SOLAR ENERGY

(An economic and pollution free solution for energy crisis)

PAPER PREPARED BY: I. Jyoshna

G.Madhuri B.Tech EEE B.Tech EEE Aitam, Tekkali. Aitam,Tekkali.

e-mail id:
ippili.jyoshna@gmail.com
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SOLAR ENERGY

ABSTRACT:
The energy consumption of a country is a measure of economic growth. The energy resources in our country are numerous. We are mainly depending upon fossil fuel which may deplete at the end of 21st century. The energy crisis is due to the increase in population and increasing living standards of human beings. Increase in population demands more energy for making work, more easily and effectively. To meet the energy crisis we have to go for alternative sources of energy like solar, potential. The power from sun interrupted by the earth is approximately 1.8 X 1011 MW. This is many thousands of times more than commercial energy sources on earth. The total worldwide power demand of all needs of civilization is 1013WATTS.So it is obvious that the sun gives 1000 times more power than we require. If we can use 5% of this energy, it means that we are going to use 50 times more than what is required. There are two main advantages regarding to solar energy that is freely available in adequate quantities in almost in allover the world and it is an environmentally clean source of energy from the above features we can say solar energy can supply all the present and future energy needs of the world on a continuing bases. There are various methods for solar energy utilization like thermal, Wave Ocean, biomass, water etc. among all these methods photovoltaic conversion is a direct method of conversion

of solar energy into electrical energy. When radiation falls on the PV cell it is absorbed and electron hole pairs are created. When external electric circuit is completed the electrons starts moving towards P-type terminal. The photovoltaic cell has no moving parts and it can convert light at room temperature into electric power.

INTRODUCTION: Photovoltaic cell: The energy conversion device which is used to convert sunlight to electricity by the use of photovoltaic effect is called Photovoltaic cell or Solar cell. Photovoltaic effect: The generation of an electromotive force as a result of the absorption of ionizing radiation is called Photovoltaic effect. Photovoltaic module: A number of solar cells electrically connected to each other and mounted in a support structure or frame is called a photovoltaic module. The photoelectric effect was first noted by a French physicist, Edmund Becquerel in 1839, who found that certain materials would produce small amounts of electric current when exposed to light. In 1905, Albert Einstein described the nature of light and the photoelectric effect on which photovoltaic technology is based, for which he later won a Nobel Prize.

Man has needed, used and depended on energy sources at an increasing rate for his sustenance and well being ever since his advent on to earth a few million years ago. Energy is the primary and most universal measure of all kinds of work human beings and nature. The standard of living of a given country can be directly related to per capita Energy consumption. REASONS FOR ENERGY CRISIS: Firstly, that the population of the world has increased rapidly and secondly, the standard of living of human beings has increased. If we plot a graph with economic growth Vs energy consumption, it will appear that energy consumption is a measure of economic growth. If we compare energy consumption of India with respect to the USA, USA (with 7% of the worlds population), consumes 32% of total energy consumed in the world, whereas in India (with 20% of the worlds population), consumes only 1% of worlds energy consumption. The percentage of energy consumption of various sources is as shown in :

If this present trend continues the conventional sources of energy may exhaust by the end of this century. This century is the peak fossil period with major contribution by coal, natural gas and petroleum. The present indications are that the reserves of oil and natural gas may consume in next fifty years and eighty percent of coal reserves may consume by 2050 A.D. The world energy demand is increasing rapidly. The world energy demand is shown in the Fig 1.2 by a graph:

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The energy consumption is increasing at a rate of 3 to 4% per annum. The reserves of convectional sources are depleting rapidly.. While fossil fuels are the main fuels for thermal power, there is a fear that they will get exhausted eventually in the next century at the present rate of consumption. To meet the energy crisis we have to

1. Improve the exiting energy conversion methods or 2. Conserve the presence source of energy or 3. Develop alternative sources of energy, specially the renewable energy sources replenished at rapid rate. Solar energy has the greatest potential of all sources of the renewable energy. The quantum of solar energy falling on 1Sqkm area is about 13, 80,000 KW. Intensity of solar energy on a sunny day is 1.12KW/M. It would be highly beneficial if such large quantum of energy is harnessed. CLASSIFICATION OF METHODS FOR SOLAR ENERGY UTILIZATION: There are various techniques involved in solar energy utilization. They are: such as solar, wind and tidal which are in exhaustible and can be

Solar energy utilization

Direct methods

Indirect methods

Therma l Fig 1.3

Photovoltaic

Water

Wind

Bio mass

Wave Ocean

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PRINCIPLE CELL:

INVOLVED

IN

PHOTOVOLTAIC

A Solar cell has two layers called N-type and Ptype and two corresponding electrodes, negative and positive. The N-type layer is thin and transparent. The Ptype layer is thick. When sunlight strikes the entire layer, some of the waves of light energy penetrate up to P-type layer. The energy from photons in the light waves is imparted in the molecules and atoms in the PN junction resulting in liberation electron-hole pairs. When external electric circuit is completed by connecting electrodes to the load, the electron flow in the closed external circuit from N type terminal to P type terminal. Current flows in the direct from the positive terminal to negative terminal. PN-junction: +

Fig 1.4 The region in the solar cell where the N-type and P-type Silicon layers meet is called PN-junction. The P-type Silicon layer contains more positive charges, called holes, and the N-type Silicon layer contains more negative charges, or electrons. When P-type and N-type materials are placed in contact with each other, current will flow readily in one direction (forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased).An interesting interaction occurs at the PN-junction of a darkened photovoltaic cell. Extra valance electrons in the N-type layer move into the P-type layer filling the holes in the P-type layer forming

what is called a depletion zone. The depletion zone does not contain any mobile positive or negative charges. Moreover, this zone keeps other charges from the P and N-type layers from moving across it..So, to recap, a region depleted of carriers is left around the junction, and a small electrical imbalance exists inside the solar cell. This electrical imbalance amounts to about 0.6 -6to 0.7 volts. So due to the PN-junction, a built in electric field is always present across the solar cell.

Fig 1.5 When photons hit the solar cell, freed electrons (-) attempt to unite with holes on the P-type layer. The PNjunction, a one-way road, only allows the electrons to move in one direction. If we provide an external conductive path, electrons will flow through this path to their original (P-type) side to unite holes. The electron flow provides the current (I), and the cell's electric field causes a voltage (V). With both current and voltage, we have power (P), which is just the product of the two. Therefore, when an external load (such as an electric bulb) is connected between the front and back contacts, electricity flows in the cell, working for us along the way. PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL:

f Fig 1.6 -7The photovoltaic cell (PV cell) offers a limitless and environmentally friendly source of electricity. Also called a solar cell, the PV cell is able to create electricity directly from Photons. General design criteria: 1. Initial materials have to be high chemical purity with consistent properties. 2. The cells must be mass produced with the minimum cost, but total control of the processes and high levels of precision must be maintained. 3. The final product has to have a lifetime of at least 20 years in exposed and often hostile environments. Even without concentration of the insulation. The cell temperature may range between -30 and +200 degree centigrade. Electrical contacts must be maintained and all forms of corrosions avoided. In particular water must be able to enter the fabric.

4. The design must allow for some faults to occur without failure of the complete system. Thus redundant electrical contacts are useful. The parallel and series connections between the cells must allow for some cells to become faulty without causing an avalanche of further faults. 5. The complete modules have to be safely transported, often to inaccessible and remote areas. CONSTRUCTION DETAILS: PHOTVOLTAIC CELL STRUCTURE:

a. Encapsulate b. Contact Grid c. Antireflective Coating (AR Coating) d. N-Type Silicon e. P-Type Silicon f. Back Contact

-8The majority of Photovoltaic cells are silicon semiconductor junction devices. These are first produced in 1954 and rapidly developed. A cell is made up of thin wafer provided with N-type and P-type doped silicon. Metal electrodes made from a Ti-Ag solder are attached to the top and bottom sides of cells. On the top side metal electrodes is in the form of metal grid with fingers which permits the sunlight to go through the bottom side, the

electrode completely covers the surface. An antifriction coating of silicon oxide is applied on the top surface. SLICE TREATMENT: The 300 micro meters to 400 micro meter thick slices are then chemically etched. A very thin layer of N type material is formed by diffusion of donors (e.g. Phosphorus) for the top surface. One method is heat the slices to 1000 0 C in a vacuum chamber into which is p205 passed, but more often the slices are heated in nitrogen with an addition of pcl 3. The rear surface may be diffused with Al to make a back surface field of p+ on P. On to this is laid the rear electrical metal contact as they relatively thick overall layer. The individual cells are then connected into modules of about 30 cells. The cells are sand witched in inert filler between a clear front cover and a backing plate. The cover sealing must be watertight under all conditions including thermal stress. The rear plate must be strong and yet present a low thermal resistance. Working: In Nineteen fifties the first solar cell were made from single crystal silicon. These single crystal silicon cells are thin wafer about 300m in thickness, sliced from a single crystal of P-type doped silicon. A function is formed by diffusing an N-type impurity at one end of the crystal metal electrodes made from Ti-Ag solders are attached to the front and back side of cell. On front side the electrode is in the form of metal grid which permits the sunlight to go through, while on other side the electrode completely covers the surface. An anti-reflecting coating of Sio, having a thickness of about 0.1m, and a thin transparent encapsulating sheet are also put on the top surface to complete the assembly. Whenever, the light rays are allowed to the surface of the cell, the semiconductor material will absorb

the energy of the photons of sunlight with this special feature of the semiconductor materials the pairs of negative and positive charges are rated. -9E=h C / =1.24/ h Plancks constant =6.62 X 10 -27ergs-sec C Velocity of light = 3 X 10 8 m/sec E Energy of photons (ev) Wave length (m) The energy absorbed by the cell and excites some of the electrons. The exited electrons jump access the band gap and hence electron-hole pairs are formed. The electrons in the conduction bond and holes in the valance bond are mobile. If a potential gradient exits with in the cell, the pairs of holes and electrons can be separated and made to flow through an external circuit. For this purpose only the cell is made by the sandwich of two types of silicon P-type and N-type. A typical cell develops a voltage of 0.5-1v and current density of 20-40mA/cm. In order to get high voltages and currents, individual cells are fixed side by side on a suitable backup board and connected in series (parallel) to form module. In term the number of modules are inter connected to form an array earlier these cells are used to be circular in sharp with diameter ranging from 6 to 15cm. Now they are often rectangular in shape resulting in more compact modules. PHOTOVOLTAIC GENERATION: SYSTEM FOR POWER

F r

o m U ti li t y F e e d e r

Solar Cell

Inverter Converter

Local Load

Battery Storage

Fig 1.8 -10The figure shows the photovoltaic system for power generation. The system consists of: 1. Solar array: It converts the isolation to useful DC Electrical power. 2. A blocking diode which allows power flow only towards the battery or grid without blocking diode the battery would discharge back the solar array during time of no isolation. 3. Battery storage is used to store solarly generated electric energy.

4. The inverter converts battery bus voltage to AC of frequency and phase to match That needed to integrate with utility grid. Thus it is typically DC, AC inverter. It may also contain a suitable output setup transformer, perhaps some filtering and power factor correction circuits and perhaps some power conditioning (i.e. circuit to initiate battery changing and to prevent over changing). 5. Appropriate switches are provided, to permit isolating parts of the system. 6. A breaker and fusing protection may incorporate utility rid to protect both the photovoltaic system and grid. between inverter output and

SWOT ANALYSIS: STRENGTHS 1. Unlimited potential. 2. Environmentally benign. 3. Decentralized energy option. 4. Favored option for sustainable development ensuring. 5. Naturally recycled resource base. WEAKNESSES 1. Capacity utilization lowers, because of low density and inconsistency of supply. 2. Financial viability favorable 3. Resources are usually of low density, requiring large areas space. 4. Energy availability is seasonal and intermittent. 5. Imposes a great demand on labour.

6. Costlier and more capital intensive than conventional energy systems. -11-

OPPURTUNITIES 1. Opportunity for rural electrification. 2. Easy to install standalone systems. 3. Cost of other inputs is also considerably less. 4. Fuel transportation costs eliminated. 5. Environment driven awareness. 6. Can be matched with scale of the need. THREATS 1. Closely linked with environmental concerns. 2. If social and environment costs are ignored, it cannot compete with conventional energy. 3. R & D efforts inadequate.

AN APPLICATION OF PHOTOVOLTAIC CELL:

PHOTO VOLTAIC WATER PUMPING SYSTEM:

-12The photo voltaic water pumping system consists of a solar cell array supplies power through a dc-ac converter to an electric motor coupled to a sub Mergible pump. The pump is installed below the water level of the bore well. Its discharge is connected through a delivery pipe. These pumping systems work on day times only. The PV system which has to supply power during evening and night times requires storage batteries to store the electric energy generated during day. These pumps are designed to pump water from depth of 20 to 100 meters and to supply 5000 to 50,000 liters per day. The practical power is delivered by photo voltaic cell is P=V X I power of one cell V= DC voltage at terminal of cell I= DC current delivered by cell. OTHER APPLICATIONS 1. Used in power generation Where, P=

2. Used in radiometry for detection of electromagnetic radiation. 3. Used in spectroscopy, optical communications etc. 4. Used in remote area power systems, Earth-orbiting satellites and space probes, consumer systems, e.g. handled calculators or wrist watches, water pumping applications. 5. Used in assemblies of solar modules (Photovoltaic arrays) connected to the electricity grid through an inverter. CONCLUSION : In the present trend of depletion of fossil fuels and their sour effects on environment, there is no doubt that the photovoltaic cell is definitely a clean substitute BIBLIOGRAPHY: 1. A journal of institute of engineers 2. A text book on Renewable Energy Sources John Twidell & Tony Weir 3. A text book on Non-conventional Energy Sources G.D. Rai 4. A text book on Renewable Energy Sources G.N. Tiwari & M.K. Ghosal 5. A text book on Non-conventional Energy Resources B.H. Khan 6. A text book on Solar Energy (Principle of Thermal Collection & Storage) S.P. Sukhatme