Developmental Psychology

Chapter 1

The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development

Development is the pattern of change that begins at the conception and continues through the life span.

Life-Span Perspective is the perspective that:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Development is Lifelong Multidimensional Multidirectional Plastic Multidisciplinary Contextual Involves growth, maintenance and regulation Constructed through biological, sociocultural and individual factors

The Life-Span Perspective

The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development

1. Development is Lifelong No age period dominates development, early adulthood is not the endpoint of development 2. Development is Multidimensional Your relationships, your emotions and everything are changing and affecting each other Development consists of biological, cognitive and socioemotional dimensions 3. Development is Multidrectional Some components of a dimension shrink whilst others expand Eg. During late adulthood, older adults might become wiser by being able to call on experiences to guide their intellectual decision making, but they perform more poorly on tasks that require speed in processing information 4. Development is Plastic Plasticity means the capacity for change Researches have found that the cognitive skills of older adults can be improved through training and developing better strategies, however, possibly, we possess less capacity for change when we become old

The Life-Span Perspective

The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development

5. Development Science is Multidisciplinary Cut across fields

6. Development is Contextual All developments occur within a context or setting and these settings are influenced by historical, economic, social, and cultural factors Contexts exert three types of influences: 1) Normative Age-graded influences Similar for individuals in particular age groups (puberty and menopause) They also influence sociocultural, environmental processes (beginning formal education and retirement) 2) Normative History-graded influences Common to people of particular generation because of historical circumstances (baby boomers) Other influences: economic, political and social upheavals Long term changes in the genetic and cultural makeup of a population (due to immigration or changes in fertility rates) 3) Nonnormative or highly individualized life events Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on the individuals life (natural disasters)
The Life-Span Perspective

The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development

7. Development Involves Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation of Loss mastery of life often involves conflicts and competition among 3 goals of human development: growth, maintenance and regulation of loss (Baltes and his colleagues,2006) Different goals take point at different point in life 8. Development is Co-Construction of Biology, Culture, and the Individual All three of those points work together We can author a unique developmental path by actively choosing from the environment the things that optimize our lives (Rathunde & Csikszentmihalyi, 2006)

The Life-Span Perspective

Some Contemporary Concerns

1. Health and Well-Being Power of life-styles and psychological states in health and well-being is recognized 2. Parenting and Education Child care, effects of divorce, parenting styles, child maltreatment, intergenerational relationships, early childhood education, bilingual education 3. Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation. Can result from interaction of people over many years Cross-Cultural Studies: compare aspects of two or more cultures Ethnicity: rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language Socioeconomic Status (SES) refers to persons position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Gender: research found that higher percentage of girls than boys around the world have never had education Social Policy: governments course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens The more years a child spent living in poverty, the more their physiological indices of stress is elevated Some children overcome this: RESILIENCE Resilience (individual): good intellectual functioning, appealing, sociable, easygoing, self confidence, high self-esteem, talents and faith (p13)

The Life-Span Perspective

Some Contemporary Concerns

1. Health and Well-Being Power of life-styles and psychological states in health and well-being is recognized 2. Parenting and Education Child care, effects of divorce, parenting styles, child maltreatment, intergenerational relationships, early childhood education, bilingual education 3. Sociocultural Contexts and Diversity Culture: behavior patterns, beliefs and all other products of a particular group of people that are passed on from generation to generation. Can result from interaction of people over many years Cross-Cultural Studies: compare aspects of two or more cultures Ethnicity: rooted in cultural heritage, nationality, race, religion, and language Socioeconomic Status (SES) refers to persons position within society based on occupational, educational, and economic characteristics Gender: research found that higher percentage of girls than boys around the world have never had education Social Policy: governments course of action designed to promote the welfare of its citizens The more years a child spent living in poverty, the more their physiological indices of stress is elevated Some children overcome this: RESILIENCE Resilience (individual): good intellectual functioning, appealing, sociable, easygoing, self confidence, high self-esteem, talents and faith (p13)

The Life-Span Perspective

Biological, Cognitive and Socioemotional Processes

1. 2. Biological Processes Produce changes in an individuals physical nature Cognitive Processes Refers to changes in the individuals thought, intelligence, and language 3. Socioemotional Processes Changes in individuals relationships with other people, changes in emotions, and changes in personality Connecting Biological Cognitive and Socioemotional Processes Baby smiling in response to parents tough - Physical nature of touch and responsiveness to it (Biological) - Ability to understand intentional acts (Cognitive) - Act of smiling that often reflects a positive emotional feeling and helps to connect us in positive ways with others (Socioemotional) - Developmental cognitive neuroscience explores links between development, cognitive processes, and the brain - Developmental social neuroscience examines connection between socioemotional processes, development, and the brain

The Life-Span Perspective

Periods of Development
1. 2. Prenatal Period Conception to birth involves tremendous growth Infancy 18-24 months Many psychological activities (language, symbolic thoughts, sensor motor coordination, social learning) Early Childhood 2-5 years old Learn to become more self-sufficient and to care for themselves Develop school readiness skills and spend many hors in play with peers Middle and Late Childhood 6-11 years old Fundamental skills of reading, writing, and arithmetic are mastered Child formally exposed to larger world and its culture Achievement becomes a more central theme of the childs world and selfcontrol increases Adolescence 10-21 years old Rapid physical changes Pursuit of independence and an identity are prominent Thought is more logical, abstract and idealistic Early Adulthood Early 20s to 30s Establish personal and economic independence, career development and selecting mate Middle Adulthood 40s to 50s Expand personal and social involvement and responsibility Late Adulthood 60s to end Time of review, retirement, and adjustment to new social roles involving decreasing strength and health Longest span of any other period Oldest-Old: average 85, where major changes happen Young-Old: 65-84, have substantial potential for physical and cognitive fitness

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The Life-Span Perspective

Periods of Development
Four Ages 1. 2. 3. 4. First Age: Childhood and Adolescence Second Age: Prime Adulthood, 20s to 50s Third Age: Approximately 60-79 Healthier and can lead more active, productive lives Fourth Age: Approximately 80 years and older Health and well-being declines

Connections Across Periods of Development There are many connections between periods of human life span How development in one period is connected to the development in another period Eg. If an adolescent girl becomes depressed, might her depression be linked to development early in her life?

The Life-Span Perspective

Significance of Age
Age and Happiness Studies found that level of happiness increases with age Despite the physical problems and losses older adult experience, they are more content with what they have They have better relationships with the people who matter to the Less pressured to achieve and have more time for leisurely pursuits Have many years of experiences to help them adapt to their circumstances Baby Boomers reported being less happy than individuals born earlier, possibly because they are not lowering their aspirations and idealistic hopes as they age Conceptions of Age Chronological age may not be relevant to understanding a persons psychological development 1. Biological Age: persons age in terms of biological health (functional capacities of persons vital organs) 2. Psychological Age: individuals adaptive capacities compared with those of other individuals of the same chronological age 3. Studies showed that personality trait of conscientiousness predicted lower mortality risk 4. Social Age: social roles and expectations related to persons age. Consider the role of mother and behaviors that accompany the role

The Life-Span Perspective

Developmental Issues
Nature and Nuture Whether development is primarily influenced by nature or nuture Stability and Change Involves the degree to which we become older renditions of our early experience (stability) or whether we develop into someone difference from who we are at an earlier point in development (change) Increasing age and on average older adults often show less capcity for change in sense of learning new things than younger adults Continuity and Discontinuity The degree which development involves either gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) Is the development gradual or abrupt> Evaluating the Developmental Issues How strongly development is influenced by each of these factors?

Scientific Method: 1. Conceptualize process/problem to be studied 2. Collect Research information 3. Analyze Data 4. Draw Conclusion Theory is an interrelated, coherent set of ideas that helps to explain phenomena and make predictions Hypotheses are specific assertions and predictions that can be tested

The Life-Span Perspective

Psychoanalytic Theories
Psychoanalytic Theories describes development as primarily unconscious and heavily colored by emotion. Behavior is merely a surface characteristic and that a true understanding of development requires analyzing the symbolic meanings of behavior and the deep inner workings of the mind. Freuds Theory Oral (infants pleasure centers on the mouth), birth to 1.5 years Anal (childs pleasure focuses on anus), 1.5 to 3 years Phallic (childs pleasure focuses on the genitals), 3 to 6 years Latency (child represses sexual interest and develops social and intellectual skills), 6 to puberty Genital (time of sexual reawakening; source of sexual pleasure becomes someone outside the family), puberty onward *Freud may have overemphasized sexual instincts whilst other psychoanalytic theorists place more emphasis on cultural experiences as determinant of individuals development

Freud versus Erikson

Erikson We develop in psychosocial stages Primary motivation for human behavior is social and reflects a desire to affiliate with other people Developmental change occurs throughout the life span Emphasizes that both early and later experiences are important Freud We develop in psychosexual stages Primary motivation for human behavior is sexual in nature Our basic personality is shaped in first 5 years Views early experience as far more important than later experiences

The Life-Span Perspective

Psychoanalytic Theories
Eriksons Theory
1. Trust vs. Mistrust Experience in first year of life Trust in infancy sets the stage of lifelong expectations Autonomy vs. Shame 1-3 years old Starts to assert their sense of independence or autonomy Realizes their will and discover that they have their own behaviors If restrained too much or punished too harshly, they will develop sense of shame Initiative vs. Guilt Preschool years Faces new challenges that require active, purposeful, responsible behavior Feelings of guilt may arise if child is irresponsible and made to feel too anxious Industry vs. Inferiority Elementary school years Direct their energy toward mastering knowledge and intellectual skills Negative outcome is to feel inferior Identity vs. Identity Confusion Adolescent years If they explore roles in healthy manners and arrive at positive path, they will achieve positive identity, if not, confusions reigns Intimacy vs. Isolation Early adulthood Form intimate relationships is healthy friendships and relationships are formed Generativity vs. Stagnation Middle Adulthood Generativity: primarily a concern for helping the younger generation to develop and lead useful lives Feeling of having nothing done to help next generation: stagnation Integrity vs. Despair Late Adulthood Person reflects on the past

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Evaluating Psychoanalytic Theories

Advantages Emphasis on developmental framework family relationships unconscious aspects of the mind Disadvantages Lack of scientific support Too much emphasis on sexual underpinnings Image of people too negative

The Life-Span Perspective

Cognitive Theories
Piagets Cognitive Developmental Theory Children go through four stages of cognitive development as they actively construct their understanding of the world 1. Sensorimotor Stage Birth to 2 years old Constructs an understanding of the world by coordinating sensory experiences with physical motoric actions Preoperational Stage 2-7 years old Begins to go beyond simply connecting sensory information with physical action and represent the world with words Still lack the ability to perform what he calls operations Concrete Operational Stage 7-11 years Can perform operations involving objects Reason logically when the reasoning can be applied to specific or concrete examples Formal Operational Stage 11-15 years old + Think in abstract and more logical terms Adolescents develop images of ideal circumstances Being to entertain possibilities for the future and are fascinated with what they can be Become more systematic in solving problems

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Vygotskys Sociocultural Cognitive Theory Emphasizes on how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development Childs development is inseparable from social and cultural activities Childrens social interaction with more-skilled adults and peers is indispensable to their cognitive development Learn to use the tools that will help them adapt and be successful in their culture

The Life-Span Perspective

Cognitive Theories
The Information-Processing Theory Individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it Like Piagets and Vygotskys theory, information-processing theory does not describe development as stage-like Develops a gradual increase in capacity for processing information which allows them to acquire increasingly complex knowledge and skills

Evaluating Cognitive Theories

Advantages Positive view of development Emphasis on the active construction of understanding Disadvantages Skepticism about the pureness of Piagets stages Too little attention to individual variations

The Life-Span Perspective

Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories

Skinners Operant Conditioning Rewards and punishments shape development Development consists of the pattern of behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards an punishment Eg. Shy people learned to be shy as a result of experiences that they had while growing up and modification in environment can help shy person become more socially oriented

Banduras Social Cognitive Theory Behavior, environment, and cognition are the key factors in the development People cognitively represent the behavior of others and then sometimes adopt this behavior themselves Social Cognitive Model: (1) Behavior, (2) Person/Cognition, (3) Environment

Evaluating Behavioral & Social Cognitive Theories

Advantages Disadvantages

Emphasis on scientific research and environmental determinants of behaviors

Too little emphasis on cognition in Skinners view Gives inadequate attention to developmental changes

The Life-Span Perspective

Ethological Theory
Ethology stresses that behavior is strongly influenced by biology, is tied to evolution and is characterized by critical or sensitive periods. Famous European Zoologist: Konrad Lorenz helped bring ethology to prominence. Imprinting: the rapid, innate learning that involves attachment to the first moving object seen. John Bowlby illustrated the application of ethological theory to human development. - Stressed that attachment to a caregiver over the first year of life has important consequences throughout the life span

Evaluating Ethological Theory

Advantages Disadvantages

Focus on the biological and evolutionary basis of development Use of careful observations in natural settings

Too much emphasis on biological foundations Belief that the critical and sensitive period concepts might be too rigid

The Life-Span Perspective

Ecological Theory
Bronfenbrenners Ecological Theory Development reflects the influence of several environmental systems 1. Microsystem Setting in which individual lives Individual is not a passive recipient of experiences in these settings, but someone who helps to construct the settings Family, school, peers, health services Mesosystem Relations between microsystems or connection between contexts Eg. Relation of family experiences to school experiences Exsosystem Links between a social setting in which the individual does not have an active role and the individuals immediate context Neighbors, friends of family, mass media, social welfare services Eg. Mother might receive promotion that requires more travel increase conflict with husband change patterns of interactions with child Macrosystem Culture in which individuals live Chronosystem Patterning of environmental events and transitions over the life course as well as sociohistorical circumstances Eg. Divorce: negative effects of divorce on children often peak in the first year after the divorce

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Evaluating Ecological Theory

Advantages Include systematic examination of macro and micro dimensions of environmental systems Attention to connections between environmental systems Emphasis on range of social contexts beyond the family Disadvantages Inadequate attention to biological factors Too little emphasis on cognitive factors

The Life-Span Perspective

An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation

No single theory can describe the complexity of life-span development by itself. Psychoanalytic theory best explains the unconscious mind Eriksons theory best describes the changes that occur in adult development Piagets, Vygotskys and Information-processing theory provides the most complete description of cognitive development Behavioral, social cognitive and ecological theories have been the most adept at examining the environmental determinants of development Ethological theories have highlighted biologys role and the importance of sensitive periods in development

The Life-Span Perspective

Developmental Psychology
Chapter 1A: Research Methods

Methods for Data Collection

Observation: Laboratory vs natural setting Survey & Interview: Obtain peoples self-reported attitudes and beliefs Standardized Tests: Uniformed procedures for administration and scoring Case Study: In-depth look at a single individual Physiological Measure: Neuroimaging, fMRI

The Life-Span Perspective

Research Designs
Descriptive Research Aims to observe and record behavior Cant prove what causes some phenomena, but it can reveal important information about peoples behavior Correlational Research Provides information that will help us to predict how people will behave Describes the strength of the relationship between two or more events or characteristics Does not mean causation Experimental Research Studies causality Independent vs dependent variable Independent (manipulated, influenced, experimental factor) Dependent (resulting effect)

The Life-Span Perspective

Time Span of Research

Cross-Sectional Approach Simultaneously compares individuals of different ages Researches does not have to wait for individuals to grow up But gives no information about how individuals change or about the stability of their characteristics
Longitudinal Approach Same individuals studied over a period of time Provide wealth of information about vital issue Cohort Effects Cohort effects are due to a persons time of birth, era, or generation but not actual age

Conducting Ethical Research

1. 2. 3. 4. Informed Consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception

Minimize: Gender Bias Cultural and Ethnic Bias

The Life-Span Perspective