The Modernist art movement began with the ideology of moving away from the traditions of the past

and producing work which had an emphasis on the reduction of decoration, the embracing of new technologies and a futurist aesthetic. This search for new styles within the Modernist work later became challenged as the movement of Postmodernism reacted in opposition to this mode of practice. Emphases on a return to decoration and an encouragement of emotional qualities, as well as observing and working with past styles were beliefs of the artist and designers of the postmodern era.1 During the early 1980s the search for new aesthetical qualities changed, with more of a focus placed on the quoting or borrowing of styles from history; described by design critic Rick Poynor as the introduction of a cultural obsession with the past.2 This approach was coined pastiche and appropriation and adopted a pluralistic methodology in which a variety of different styles is combined together creating a new language within the piece. This placed an emphasis on all styles being of equal importance and the Modernist notions of stylistic progression within art and design practices was challenged.3 Critic Fredric Jameson saw the act of appropriation as a result of the search for original styles had been exhausted. Innovation no longer existed; all that was left is to imitate the dead styles from history emphasising the failure of previous art trends and encouraging an imprisonment to these past styles.4 Jamesons pessimistic view on the state of cultural development of the time and his doubts on the worth of the practice of pastiche are views shared by Hal Foster in his essay, Against Pluralism. Foster refers to the mode of appropriation as being in a state of pluralism, insofar as there is a reduction of cultural criticism and a lack of prominent styles within art.5 Foster takes a strongly adamant position in the essay with his views towards post-modern pastiche and refuses to acknowledge that this approach to art and design could be of any significant worth. Foster begins his argument by providing a background to his thoughts on the historical development of appropriation. He claims that the demise of Modernist practices lead to conceptual art modes such as, site-specific, ephemeral and
1

Llewellyn Negrin, The Legacy of Postmodernism, FST 202/303 Postmodernism and Visual Culture Lecture (School of Art, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 28.05.07). 2 Rick Poynor, No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism (London: Lawrence King Ltd, 2003), 71. 3 FST 202/303 Postmodernism and Visual Culture Lecture (School of Art, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 28.05.07). 4 No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism (London: Lawrence King Ltd, 2003), 71. 5 Hal Foster, Against Pluralism, in Recodings, (Washington: Bay Press, 1985) 13.

textural pieces, which posed problems for art as a commodity and therefore the art market encouraged a return to traditional approaches. This, Foster exclaims, is one of two important indices that encouraged the practice of pluralism. Foster also sees the lack of collective art criticism within schools and institutions as the other index which emphasised the growth of pastiche.6 This lack of criticism of conceptual ideas and aesthetic motives within pluralistic works is a point that Foster incessantly returns to throughout the essay, claiming that appropriation of art only brings a decreased emphasis on a dialectic dialogue.7 His apathetic tone continues, referring to the mode of appropriation as indication of a loss of creative direction within the art practice as a whole. Foster sees the introduction of pluralist approaches to art as encouraging a lack of engagement to pieces and voices strong feelings against the idea that an abundance of freedom is gained through appropriation. He is adamant that this methodology is void of producing anything which has a significant meaning and only see this approach as the death of all styles.8 Fosters main thrust of his argument revolves around the notion that through the act of appropriation the original meaning of the style is lost and the context is disregarded. He claims that this mode of practice merely contextualises the work in a manner which creates conflict and delivers a loss of meaning. This seems to be a common position on this matter with other critics, such as Suzi Gablik in Pluralism The Tyranny of Freedom, adding weight to Fosters argument with the claims that appropriation can trigger an internal collapse to art, resulting in not only a loss of meaning, but also and a lack of quality to art works.9 Though most of Fosters statements are perhaps negatively over-sensitive, I do however agree with his claims about a disregard for context within pluralised work. By reusing a style or work, the original intent is lost and replaced with a new contextual arrangement that could both enhance the work, but also servery diminish it. In cases such as an improper reference to styles and meanings of an indigenous or ethnic nature, the reuse of style could be quite inappropriate. A poster designed by Paula Scher for the Swatch watch company reuses the aesthetical concept of a 1938 Swiss tourism poster by Herbert Matter in a grotesque manner that degrades the original work with the contextual displacement. Matters poster celebrates a typical clean use of diagonally placed Swiss-style typography, complimented by a traditional motif of Swiss iconography, again displayed on a diagonal axis. Schers work could be seen as an appropriated parody, using the same structured composition and imagery as the Swiss tourism poster, though comprising of a clinical computerised aesthetic.10 Whether it is the intent of Scher to add a humorous twist to her design or pay a
6 7

Ibid, 14. Ibid, 15. 8 Ibid. 9 Suzi Gablik, Pluralism The Tyranny of Freedom, in Has Modernism Failed?, (London: Thames and Hudson, 1984) 73. 10 Steven Heller, Julie Lasky, Borrowed Design The Use and Abuse of Historical Form (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993) 65.

type of homage to Matter is unknown. The success however, of this transformation from Swiss tourism to a Swiss-made product is unconvincing because of the disconnection between the aesthetics of the work and the original context.

Left: Poster for Swiss Tourist Bureau by Herbert Matter, 1938. Right: Poster for Swatch Watch Company by Paula Scher, 1985.

A record cover for the 1978 album, The Man-Machine, by German electronic act Kraftwerk is another example of a poor use of appropriating a style, which can be of detriment to the original context, and in this case the concept of the album design as well. The record cover stylistically borrows a Russian Constructivist aesthetic, referencing in particular work by El Lissitzky. The dynamic constructions of typography and imagery, along with the strong use of colours on The Man-Machine cover can be seen as a quote from Lissitzky 1924 publication, For The Voice.11 The designer of the Kraftwerk album, Karl Klefisch, confirms this connection by crediting Lissitzky in the liner notes, as well as featuring a quotation from the Russian designers book on the back cover.12 The electronic artists adapted a futuristic mode to their music, creating synthetic, rhythmic beats, void of any sense of traditional musical structure and composition. The Russian Constructivist had similar approaches to their work, which perhaps was Klefischs influence behind this 1920s inspired design. This stylistic reuse is rather ironic in the sense that referencing the work of Lissitzky is providing a glance back into history, opposing the progressive nature of the music and therefore creating a contextual conflict.

11 12

Ibid, 45. No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism, 70.

Left: Pages from For The Voice by El Lissitzky, 1924. Right: Kraftwerk Album Cover by Karl Klefisch, 1978.

Another Russian Constructivist work, a 1925 poster by Alexander Rodchenko advertising a publishing house, is again a point of history in which designers have quoted in manners that can be seen as indiscriminate to the original piece. The Rodchenko design uses a strong visual motif of clean geometric typography projecting from the mouth of a girl in a triangular form, which collides with the circular frame surrounding the girl. This imagery has been heavily quoted in the cover design of a 1987 journal publication, Reklama. This work by an unknown designer has reuse the exact image of the girl, whom is now surrounded by a combination of haphazardly placed floating shapes, blocks of colour and sunlight rays. The impact and dynamism of the triangle form and typography is aesthetically weakened and does not provide that strong collision between the circle and triangle. Rodchenkos use of colliding shapes is such a strong political gesture with a comparable reference to El Lissitzkys 1920 poster, Beat the Whites with the Red Wedge. The cover design for the magazine looses that emphasis and perhaps meaning with the weakened size and composition of the forms. Rodkenkos image has again been appropriated on the cover design of a 2005 album by musicians, Franz Ferdinand. The girl is arranged in a similar manner as the original image, shouting the name of the band in the same triangular projection as Rodchenkos poster. The imagery has been constructed with the use of a computer, yet applies techniques to achieve a fake newspaper collaged aesthetic, which perhaps derives a lack of honesty and understanding with this pastiche approach. Both appropriations seem to be to the detriment of Rodchenkos design. By re-contextualising the imagery, a loss of meaning to the original work has occurred. There is also a sense of a void of authenticity to the 1925 poster with the unsympathetic reproductions. This loss to the piece, of what has been coined aura by Walter Benjamin in his essay, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, is a viewed shared by Foster.13 If a work or style is appropriated in a manner that is inconsiderate to the original source, not
13

Against Pluralism, in Recodings, (Washington: Bay Press, 1985) 17.

only is the contextual relationship strained, the uniqueness of the primary piece can be lost in the process.

Left: Poster for Publishing House by Alexander Rodchenko, 1925. Centre: Cover for Magazine, Reklama, Unknown Designer, 1987. Right: Franz Ferdinand Album Cover, Unknown Designer, 2005.

In Against Pluralism, Foster sees the practice as a participant in the loss of aura and meaning of works, as well as encouraging a lack of critical values, promoting a falseness within the works and practice and recycling previous styles in a manner which limits creative progression. He continues his criticism of pluralism with the idea that national and international art and high and low art is merely diminish to a homogenous state, which also has a reduced gestural impact as a result of appropriation.14 I am unconvinced by this statement of Fosters and am of the belief that the mode of pastiche had a more positive impact on these modes of art work. Indeed there was a reduction of distance between the forms of high and low art through the use of appropriation, but this need for a distinction to remain clear, as is the view expressed by Foster, is perhaps unnecessary. With the diminishing boundaries and detachment between these forms of art, a reduction in the levels of elitism and an increasing expression of the vernacular was celebrated. A poster designed by Charles S. Anderson advertising the last episode of the American television show, Seinfeld, is an example of the successful expression of pastiche practice of vernacular culture into high art. This piece has a strong collage aesthetic of imagery and text from a variety of advertisements, while overlaying a print of a 1950s styled television, which adds a degree of depth to the work. This use of images from vernacular culture, comments on the role of the television in the portrayal of mass imagery and highlights a sense of nostalgia.15

14 15

Ibid, 31. No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism, 89.

Poster for Seinfeld by Charles S. Anderson, 1998.

Pluralistic work does have some points and examples, as articulated by Foster, in which the process acts as a detriment to art and design practices. But on a whole the advent of pastiche can be seen as a chance to re-evaluate the creative process and redefine the rules of art and design, as well as finding new relationships within the pluralisation of imagery and methodology. The manner in which one appropriates styles or images can enhance and add to works. The practice also allows a chance to learn from the past styles, as graphic designer Neville Brody describes, I look at it and try to evaluate the core of what is being done, and why Once you looked at that, you could then pursue your own response.16 When this approach is taken the pluralistic process becomes an area of self exportation. With this idea of an abundance of freedom within appropriation, one does have an opportunity to explore and form new relationships, contrary to Fosters idea that the practice only displays a false sense of freedom. And this boundless freedom does not result in a lack of critical values in art and design; the values may have changed, but as Brody claims, the act of questioning and asking why does continue. This idea of re-evaluating previous style within pastiche practice and learning from them is a method which graphic designer Peter Saville applies to works such as, the album cover design for the Joy Division 1980 record Closer. The front of the album sleave has a stark off-white background in which a haunting black and white photograph of robed figures weeping over the death of another person is centrally placed and complimented by a single-line border and text. Saville
16

Ibid, 76.

claims that he has made a choice to borrow a neo-classical aesthetic style for the record design and in doing gives him the opportunity to reference, but yet progress within his own creative process.17 This neo-classical design is emphasised by the purity within the positioning of the imagery, text and use of borders, as well as the choice of displaying a distinguished san serif font for the whole of the sleave design. Saville has taken the approach of an aesthetical reduction for the work. This notion of reduction creates a visually strong piece, which also has a subtle, yet powerful quality to the work. This appropriation of a neo-classical style provides an atmosphere that contextually compliments the stark, perhaps slightly restrained, yet emotional powerful music of Joy Division. If applied in the right manner, borrowing from the past can result in works that contextually enhance the choice of reuse.

Joy Division Album Cover by Peter Saville, 1980.

The design of a selection of Penguin Book classics, re-published under the banner of Great Ideas books in 2004 is another example in which pluralism can play a benefiting role to the aesthetic and contextual relationships of a work. The books in the series are designed with a formula of each cover using expressive display typography in a theme that reflects the time and style in which the works were first published. The colours of red, white and black are used throughout the series to create a unified presence within the designs.18 With each book responding to this brief, the original essence from a variety of typographic periods and styles are use in a manner which accentuates the flavour of the writings, creating a contextual link that is enhanced by the appropriation of aesthetics.

17

Rick Poynor, Design Without Boundaries Visual Communication in Transition (London: Booth-Clibborn Editions, 1998), 121. 18 Phil Baines, Penguin By Design A Cover Story 1935-2005 (London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2005), 244.

Penguin Book Covers by David Pearson, 2004.

The designs of typography itself can be seen as an act of appropriation with fonts always having to reference what has gone before to understand and provide any form of development.19 With the realisation of such a prominent and important element of design in our society (typography) as having always appropriated in order to progress, perhaps this is an indication that Fosters claims are unconvincing and the practice of pastiche has always existed and needs to, in order for progression. Appropriation therefore could be a necessity, with returning to the past becoming a chance to review options, which then contributes to the process of invention and reinvention.20 Influences can be seen as creative nourishment, therefore Fosters statements about pluralism not contributing to artistic development and a lack of thoughtful criticism within the process could be viewed as nothing but a personal attack lacking in substance. Indeed Foster points about a loss of meaning through the re-contextualisation of past styles can be true in certain circumstances and is worthy of acknowledgment. Appropriation on the whole, is not the creative demise of the future of art and design and the reusing of styles can enhance the piece and contribute to the process of self development and a furthering of artistic merit. The art of typography, the Arts and Craft movement returning to a medieval aesthetic, present day musicians reusing 1960s rock melodies, contemporary architecture still referencing the 1930s modernist aesthetic, is an indication that perhaps appropriation has always existed. The practice should not be seen as merely reusing styles in an indiscriminate manner, but is an integral part to all creative aspects of culture and through all periods in the development of present day society. Appropriation could be viewed as a necessary ingredient to art and design practices.

19 20

Borrowed Design The Use and Abuse of Historical Form (New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993), 9. Ibid, 35.

Baines, Phil, Penguin By Design A Cover Story 1935-2005, London: Penguin Books Ltd, 2005. Benjamin, Walter, The Work of Art in the Age of Mechanical Reproduction, in Art in Theory, 1900-2000: An Anthology of Changing Ideas, edited C. Harrison and P. Wood, 520-527. Oxford: Blackwell, 2003. Crimp, D. Appropriating Appropriation, in On the Museum Ruins, 126-147, Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1995. Designed by Peter Saville, ed. Emily King, London: Frieze, 2003. Foster, Hal, Against Pluralism, in Recodings, 12-32, Washington: Bay Press, 1985. Gablik, Suzi, Pluralism The Tyranny of Freedom, in Has Modernism Failed?, 7387. London: Thames and Hudson, 1984. Heartney, E., Appropriation and the Loss of Authenticity in Critical Condition, 1124, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997. Heller, Steven, Lasky, Julie, Borrowed Design The Use and Abuse of Historical Form, New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993. Hollis, Richard, Graphic Design A Concise History, London: Thames and Hudson Ltd, 2001. Negrin, Llewellyn, The Legacy of Postmodernism, FST 202/303 Postmodernism and Visual Culture Lecture, School of Art, University of Tasmania, Hobart, 28.05.07. Poynor, Rick, Design Without Boundaries Visual Communication in Transition, London: Booth-Clibborn Editions, 1998. Poynor, Rick, No More Rules Graphic Design and Postmodernism, London: Lawrence King Ltd, 2003.