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CIE-Modern-physics
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Chapter 1 Nuclear physics ........................................................................................................................3
1.1 The nuclear atom and Radioactivity............................................................................................3
1.1.1 Nucleus structure of atoms Atomic nucleus..................................................................3
1.1.2 Constituents of the atom...................................................................................................4
1.1.3 atomic measurements .......................................................................................................5
1.1.4 Natural radiation phenomenon Decay Half-life ............................................................5
1.2 Nuclear fission and fusion...........................................................................................................7
1.2.1 Nuclear reaction ...............................................................................................................7
3.2.2 Mass defect & binding energy .........................................................................................7
1.2.3 Fission..............................................................................................................................8
1.2.4 Nuclear power station ......................................................................................................9
1.2.5 Fusion of light nuclei .....................................................................................................10
1.3 19 Worked examples ..............................................................................................................10
Chapter 2 Fundamental particles.............................................................................................................22
2.1 Particles, antiparticles and photons ...........................................................................................22
2.2 Particle interactions...................................................................................................................22
2.2.1 Electromagnetic force and Feynman diagram................................................................22
2.2.2 The weak nuclear force and Feynman diagram..............................................................22
2.3 Properties of particles and antiparticles ....................................................................................22
2.4 Quarks and Antiquarks..............................................................................................................22
2.4.1 Quarks and antiquarks properties...................................................................................22
2.4.2 Quark combinations .......................................................................................................22
2.4.3 Quarks and beta decays..................................................................................................22
2.5 45 Worked examples ..............................................................................................................22
Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Radiation and Quantum Phenomena ...........................................................23
3-1 The photoelectric effect ............................................................................................................23
3-2 Collisions of electrons with atoms............................................................................................23
3.2.1 The Bohr model and Energy levels ................................................................................23
3.2.2 The emission and absorption of photons........................................................................23
3.2.3 Atomic spectrum............................................................................................................23
3.2.4 Fluorescent tube explanation..........................................................................................23
3-3 Wave-particle duality................................................................................................................23
3-4 42 Worked examples......................................................................................................................23
Chapter 4 Operational amplifier (op amp) ..............................................................................................23
4-1 differential amplifier .................................................................................................................23
4-2 Negative feedback amplifiers ...................................................................................................25
4-3 Op amp as a comparator ...........................................................................................................26
4-4 Summing amplifier ...................................................................................................................29
4-5 10 Worked examples......................................................................................................................30
Chapter 5 Relativity ................................................................................................................................38
5-1 basic assumptions of special relativity......................................................................................38
5-2 relativity of time and space.......................................................................................................38
5-3 Relativistic mass and mass-energy equation.............................................................................38
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5-4 9 Worked examples........................................................................................................................38
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Chapter 1 Nuclear physics
1.1 The nuclear atom and Radioactivity
1.1.1 Nucleus structure of atoms Atomic nucleus
1.1 The nucleus structure model of atom
In 1909-1911, the British physicist Rutherford (1871-1937) and his
assistants did experiments using o particle scattering. Fig. 1-1 shows the
experimental setup. Using o particle to shine on gold foil, some o particle
change direction after passing through the gold foil. This is because the tiny
charged particles inside the gold atom have Coulomb interactions with the o
particles. This phenomenon is called the scattering of o particle.
o
o
o
o
o

The result of the experiment was that most o particles passed through the
gold foil and almost all moved in their previous direction. But there were a
tiny number of o particles which showed a large deflection.
Rutherford made precise records of the number of o particles scattered in
various directions. Based on this, he put forward the nucleus structure model
of the atom. There is a tiny nucleus at the center of the atom called the atomic
nucleus. All the positive charge and nearly all the mass of the atom are
concentrated in the atomic nucleus. The electrons carrying a negative charge
move in space outside the nucleus.
According to this model, since the atomic nucleus is tiny when it passes
through the gold foil, most of the o particles are far from the nuclei and feel
a very small repulsive force. Their movement is hardly influenced. Only a
very small number of o particles pass close to the atomic nucleus, and are
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affected considerably by the nucleus Coulomb repulsive force and so make a
large angle deflection (Fig. 1-2)
particles o


1.1.2 Constituents of the atom
Inside an atom: a positively charged nucleus composed of proton and
neutrons, Electrons that surround the nucleus.
Note: inside the atom, the number of proton = the number of electron, and if
the atom do not loss or gain electrons, it is neutral (that is no charge)
Nucleon: a proton or a neutron in the nucleus.
Inside an atom:
Charge ( /C ) Mass ( /Kg )
a proton +1.6010
19
1.6710
-27

a neutron 0 1.6710
-27

an electron 1.6010
19
9.1110
-31


Isotopes: atoms of the same element that has the same numbers of proton but
different numbers of neutrons.
Represent an atom:
A
Z
X
X: chemical symbol
A: total number of protons and neutrons, sometimes called nucleon number
or mass number.
Z: number of protons, sometimes called atomic numbers.
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So, the number of neutrons in the nucleus = AZ

Specific charge:
For charged particles, specific charge is defined as its charge divided by its
mass, that is
arg
arg
ch e
specific ch e
mass
=
Unit: C/kg
1.1.3 atomic measurements
The unified atomic mass unit (u) is used for measuring the masses of
atomic particles. And
27
1 1.66 10 u kg

=
For example
Mass of proton: 1.00728 u
Mass of neutron: 1.00867 u
Mass of electron: 0.00055 u
1.1.4 Natural radiation phenomenon Decay Half-life
1 Natural radiation phenomenon
The property of a substance emitting rays is called radioactivity. Elements
with radioactivity are called radioactive elements.
The phenomenon of elements spontaneous radiation of rays is called
natural radioactivity phenomenon.

2 Three types of radiation
(i) Alpha radiation
Alpha particle is the atom ; symbol is
4
2
He
4
2
o , sometimes in symbolo .
An unstable nucleus of an element X emits an alpha particle; the product
nucleus is a different element Y.
Equation below:
4 4
2 2
A A
Z Z
X Y o

+
Note: conservation of mass number and atomic number.
(ii) Beta decay
Beta is electron, in symbol
0
1
|

or |

,
Equation below:
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0
1 1
A A
Z Z
X Y | v

+
+ +
v : is called antineutrino, which has no charge and no mass.
(iii) Gamma radiation
In symbol , it is emitted by a nucleus with too much energy, following
an alpha or beta emission.
3 Half-life
We can use a half-life to indicate the rate of decay of radioactive elements.
The amount of time required for half of the nuclei of a radioactive
element to decay is called the half-life of the element.
Note: different radioactive elements have different half-lives, and
sometimes the difference is very big.
The measure of radioactivity is the number of radioactive disintegrations
per second, called the activity (in symbol A). The SI unit of activity is the
Becquerel (Bq), which is one disintegration per second.
And if unstable atoms are present at time zero, then the number
remaining at some time t is
0
N
0
t
N N e

= , where is a proportionality
constant (called the decay constant).
Since the activity is proportional to the number of radioactive atoms
present, the activity satisfies an exponential decay law also:
0
t
A Ae

=
When the time is equal to one half-life,
1
2
t , the number of atoms
remaining is
0
2
N
N = , thus the equation can be written as
0
t
N N e

=
1
2
t
e

=
We can use this relation to obtain the half-life in terms of .
1
2
0.693
t

=
Thus, we can get
1
2
0.693
t
=
0
t
, therefore the equation N N e

= can be
written as:
1
2
0.693
0
t
t
N N e

=


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1.2 Nuclear fission and fusion
1.2.1 Nuclear reaction
In nuclear physics, the process of making a new nucleus when a nucleus is
bombarded by other particles is called a nuclear reaction.
For example, if a high-energy o particle strikes and is absorbed by a
nucleus of nitrogen-14, the new nucleus immediately decays to form a
nucleus of oxygen-17 and a proton. This is an examples of a nuclear reaction.
It can be described by the following equation:
14 4 17 1
7 2 8
N He O
1
p + +
Note: the mass and charge numbers are all conserved in a nuclear reaction.
There is energy change in a nuclear reaction. The energy released in a
nuclear reaction is called nuclear energy.
Einsteins relativity theory points out that energy has mass. If an object
gains energy, it gains mass. If it loses energy, it loses mass. The change of
energy is linked to the change of mass E A m A by this equation:
2
E mc A = A
19
1 1.60 10 eV J

Where c is the speed of light:
8
3 10 / c m = s
With nuclear particles, energy is often measured in eV:

=
27
1 1.66 10 u kg

=
2

And with nuclear particles, mass is usually measured in u
( ). by converting 1 u into kg and applying E mc A = A , it
is possible to show that:

3.2.2 Mass defect & binding energy
A helium-4 nucleus is made up of 4 nucleons (2 protons and 2 neutrons).
The calculation below (Fig. 1-3) shows that the nucleus has less mass than its
four nucleons would have as free particles. The nucleus has a mass defect of
0.029267u.
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p p
n n
p
p
n
n
Helium-4
nucleus
4.002603u
1.007276u
1.007276u
1.008665u
1.008665u
4.03187u
Difference in mass = 0.029267u
(mass defect =0.029267u)
Fig. 1-3mass defect

The binding energy of a nucleus is the energy equivalent of its mass
defect. (Binding energy is the energy holds the nucleus together). Therefore,
it is the energy needed to separate the nucleus into its component parts. For
, the mass defect is
4
2
He
4
2
2 (2 ) 0.029267
e
p n
H
m m m m u + = A =
0.029267 931.5 27.3

And 1 u is equivalent to 931 MeV, the binding energy is
E MeV A = =
238 1 139 97 1
92 0 56 36 0
3 U n Ba Kr n + + +

1.2.3 Fission
In nuclear physics, a reaction in which a heavy nucleus splits into nuclei with
smaller masses and releases nuclear energy is called fission.
During nuclear fission, a heavy nucleus splits to form two nuclei of
roughly the same mass, plus several neutrons. Fission occurs when a neutron
hits and is captured by the nucleus. For example, here is a typical fission
reaction for uranium-238:

Chain reaction: the fission reaction above is started by one neutron. It
gives off neutrons which may cause further fission and so on in a chain
reaction (Fig. 1-4).
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1.2.4 Nuclear power station
Nuclear power stations generate electricity using nuclear energy. Its core
facility is a nuclear reactor. In the reactor, there is a steady release of heat as
fission of uranium-235 takes place.
Uranium 235 catches slow neutrons easily and catches fast neutrons
difficultly. The neutrons produced in fission all have high speed, and are
difficult for uranium 235 to catch to encourage fission. To slow down their
speed, decelerating materials are placed around uranium bars. Fast neutrons
collide with decelerating materials and lose energy to become slow neutrons.
Commonly used decelerating materials are graphite, heavy water or
ordinary water (sometimes called light water).
To adjust the number of neutrons and control the rate of reaction, some
control bars have to be inserted between the uranium bars. Control bars are
made of cadmium. Cadmium strongly absorbs neutrons. If a reaction is too
fierce, place the control bars more deeply so that it can absorb more neutrons,
and the chain reaction will be slowed down. Otherwise, the control bars
should be pulled out. A computer adjusts the lift-up or push-down of the
control bars automatically keeping the reactor at a constant power and
operating safely.
Most of the energy released from nuclear fuel fission changes into heat,
and increases the temperature of the reaction area. Water or liquid-state metal
sodium flows in and out of the reactor cyclically and carries the heat inside
the reactor to the outside to be used to generate electricity. Meanwhile, the
reactor cools down and operates safely.
Too much radiation causes harm to human and biological objects, so
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special attention must be paid to prevent the leak of radiation rays and
radioactive materials in nuclear power station construction. This will avoid
damage of rays to humans and the radioactive pollution of radioactive
materials to water supply, air and the working sites. For this purpose, the
outside of a reactor needs very thick concrete walls to stop various rays
escaping from the fission products.
1.2.5 Fusion of light nuclei
A reaction in which light nuclei combine to form nucleus with a larger mass
and also release nuclear energy is called fusion.
For example, when a deuteron and a triton combine to form helium
(meanwhile a neutron is released), 17.6MeV energy is released. The nuclear
reaction equation is
2 3 4 1
1 1 2 0
H H H n + +
The advantages of a fusion reactor will be:
(i) Fuels will be readily obtainable. For example, deuterium can be extracted
fro sea-water.
(ii) The main waste product, helium, is not radioactive.
(iii) Fusion reactors have built-in safety. If the system fails, fusion stops.

1.3 19 Worked examples
1. In the reaction shown, a proton and a deuterium nucleus, , fuse together
to form a helium nucleus,
2
1
H
3
2
He
1 2 3
1 1 2
p H He Q + +
What is the value of Q, the energy released in this reaction?
Mass of a proton = 1.00728 u
Mass of a nucleus = 2.01355 u
2
1
H
Mass of a nucleus = 3.01493 u
3
2
He
Solution:
The mass defect is given by
2.01355 1.00728 3.01493 0.0059 m u u u u A = + =
0.0059 931.5 5.5 Q MeV = =

Since 1 u is equivalent to 931.5 Mev,
The energy released is given by

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2. For a nuclear reactor in which the fission rate is constant, which one of the
following statements is correct?
A There is a critical mass of fuel in the reactor.
B For every fission event, there is, on average, one further fission event.
C A single neutron is released in every fission event.
D No neutrons escape from the reactor.
Solution:
Nuclear fission occurs when a massive nucleus splits into two less-massive
fragments. Fission can be induced by the absorption of a thermal neutron.
When a massive nucleus fissions, mass is transformed into energy when the
binding energy per nucleon is greater for the fragments than for the original
nucleus. Several neutrons are also released during nuclear fission. These
neutrons can, in turn, induce other nuclei to fission and lead to a process
known as a chain reaction.
(B) is correct.

3. (a) When a nucleus of uranium -235 fissions into barium -141 and krypton
-92, the change in mass is
28
3.1 10 kg

. Calculate how many nuclei must

undergo fission in order to release 1.0 J of energy by this reaction.
Solution:
Energy released by a nucleus is given by
2 28 8 2 11
3.1 10 (3 10 ) 2.79 10 E mc J

= A = =
Number of nuclei required
10
11
1.0
3.6 10
2.79 10
J
J

= =

(b) A nuclear power station produces an electrical output power of 600MW. If
the overall efficiency of the station is 35%, calculate the decrease in the mass
of the fuel rods, because of the release of energy, during one week of
continuous operation.
Solution:
The output power from reactor:
600
1714
0.35
MW
P MW = =
6 15
1714 10 7 24 60 60 1.04 10 E Pt J = = =

Thus, energy output from fuel rods in one week is given by

Therefore, decrease in the mass is given by
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15
2 8 2
1.04 10
11.6
(3 10 )
E
m g
c

A = = =

4. The reaction shown below occurs when a proton and a deuterium
nucleus, , fuse to form a helium nucleus, .
2
1
H
3
2
He
1 2 3
1 1 2
p H He Q + +
If the energy released, Q, is 5.49 MeV, what is the mass of the helium
nucleus?
Mass of nucleus = 2.01355 u
Mass of proton = 1.00728 u
1u is equivalent to 931.5MeV
Solution:
Since 1 u is equivalent to 931.3 Mev. The mass defect is given by
5.49
1 0.00589372
931.3
MeV
m u
MeV
A = = u
Therefore, the mass of the helium nucleus is given by
2.01355 1.00728 0.00589372 3.01494
h
m u u u u = + =

5. What materials that is commonly used for moderating, controlling and
shielding respectively in a nuclear reactor?
Answers:
Graphite, cadmium, concrete

6. (a) Explain why, after a period of use, the fuel rods in a nuclear reactor
become
(i) Less effective for power production,
Solution:
The amount of uranium 235 in fuel decreases, and the fission fragments
absorb neutrons.

(ii) More dangerous.
Solution:
The fission fragments are radioactive, emitting |

and radiation.
(b) Describe the stages in the handling and processing of spent fuel rods after
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they have been removed from a reactor, indicating how the active wastes are
dealt with.
You may be awarded marks for the quality of written communication in your
answer.
Solution:
Moved by remote control
Placed in cooling ponds for several months
Separation of uranium from active wastes
High level waste stored

7. The output power of a nuclear reactor is provided by nuclear fuel which
decreases in mass at a rate of . What is the maximum
possible output power of the reactor?
6
4 10 kg per hour

Solution:
In an hour, the decreases in mass is
6 6
4 10 / 1 4 10 m kg hour hour kg

A = =
Thus, the energy loss is given by
2 6 8 2 11
4 10 (3 10 ) 3.6 10 E mc J

= A = =
Therefore the output power:
11
8
3.6 10
10 100
3600
E J
P W MW
t s

= = = =

8. In a Rutherford scattering experiment, an particle approaches a gold
nucleus along the straight line joining their centers and comes momentarily to
rest at point P, as shown in Fig. 8-1.
particle o
P
Gold nucleus
Fig. 8-1

The particle then returns along its previous path.
(a) The distance from the centre of the gold nucleus , to the point P is
. For the point P
197
79
Au
14
3.0 10 m

(i) show that the strength of the electric field associated with the charge of the
nucleus is ,
20 1
1.3 10 Vm

Solution:
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For the nucleus , its electric field strength can be written as
197
79
Au
2
kq
E
r
=
19 17
79 1.60 10 1.26 10 q C C

= =

And the charge of is given by
197
79
Au

Thus
17
9 2 2 20
2 14 2
1.26 10
(8.99 10 / ) 1.3 10 /
(3.0 10 )
kq C
E Nm C V m
r m

= = =

(ii) Calculate the magnitude of the force acting on the particle,
Solution:
The charge of o particle
19
2 1.60 10 Q C

=
19 20
2 1.60 10 1.3 10 41.6 F QE N

= = =
Thus
The magnitude of the force is given by

(iii) Calculate the electric potential due to the charge of the nucleus.
Solution:
The electric potential at a distance r from a point charge q is:
0
1
4
kq q
V
r r tc
= =
Therefore
17
9 2 2 6
14
1.26 10
(8.99 10 / ) 3.78 10 /
3.0 10
kq C
V Nm C J C
r m

= = =

(b) (i) State the energy changes of the particle during its interaction with the
gold nucleus.
Solution:
Kinetic energy electric potential energy kinetic energy
(ii) Calculate the initial kinetic energy, in J, of the particle, explaining your
reasoning.
Solution:
The o particle moves to the point P, its kinetic energy changes totally to
potential energy. Thus
Initial kinetic energy = potential energy at point P = QV
19 6 12
2 1.60 10 3.78 10 1.21 10 QV J

= =

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9. (a) You may be awarded additional marks to those shown in brackets for
the quality of written communication in your answers.
(i) Describe the physical process of nuclear fusion.
Solution:
Nuclear fusion:
In a fusion process, two nuclei with smaller masses combine to form a single
nucleus with a larger mass. Energy is released by fusion when the binding
energy per nucleon is greater for the larger nucleus than for the smaller
nuclei.
(ii) Describe the physical process of nuclear fission.
Solution:
Nuclear fission occurs when a massive nucleus splits into two less-massive
fragments. Fission can be induced by the absorption of a thermal neutron.
When a massive nucleus fissions, mass is transformed into energy when the
binding energy per nucleon is greater for the fragments than for the original
nucleus. Several neutrons are also released.

(iii) Explain why each of these processes releases energy.
Solution:
Binding energy per nucleon increases when light nuclei combine; binding
energy per nucleon also increases when heavy nuclei split.
(b) Energy is also released by radioactive decay, such as the decay of
radon-220 as represented by the equation
220 216
86 84
Rn Po o +
Calculate the energy released, in J, by the decay of one nucleus of radon-220.

Solution:
The mass defect is . 219.96410 213.94899 4.00150 2.01361 m u u u u A = =
13 10
2.01361 2.01361 931.5 1875.677715 1875.677715 1.60 10 3.0 10
Since 1 u is equivalent to 931.5 Mev. The energy released is given by:
E u Mev J J

= = = = =

10. (a) In order for fusion of two nuclei to take place, they have to be brought
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together to a separation of about 2 fm.
(i) Show that the electrostatic potential energy of a system consisting of two
deuterium ( ) nuclei at a separation of 2 fm is about .
2
1
H
13
1 10 J

Solution:
The electric potential V at a given point is the electric potential energy EPE
of a small test charge situated at that point divided by the charge itself: q +
EPE
V
q
=
SI unit of electric potential: joule/coulomb (J/C) = volt (V)
Thus, we firstly must calculate the electric potential V of the deuterium. And
the electric potential at a distance r from a point charge q is:
0
1
4
kq q
V
r r tc
= =
19
1.60 10 q C

=

Charge of deuterium nuclei: .
Therefore, the electrostatic potential energy of the system is given by:
2 19 2
13
12 2 2 15
0 0
1 1 1 (1.60 10 )
( ) 1.15 10
4 4 4 8.85 10 / ( ) 2 10
q q C
EPE qV q J
r r C Nm m tc tc t

= = = = =


(ii) Two deuterium nuclei may be brought to this separation by causing them
to collide with equal and opposite velocities. Calculate the minimum speed
required by each nucleus for the system to have the potential energy
calculated in part
(a)(i).
Solution:
The two deuterium nuclei have equal but opposite velocities, thus their
kinetic energy is given by:
2
1
2
2
mv , which is equal to the potential energy. And the mass of is
1
2
H
27
2 1.67 10 m kg

= , so
2 13
1
2 1.15 10
2
mv

=
Gives
13
6
27
1.15 10
5.87 10 /
2 1.67 10
v m s

= =


(b) One reaction that can occur when deuterium nuclei undergo fusion is

2 2 3 1
1 1 1 1
H H H + + p
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(i) Calculate the energy released, in J, by this reaction.
Mass of
2
1
H nucleus = 2.01355u
Mass of
3
1
H nucleus = 3.01550u
Mass of proton = 1.00728u
Solution:
The mass defect is . 2 2.01355 3.01550 1.00728 0.00432 m u u u u A = =
13 13
0.00432 0.00432 931.5 4.02408 4.02408 1.60 10 6.4 10
Since 1 u is equivalent to 931.5 Mev. The energy released is given by:
E u Mev J J

= = = = =

(ii) How much energy is released, in J, from 1 kg of reactant in the above
fusion reaction?
Solution:
From what we obtain in (i), the energy per unit mass is given by
13
13
27
6.4 10
9.58 10 /
4 1.67 10
J
J kg
kg

=

13 13
9.58 10 / 1 9.58 10 E J kg kg J = =
2 3 8 2 13
(1 10 )(3 10 / ) 9 10 E mc kg m s J

= A = =

Thus the energy released from 1 kg of reactant is:

(c) State two reasons why fusion reactions would be preferable to fission
reactions as an energy resource, provided the necessary conditions required
for continuous fusion could be maintained.
Solution:
The energy released per unit mass is greater. And the supply of fuel is almost
unlimited (deuterium from sea water).

11. If 1g of matter is completely transformed into energy, how much energy
is released in MeV?
Solution:
Energy produced:

And

13
13 26
13
9 10
9 10 5.6 10
1.60 10
J Mev Mev

= =

12. Which one of the following statements correctly describes the changes
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that occur when a uranium nucleus undergoes fission?
A The binding energy per nucleon decreases and one or more neutrons are
released.
B The binding energy per nucleon decreases and one or more protons are
released.
C The binding energy per nucleon increases and one or more neutrons are
released.
D The binding energy per nucleon increases and one or more protons are
released.
Solution:
14. Nuclear fission occurs when a massive nucleus splits into two
less-massive fragments. Fission can be induced by the absorption of a
thermal neutron. When a massive nucleus fissions, mass is transformed into
energy when the binding energy per nucleon is greater for the fragments than
for the original nucleus. Several neutrons are also released.
Choose (C)

13. A nucleus of absorbs a neutron and undergoes fission. Which one of
the following gives possible products of this process?
235
92
U
A
4 228
2 88
2 He Ra +
B
141 92 1
56 36 0
3 Ba Kr n + +
C
0 236
1 94
2 e P

+ u
D
212 4 1
84 2 0
4 8 Po He + + n
Solution:
235 1
92 0
U n +

From the definition of the fission and the conservation of mass number, we
can get the correct answer (B).

14. (a) You may be awarded additional marks to those shown in brackets for
the quality of written communication in your answer.
In the context of nuclear fission, explain what is meant by
(a) (i) a chain reaction,
(a) (ii) critical mass.
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Solution:
(i) Nuclear fission occurs when a massive nucleus splits into two
less-massive fragments. Fission can be induced by the absorption of a
thermal neutron. When a massive nucleus fissions, mass is transformed into
energy when the binding energy per nucleon is greater for the fragments than
for the original nucleus. Several neutrons are also released during nuclear
fission. These neutrons can, in turn, induce other nuclei to fission and lead to
a process known as a chain reaction.
(ii) The minimum mass of fissile material.
(b) Moderation and cooling are essential processes in the operation of a
nuclear power reactor using thermal neutrons. For each process, name a
suitable material that is used to achieve the required effect, and state why it is
suitable.
(b) (i) moderation
(b) (ii) cooling
Solution:
(i) The material that slows down the neutrons is called a moderator. One
commonly used moderator is ordinary water.
(ii) The water has high specific heat capacity which can be used to carry
away the heat by water flow.

15. Fig. 15.1 shows the apparatus in which particles are directed at a metal
foil in order to investigate the structure of the atom.
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(a) () Give two reasons why the metal foil should be thin.
Solution:
(1) To prevent too many o particles from being absorbed.
(2) To make the o particles be scattered only once.
() Explain why the incident beam of particles should be narrow.
Solution:
(1) In order to have a small collision area to reduce the uncertainty in the
scattering area.
(2) To make the scattering angle be determined accurately.
(b) Describe and explain one feature of the distribution of the scattered
particles that suggests the nucleus contains most of the mass of an atom.
Solution:
(i) The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus as it
provides a strong enough repulsion to cause backscattering of the o
particles.
(ii) The nucleus contains most of the mass of the atom for it to be massive
enough to backscatter the o particles.
(c) Fig. 15-2 shows three o particles with the same constant velocity
incident on an atom in the metal foil. They all approach the nucleus close
enough to be deflected by at least 10.

Draw on Figure 2 the paths followed by the three particles whose initial
directions are shown by the arrows.
Solution:
Top ray: showing at least 10deflection upwards.
Middle ray: approaches closer than about 1 cm but not touching nucleus and
is backscattered.
Bottom ray: smooth curve deflected downwards at an angle greater than the
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top ray is deflected upwards.

16. Monoenergetic o particles, directed normally in a parallel beam at a
thin metal foil in a vacuum, are scattered at various angles.
You may be awarded additional marks to those shown in brackets for the
quality of written communication in your answer to parts a, b and c of this
question.
(a) (i) Explain why the incident o particles should be in a narrow beam.

(a) (ii) the metal foil should be very thin to prevent too many o particles
from being absorbed.
State another reason for using a very thin metal foil.
Solution:
(i) In order to have a small collision area to reduce the uncertainty in the
scattering area.
(ii) To make the o particle be scattered only once.
(b) Describe the angular distribution of the scattered o particles coming
from the foil.
State the scattering angles at which the number of o particles will be a
maximum and a minimum.
Solution:
(i) The maximum number of o particles occurs at zero scattering angle.
(ii) The minimum number of o particles occurs at 180 scattering angle.
(c) State and explain two deductions made from the scattering distribution
about the structure of the atoms in the foil.
Solution:
(i) The positive charge of an atom is concentrated in the nucleus as it
provides a strong enough repulsion to cause backscattering of the o
particles.
(ii) The nucleus contains most of the mass of the atom for it to be massive
enough to backscatter the o particles.
(d) On Fig. 16-1 complete the paths taken by the parallel monoenergetic o
particles which all come close enough to the nucleus to be deflected.
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{

Solution:
Top line: largest bend down with minimum radius of curvature closest to
nucleus.
Middle line: less bending down.
Bottom line: even less bending down.



Chapter 2 Fundamental particles
2.1 Particles, antiparticles and photons

2.2 Particle interactions
2.2.1 Electromagnetic force and Feynman diagram

2.2.2 The weak nuclear force and Feynman diagram

2.3 Properties of particles and antiparticles

2.4 Quarks and Antiquarks
2.4.1 Quarks and antiquarks properties

2.4.2 Quark combinations

2.4.3 Quarks and beta decays

2.5 45 Worked examples

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Chapter 3 Electromagnetic Radiation and Quantum Phenomena
3-1 The photoelectric effect


3-2 Collisions of electrons with atoms
3.2.1 The Bohr model and Energy levels

3.2.2 The emission and absorption of photons

3.2.3 Atomic spectrum

3.2.4 Fluorescent tube explanation

3-3 Wave-particle duality


3-4 42 Worked examples

Chapter 4 Operational amplifier (op amp)
4-1 differential amplifier
Differential amplifier has two inputs and one output. It amplifies the
difference between the two input voltages. (Fig. 4.1)
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Note:
(i) if , the output voltage 0
in
V V V
+
= > 0
out
V >
(ii) if , the output voltage 0
in
V V V
+
= < 0
out
V <
(iii) if , the output voltage 0
in
V V V
+
= = 0
out
V =
(iv) if only one input is in use (the other is at zero voltage), then
if the inverting input (or 0 V

> 0 V

< ), the output voltage (or

)
0
out
V <
0
out
V >
if the non-inverting input (or 0 V
+
> 0 V
+
< ), the output voltage
(or )
0
out
V >
0
out
V <
1.1 open loop voltage gain
For the Op amp above, the relationship between input voltage and output
voltage is given by
0 0
( )
out i n
V A V V A V
+
= =
Where
0
out
i n
V
A
V
= is called open loop voltage gain.
1.2 features of ideal Op amp (open loop)
has an extremely high voltage gain.
has a very high input impedance
has a very low output impedance
1.3 Graph for an open-loop op amp
In the Op amp, a supply with typically value 9V is required.
V
out
V
in
+V
supply
-V
supply
Linear amplification
saturation
saturation
Fig. 4.2 graph for an open-loop op amp

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Note:
(i) For the linear amplification, the out voltages are proportional to the input
voltages.
(ii) At the saturation region, the output is distorted and no longer proportional
to the input.
(iii) The output voltage can not exceed the supply voltage.
4-2 Negative feedback amplifiers
The open Op amp has an extremely high voltage gain; the output voltage is
easy saturated. In order to reduce gain, a resistor or wire linking the output to
one input is used, which is called closed loop.
An amplifier circuit uses a closed loop to feed back a set fraction of the
output voltage to the inverting input is called negative feedback.
Negative means that the signal being fed back partly cancels the input
signal.
2.1 Op amp as an inverting amplifier
The figure below shows an inverting amplifier

The closed-loop voltage gain is given by
f
f
i
R
A
R
=
2.2 op amp as a non-inverting amplifier
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The figure below shows a non-inverting amplifier

+
Supply +
Supply -
V
in
Output voltage V
out
0 V
(earth)
Op amp
A
Fig. 4.4non-inverting amplifier
Closed
loop
Feedback resistor
R
f
R
1
R
2

For the non-inverting amplifier, the closed-loop voltage gain is given by
1
1
f
f
R
A
R
= +
Note:
(i) A non-inverting amplifier has a much higher input impedance than the
inverting type.
(ii) For the above non-inverting amplifier, if or , output
voltage equals to the input voltage, and the voltage gain equals to 1:
1
R 0
f
R =
out in
V V = , 1
f
A =
The Op amp becomes a voltage follower, which can be used as impedance
matching.


4-3 Op amp as a comparator
3.1 The input signals ( ) goes to the non-inverting input, the reference
voltage ( ) goes to the inverting input. The diagram below shows the Op
amp as a comparator:
i n
V
R
V
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+
Q
V
R
V
in
V
out

If , , then
R
V V

=
i n
V V
+
=
in R
V V > , ;
0( ) out sat
V V = +
in R
V V < ,
0( ) out sat
V V =
The graph below shows the relationship between output voltage and input
voltage:
V
in
V
out
+V
0(sat)
V
0(sat)
V
R
0
Fig. 4.6output vs. input voltage

3.2 The input signals ( ) goes to the inverting input, the reference voltage
( ) goes to the non-inverting input. The diagram below shows the Op amp
as a comparator:
i n
V
R
V

+
Q
V
R
V
in
V
out

If , , then
R
V V

=
i n
V V
+
=
in R
V V > , ;
0( ) out sat
V V =
in R
V V < ,
0( ) out sat
V V = +
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The graph below shows the relationship between output voltage and input
voltage:

3.3 For example, Fig. 4.9 shows the application of comparator: the LED is
switched on and off automatically as the change of light intensity.
In figure 4.9, R
1
and R
LDR
are connected to be potential dividers; R
2
and R
3
is
potential dividers. Thus
1
1
1
S LDR
S
LDR
V R
V V
LDR
R
R
R R
+
= =
+
+

3
2
2 3
3
1
S
S
R V
V V
R
R R
R

= =
+
+

The LED is controlled by LDR, when the LDR is in bright light, it has a
lower resistance. Thus V , then V

>
+ 0( )
0
out sat
V V = < , the LED can not
conduct.
When the LDR is in dark light, t has a higher resistance. Thus
V V
+
>

, then
0( )
0
out sat
V V = + > , the LED conducts and lights up
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0 V
LDR
Indicator lamp
(LED)
R
1
R
LDR
R
2
R
3
R
4

+
Supply + (V
S
)
Fig. 4.9 application of comparator
Open loop

4-4 Summing amplifier
Summing amplifier: the output signal is amplified by the sum of input signal
with certain proportion.
Fig. 4.10 shows the summing amplifier and the relationship of output and
input:

(i) For two input signals, the relationship of output and input is given by
1 2
1 2
out f
V V
V R
R R
| |
|
\ .
= +
( )
1 2 out
V V V + = Note: if
1 2 f
R R R = = , then
(ii) For three input signals, the relationship of output and input is given by
3
3
1 2
1 2
out f
V
R
V V
V R
R R
| |
+
|
\ .
= +
( )
1 2 3 out
V V V V + + = Note: if
1 2 3 f
R R R R = = = , then

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4-5 10 Worked examples
1. The diagram below (Fig. 4.11) shows an amplifier circuit incorporating an
ideal operational amplifier (op-amp).

Fig. 4.11
The operational amplifier uses a +9 V / 0 / 9 V supply.
(a) Calculate the gain of the amplifier circuit.
Solution:
The figure above shows a non-inverting amplifier, the gain of the amplifier is
given by
1
10
1 6
2
1
f
f
k
k
R
A
R
O
= + =
O
= +
(b) Determine the output potential V
out
for values of input potential V
in
equal
to
(i) - 0.9 V
( )
6 0.9 5.4
out in f
V A V V = = = V
V
Solution:

(ii) + 2.0 V
( )
6 2.0 12.0
out in f
V A V V = = =

2. (a) On the axes below draw a sketch graph to show the variation with input
voltage V
in
of the output voltage V
out
of a non-inverting operational
amplifier.
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(b) A temperature warning device makes use of a buzzer that sounds when
the potential difference across it is 24 V. The circuit in the warning device is
shown in Fig. 4.12.

It is required that the buzzer should sound when the temperature of the
thermistor rises above 50C.
(i) State the voltage at point Q.
Solution:
12
A
V V = , , thus 12
B
V = V ( ) 12 12 ( 12) 12
AQ A Q Q
R
V V V V V V
R R
= = = =
+
V
Therefore, . 0
Q
V V =
(ii) At a temperature of 50C the resistance of the thermistor is R. Explain
why the buzzer will sound when the temperature rises above 50C.
Solution:
When the temperature rises above 50 the resistance of the thermistor falls
below R; The output voltage then saturates at 12 V giving the required
potential difference for the buzzer to sound.
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3. (a) Fig. 4.13 shows a circuit that uses an operational amplifier as an
inverting amplifier.

Fig. 4.13
The point P is a virtual earth, that is at the same potential (0 V) as the earth
line.
(i) State the two properties of the operational amplifier which make P a
virtual earth.
Solution:
Extremely high input resistance and high open loop gain.
(ii) In the circuit R
f
= 100 k and R
in
= 10 k. Calculate the gain of the
amplifier.
Solution:
100
10
10
f
f
i
k
k
R
A
R
O
= =
O
=
(b) Fig. 4.14 shows a circuit that uses an operational amplifier as a
non-inverting Schmitt trigger.

Fig. 4.14
In the situation shown, the potential at point X is 2.0 V and the output
potential V
out
is at its minimum value of 10 V. Show that for the output
potential to switch to its maximum value of +10 V
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(i) The current in the resistors R
1
and R
2
is 0.08 mA.
Solution:
( )
3
2
10 2
0.08
150 10
out X
V V
I mA
R

= = =

(ii) V
in
must rise to 5.8 V.
Solution:
From (i),
3 3
1
2 0.08 10 47 10 2 5.8
in
V IR V

= + = + ~

4. Fig. 4.15 shows a non-inverting amplifier circuit.

(a) Suggest why the amplifier is referred to as non-inverting.
Solution:
The signal goes into the non-inverting input.
(b) The input voltage for the amplifier in (a) is V
in
= 2.0 mV.
Calculate
(i) The gain G of the amplifier.
Solution:
For the non-inverting amplifier, the closed-loop voltage gain is given by
1
90
1 10
10
1
f
k
G
k
R
R
O
= + =
O
= +
(ii) The output voltage V
out
.
Solution:
10 2.0 20.0
out in
V G V mV m = = = V
(c) Fig. 4.16 shows a particular non-inverting amplifier.
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Fig. 4.16

Explain, in terms of the properties of an op-amp, why the gain of this
non-inverting amplifier is equal to 1.
Solution:
In diagram, the feedback resistance is equal to zero and the input is extremely
high, thus
1
0
1 1 1
f
G
R
R
= + =

= +
(d) Fig. 4.17 shows a circuit in which the battery has an emf of 6.0 V and
negligible internal resistance. Two 2.0MOresistors are connected in series to
the battery.
Fig. 4.17

(i) State the value of the potential difference between points A and B.
Solution:
The circuit current is given by
6
6 6
6.0
1.5 10
2.0 10 2.0 10
V
I A

= =
O+ O

V
, thus
6 6 6
2.0 10 1.5 10 2.0 10 3.0
AB
V I A

= = O =
(ii) A voltmeter of resistance 100 kOis used to measure the potential
difference across points A and B.
State why the reading on the voltmeter is not equal to the value stated in
(d)(i).
Solution:
The voltmeter has resistance and be connected in parallel to the R
2
. Thus the
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reading is less than 3.0 V.
(iii) The circuit in Fig. 4.17 is modified to include the circuit shown in Fig.
4.18.
Fig. 4.18

Explain why the voltmeter reads the value of the potential difference as stated
in (d)(i).
Solution:
R
1
and R
2
are potential divider, thus 3.0
A
V V = , that is 3.0
in A
V V V = =
3.0V
. For the
diagram 4, the voltage gain G = 1, therefore,
out in
V V = =

5. A student designs a circuit to give an output voltage, V
A
, of +5.0V when
the temperature exceeds a certain value. The incomplete circuit diagram is
shown in Fig. 4.19.

(i) Complete the circuit in Fig. 4.19 by adding a thermistor and a variable
resistor to allow the circuit to function correctly.
Solution:
When resistance of the thermistor changes as the temperature, the
non-inverting input changes, which can be used to control the output voltage.
(ii) State the purpose of the variable resistor.
Solution:
To set switching the resistance of the thermistor
(iii) If the circuit switches at a temperature of 40 C, calculate the value of
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the variable resistor. The characteristic curve of the thermistor is shown in
Fig. 4.20.
Solution:
The circuit switches at a temperature of 40 C, thus
20
30
V
th
R k
R k
O
=
O

And, in the figure 4, the resistance of thermistor 4
th
R k = O, thus
20 20
4 2.7
30 30
V th
k k
R R k
k k
O O
= = O =
O O
kO
Fig. 4.20


6. (a) For an ideal operational amplifier, state the value of
(i) The output impedance:
(ii) The input impedance:
(iii) The open loop gain:
Solution:
Features of ideal Op amp (open loop)
has an extremely high voltage gain.
has a very high input impedance
has a very low output impedance
(b) Fig. 4.21 shows an operational amplifier being used as a non-inverting
amplifier.
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Fig. 4.21

(i) Name the type of feedback used in this circuit.
Solution:
Negative feedback
Note: An amplifier circuit uses a closed loop to feed back a set fraction of the
output voltage to the inverting input is called negative feedback.
Negative means that the signal being fed back partly cancels the input
signal.
(ii) State one advantage of this type of feedback in an amplifier circuit.
Solution:
To reduce the distortion
(c) Calculate the value of the resistor R when
V
in
= 200mV
V
out
= 5.0V.
Solution:
For the non-inverting amplifier, the closed-loop voltage gain is given by
1
1
f
f
R
A
R
= +
And
3
5.0
25
200 10
out
f
in
V V
V V
A

= =

= , gives
1
25
100
1 1
f
f
R
k
A
R R
= =
O
= + +
R = 4.2 k




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38
Chapter 5 Relativity
5-1 basic assumptions of special relativity

5-2 relativity of time and space

5-3 Relativistic mass and mass-energy equation



5-4 9 Worked examples