : Distance covered is the length of the path along which
the body has travelled, measured in cm and metres.
Speed is the rate of distance covered. Both are scalars.
Displacement : Displacement is the shortest distance from initial
position to final position.
Velocity : Velocity is the rate of displacement. Both are vectors.
If a body travels with constant speed covering equal distances in
equal intervals of time; we say it has uniform speed. It is a scalar.
Uniform Velocity : If a body travels with constant velocity making
equal displacements in equal intervals of time; we say it has uniform
velocity.
A body is said to possess acceleration if its velocity is increasing and
decelaration if its velocity is decreasing.
Acceleration : Acceleration is defined as the rate of change of velocity,
It is vector. Units cm/ sec
2
and metre/ sec
2
.
The motion of a body can be represented by velocity-time graph.
DYNAMICS
Newtons First Law : Every body continues in its state of rest or of
uniform motion in a straight line unless acted upon by an external
force to change its state.
Inertia : Every body has a tendency to continue in its state of rest or
of uniform motion in a straight line unless compelled by an external
force to change its state. This tendency or property is called inertia.
Force : Force is that which changes or tends to change the state of
rest or the state of uniform motion of a body in a straight line. It is
vector quantity.
Frictional Force : If two surfaces in contact with one another have
relative motion between them, it is opposed by a force called frictional
force.
Momentum : Momentum (P) of a body is defined as the product of
its mass (m) and its velocity (v). Since velocity is vector, momentum
is also a vector.

V m P
Newtons Second Law : The acceleration of a body is directly
propotional to the force acting on it and is inversely proportional to
its mass and takes place in the same direction of force.
Also it can be defined as,
The rate of change of momentum of a body is directly proportional to
the applied force and takes place in the same direction.
Newtons Third Law : For every action there is an equal and opposite
reaction. Or whenever two bodies exert force on each other, the two
forces are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction.
Conversation of Momentum : If a number of bodies collide with
one another the total momentum of the bodies, jutst before collision
is equal to the total momentum just after collision. This is
conservation of momentum principle.
Weight : Weight of a body is the gravitational force acting on it.
Weight and Mass are different terms
F= W=mg.
CENTRE OF GRAVITY AND
STABILITY OF BODIES
Centre of Gravity : Centre of gravity of a body is the point through
which the resultant of all the weight of the constituent particles act.
If a rigid body is at rest or in motion, the position of C.G. remains
unchanged with respect to the body. The C.G. of a body may be
inside or outside the material of the body.
Stable Equilibrium : If a body returns to its original position after a
slight displacement, it is said to be in stable equilibrium.
Neutral equilibrium : If a body gets a new state identical to its original
state after a slight displacement it is said to be in neutral eqilibrium.
FLUID PRESSURE
Pascals Law : Pascals law states that an increase of preassure at
any point in a liquid at rest is transmitted without change to every
other point in the liquid ie., equally in all directions.
The Relative density of a substance =
. volume equal an of water of mass
air in ce tan subs of volume any of mass
Since weight of a body is proportional of mass,
Relative density of a substance =

water of volume equal an of weight
air in ce tan subs of volume any of weight
water in body of weight of loss Apparent
air in ce tan subs of volume any of weight
The relative density of a substance
=
2 1
1
W W
W

Relative density of the liquid =

water of volume ' V ' of mass
liquid of volume ' V ' of mass
Relative density of liquid
=
water of volume ' V ' of Weight
liquid of volume ' V ' of Weight
=
water in body the of weight of Loss
liquid in body the of weight of Loss
=
2 1
3 1
W W
W W

Boyles Law : Boyles law states that if the temperature of a fixed

amount of gas is maintained constant, the pressure is inversely
proportional to its volume.
V
1
P
if t is constant or PV =constant.
Bernouli Theorem : When air moves fast parallel to the top surface
of any body pressure of the air above the surface is lesser than
pressure below that surface. This is called Bernouli theorem.
A substance which flows is called a fluid. Liquids and gases flow
and so they are called fluids.
Thrust : Thrust is the total force acting normally on a surface.
Thrust (T) =Pressure x Area
Pressure : Pressure is the thrust acting on a unit surface area.
Pressure (P) =Thrust / Area
The pressure exerted by a fluid is called fluid pressure. A fluid
exerts three types of pressure (1) downward pressure. (2) upward
pressure and (3) lateral pressure.
Pressure applied at a point in a liquid is transmitted equally in all
directions without change.
When a body is partly or completely immersed in a fluid it appears
to lose a certain weight equal to the weight of displaced fluid.
Relative Density : Relative density is the ratio of density of any
substance and density of water.
Atmospheric Pressure : Pressure exerted by atmospheric air is
called atmospheric pressure and it is used to forecast weather.
HEAT
Heat : Heat is a form of energy which always flows from a hot body to
a cold body.
The temperature of a substance is a number which expresses its
degree of hotness or coldness on some chosen scale and heat flows
from a higher temperature region to a lower temperature region.
If a body gains heat energy its temperature increases and if it loses
heat energy its temperature decreases.
A thermometer works on the principle that subtances expand on
heating. Generally mercury is used in Thermometers and therefore
they are called as mercury thermometers.
There are two scales of temperature in common use (1) Centigrade
scale (2) Fahrenheit scale
Clinical thermometer is used to measure temperature of human
body.
Sixs maximum and minimum thermometer is used to measure
maximum and minimum temperatures at a place.
Melting Point : Every substance melts at a constant temperature
called melting point.
Boiling Point : Every substance boils at constant temperature called
boiling point.
Melting point of ice decreases with increase of pressure and boiling
point of water increases with increase of pressure.
WAVES
Transverse Waves : If the particles in the medium vibrate or oscillate,
perpendicular to the direction of motion of the waves, the waves are
called transverse waves.
When transverse waves travel in a medium crests and troughs are
formed.
Longitudinal Waves : If the particles in the medium vibrate or oscillate
parallel to the direction of motion of waves the waves are called
longitudinal waves.
When l ongi tudi nal waves are passi ng through a medi um
condensations and rarefactions are formed.
Wave : A wave is a disturbance created in a medium.
When a wave travels in a medium, the particles in it vibrate. They do
not move from one place to another place.
A wave transmits energy from one place to another place in the
medium.
SOUND
Sound : Sound is a form of energy produced by vibrating bodies.
Wave : The disturbance produced by a vibrating body in the
surrounding medium is called wave.
Sound waves produce compressions and rarefactions in the medium
in which it is travelling.
Sound cannot travel through vacuum. Velocity of sound in solids is
highest and least in gases.
Sounds produced by musical instruments in regular order and
systematic way are pleasant to hear. Otherwise called noise.
There are three types of musical instruments. (1) Stringed
instruments (2) Drum instruments (3) Blowtype instruments.
LIGHT
Light : Light is a form of energy which is emitted by a luminous
body and when incident on the eye causes the sensation of sight.
Reflecting Surface : If light rays falling on a surface are returned
back into the original medium the phenomenon is called reflection
and the surface is called reflecting surface.
Laws or reflection :
When light rays are reflcected by a plane smooth surface such as
that of a plane mirror
1. The incident ray, reflected ray and the normal at the point of
incidence all lie in the same plane.
2. Angle of incidence is equal to angle of reflection.
Principal Focus : The principal focus of a spherical mirror is that
point on the principal axis to which all rays originally parallel and
close to the principal axis converge, or from which they appear to
diverge, after reflection from the mirror.
Focal length (f) : The focal length f of a spherical mirror is the
distance between the pole of the mirror and principal focus.
Concave mirror forms the image of an object at infinity near its focus
and it forms real, diminished and inverted image of an object placed
at a distance greater than 2f.
Concave mirror forms real, magnified and inverted image, if an object
is placed at a distance less than 2f and greater than f.
Concave mirror forms virtual, magnified and erect image of the object
placed at a distance less than f.
Convex mirror always forms a small, virtual and erect image of an
object.
The relation between u,v and f is
f
1
u
1
v
1
+
Magnification formula :
) h ( object of size
) h ( image of size
m
and in all cases it can be shown that
mirror from ce tan dis object
mirror from ce tan dis image
m
Light rays bend at the surface of separation due to change in velocity
when they travel from one medium to the other.
Virtual image is formed due to refraction on plane surfaces. An
object placed in water appears to raise up.
MAGNETISM
A magnet exhibits attractive property by attracting pieces of iron,
cobalt and nickel etc.
Magnetic substances : The substances which are strongly attracted,
by a magnet are called Magnetic substances
Non-Magnetic substances : The substances which are not attracted
by a magnet are called Non-magnetic substances.
If a magnet is freely suspended it comes to rest always showsing
North and Sourth directions.
First law of Magnetism : Like poles repel each other and unlike
poles attract each other. This is called law of magnetic poles or first
law of magnetism.
Magnetic poles exists in pairs and they cannot be separated.
Monopoles or single poles can exist.
Magnetic Induction : A magnet induces magnetic properties is some
substances like iron, cobalt, nickel, steel. This property is called
Magnetic induction.
A steel bar when magnetised by any method, does not loose
magnetism easily and hence retains the magnetism for a long time.
Its retentivity is high. hence it becomes a permanent magnet.
Electro Magnet : An Electro-magnet is one which gets magnetised
when current is passed through the surrounding coil and looses
magnetism when current is switched off. Soft iron is ued to make
Electro-magnet.
When an iron body is placed in the magnetic field of a magnet,
induction take place and so gets magnetised. Due to induction, a
magnet attracts an iron body.
Magnetic flux : A magnet is surrounded by a Magnetic field which
consits of Magnetic lines of force or Magnetic flux.
Artificial magnets can be made by several methods.
1. Single touch method
2. Double touch method.
3. Electrical method.
4. Induction method.
5. A magnet is surrounded by magnetic field which contains magnetic
lines of force.Induction takes place due to magnetic field and
attraction of magnetic substances is due to induction.
ELECTRICITY
Electrolysis : The process in which electric current or electrical
energy is used to produce chemical decomposition splitting the
compounds into their constituent elements or molecules into ions
is called electrolysis.
Electrolyte : The solution through which current is passed is called
electrolyte.
Every body contains two types of charges positive charge and negative
charge. A neutral body has equal amounts of positive charge and
negative charge.
Bodies can be charged or electrified by fricition. Opposite charges
attract each other and like charges repel each other.
Current : Flow of charged particles is called current. Current flows
from higher potential to lower potential.
A primary cell converts chemical energy into electrical energy.
A cell consists of two electrodes-positive electrode and negative
electrode. Positive electrode is at higher potential and negative
electrode is at lower potential. Potential difference between the two
electrodes is called EMF. EMF is the work done in driving charge in
the circuit.
Electric current produces magnetic field. A solenoid with current
following in it behaves as a bar magnet.
Electrical energy is converted into heat energy due to resistance of
the conductor through which current is flowing.
WORLD OF WORK
Photo Electic Effect : When light rays fall on certain metallic surfaces
electrons are emitted. This is called photo electric effect.
Sound can be recorded on discs in the form of impressions and it
can be reproduced by replay.
Sound can also be recorded on tapes containing a coating of magnetic
materials which is called magnetic recording.
Magenetic recording and reproduction are made by electro-magnets.
CLASS - VII
AIR, WATER & WEATHER
Earths cover of gases is called atmosphere.
Air is a mixture.
Oxygen, Nitrogen are main constituents of air. It also consists of
Carbon dioxide, helium, argon and neon in little quantity.
The volume of the constituents of air varies from place of place.
Measurement of Atmospheric Pressure:
Air pressure can be measured by barometer.
The pressure of atomosphere, the height of a place from sea-level,
the forecast of rain and storm can be known with the help of
barometer.
Air Pollution :
The existence of substances which are not suitable to the atmosphere
in improper ratio, in improper seasons are called polluting substances.
If solid, liquid and gaseous substances are present in higher volumes
than the required in air, it is called air pollution.
Combustion of fuels, deforestation, emission of gases by vehicles,
industrialisation etc., are the main factors for air pollution.
Controlling the emission of gases through factories; encouraging
the reforestation, controlling the spread of dust particles are the
methods to reduce air pollution.
Volumetric Composition of water :
Water is not an element. But it is a compound with a composition of
two elements i.e., Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Water is formed by the constant ratio of Hydrogen and Oxygen.
Two volumes of Hydrogen and one volume of Oxygen compose two
volumes of water. 2H
2
+O
2

2 H
2
O
Hardness of Water :
Type of water is determined by the reaction of water with soap. They
are 1. Hard water and 2. Soft water.
The Hardness of water is of two types, namely, temporary hardness
and permanent hardness.
The presence of bicarbonates of Calcium and Magnesium in water
causes temporary hardness to water.
Temporary hardness can be removed by boiling the water.
The presence of sulphates and chlorides of calcium and magnesium
in water causes permanent hardness.
Hardness of water can be removed by permutite process and by the
process of Ion exchange.
Drinking Water Supply of Pure Water :
There are three methods of cleaning water.
Preservation of water in reservoir.
Cleaning 3. Supply through pipes.
Water Pollution :
Excessive and undersirable wastes present in water lead to water
pollution.
Consumption of polluted water leads to life hazards.
Water becomes polluted due to natural contamination, indiscriminate
activities of man and agro-industrial wastes.
Careful use of water, use of composts, purifying the wastes from
industrial machinery prevent water pollution.
Wind, Rainfall, Cyclone and Crops.
Wind is the flow of air from regions of higher pressure to regions of
lower pressure.
Difference in temperature and pressure causes air movement.
Wind is of three types :
a) Global b) Regional c) Monsoon.
Humidity is the water vapour present in air.
Rain gauge measures rainfall.
HOUSING AND CLOTHING
Bricks and tiles are made of clay.
Cement is made of lime and clay.
Cement hardens when it comes into contact with moisture.
Concrete is prepared by mixing cement, small stones, sand and water.
Concrete is very strong. It is used for constructing buildings, bridges
and dams.
Care of Clothes Removal of Stains:
Dust also carries disease producing germs.
Moths and other insects eat away the clothes.
Woolen clothes should not be washed with water. They must be dry
cleaned.
Stains should be removed from clothes by using stain removers.
WORK AND ENERGY
Potential Energy : Potential energy is the energy possessed by an
object because of its position or state.
Kinetic Energy : Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object
because of its motion.
The potential energy of an object depends on its mass (m) and its
height (h).
The kinetic energy of an object depends on its mass (m) and its
velocity (v).
Heat Energy :
Heat energy can be changed into other forms of energy.
Many substances expand when heated. In some cases they undergo
a change in their state.
Many solid, liquid and gases substances expand when heated.
Liquids expand more than solids, Gases expand more then liquids.
Transmission of Heat
Heat is transmitted from hot bodies to cool bodies in three different
ways namely conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction : The method in which heat flows from one place to
another without any movement of molecules is called conduction of
heat. In solids transmission of heat takes place by conduction.
Convection of heat : The method in which heat transmits from one
place to another by the movement of molecules absorbing heat and
cool molecules coming down to absorb heat is called convection of
heat. This takes place in liquids and gases.
Radiation : The transmission of heat from one place to another
without the help of any object and without the presence of any
medium is known as radiation.
Sources of Light :
Light is needed if we want to see objects. There are sources of light,
both natural and man-made.
Some sources of light are hot, while some are cool.
The sun and the stars in the sky are natural sources of light. They
are self-luminous bodies. Planets, the moon, the earth are only
reflectors. They are non-luminous bodies.
The unit internationally accepted to indicate the intensity of light is
Lumen. One lumen=12.56 candle power.
On Watt is nearly 700 lumens.
The intensity of light decreases as the sources of light is taken away.
The intensity of light is measured in Lux. One foot-candle =10.76
Lux.
Rectilinear Propagation of Light :
Light travels in straight lines.
Substances that allow light to pass through them are called
transparent substances. Those that do not allow light to pass through
them are opaque bodies. Some substances allow light to pass through
them partially and such substances are called translucent
substances.
When an opaque body comes in the path of light rays, they cannot
bend and continue their journey. Therefore the shadow of the
opaque body is formed behind it.
Umbra and penumbra are clearly formed only when the source of
light is big and the obstructing opaque body is small.
When the moon enters the umbra of the earth, Total Lunar Eclipse
occurs.
When the moon comes between the sun and the earth, the people
located in the umbra of the moon cannot see the sun and the
phenomenon is called Total Solar Eclipse.
The lunar eclipse occurs on a full-moon day and the solar eclipse
occurs on a new-moon day.
Laws of Reflection of Light :
Light undergoes irregular reflection at rough surfaces. On smooth
surfaces light undergoes regular reflection.
The first law of reflection : The incident ray, the normal at the
point of incidence and the reflected ray lie in the same plane.
The second law of reflection : The incident ray and the reflected
ray lie on either side of the normal
The third law of reflection : The angle of incidence is equal to the
angle of reflection.
Image formed by a Plane Mirror :
A plane mirror forms a virtual image. The right of the object is seen
as the left of the image.
This virtual image is erect and is of the same size as the object.
If two plane mirrors are placed at an angle between them, a number
of images are formed.
If the angle between two plane mirrors is

, the number of image (n)

formed is given by the formula n = 1
]
1

1
360
Sound :
If an object vibrates, sound is produced.
A medium is essential for transmission of sound.
One compression and one rarefaction, put together is known as a
sound wave.
Our eardrum vibrates when sound waves hit it. These vibrations of
the eardrum reach the brain through nerves. Then we experience
that we hear a sound.
Sound travels faster in liquids than in gases. It travels faster in
solids than in liquids.
The reflected sound is called an echo.
Bats make use of reflection of sound to avoid hitting objects in the
path of their flight at night.
Noise Pollution :
Sound polution has very bad effects on the parts of human body,
especially the ears.
Sounds is measured in decibels. The sound produced by a blade of
grass when it moves in breeze has an intensity of zero decibel. The
sound pressure of this sound is 0.0002 dyne per square cm. The
scale of decibels is logarithmic.
Primary Electric Cells :
There are two defects local action and polarisation in the voltaic
cell.
For intermittent use of electricity a Lechlanche cell is useful. Its
EMF is 1.46 volts. It is efficiently used in telephones, electric bells,
telegraph equipment etc.
A dry cell is small, compact and carried easily to any place. Its EMF
is 1.46 volts. This is used in torches and radios.
The bichromate cell is used when more electricity is required. Its
EMF is 2 volts.
Electric Circuits :
When electric cells are connected in series, the electromotive force
increases.
When electric cells are connected in parallel the total e.m.f is not
more than that of individual cells used.
When bulbs are connected in series, if one of them is fused, all the
others stop working because the circuit becomes open.
When bulbs are connected in parallel, if one bulb is fused or removed,
the others continue to work.
Effects of Electric Current :
Electric current can produce heat which is radiated. This principle
is used in domestic electric appliances such as electric heaters, hot-
plates, iron-boxes, etc.
Electric current can result in magnetic energy. This principle is
used in electro-magnets, electro motors, telephones, telegraph,
electric-bell etc.
El ectroni c current may resul t i n a chemi cal change. Thi s
phenomenon is used in electro-plating, purification of metals, making
electro-type setting etc.