ASSIGNMENT QUESTION

(a)

There are three important components to teaching and learning biology. See Figure 1 below.

Scientific method

Scientific skills

Scientific attitudes and noble values

Figure 1 Give a brief explanation of each of the component. State THREE reasons why each component is important. (15 marks)

(b)

In the recent technology, specifically in genetic engineering, genes from other organisms are inserted into the DNA of a harmless bacteria. These bacteria were then be able to generate hormones that can benefit young children who are suffering from dwarfism. Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of this genetic engineering. What is your opinion regarding any issue related to genetic engineering? (15 marks)

[Total: 30 Marks]

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QUESTION (a) Give a brief explanation of each of these component. State THREE reasons why each component is important. a) Scientific Method b) Scientific Skills c) Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values a) Scientific Method The scientific method is a process for experimentation that is used to explore observations and answer questions. Scientists use the scientific method to search for cause and effect relationships in nature. In other words, they design an experiment so that changes to one item cause something else to vary in a predictable way. Just as it does for a professional scientist, the scientific method will help you to focus your science fair project question, construct a hypothesis, design, execute, and evaluate your experiment.

Diagram 1: The overview of Scientific Method

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Steps of the Scientific Method Ask a Question: The scientific method starts when you ask a question about something that you observe: How, What, When, Who, Which, Why, or Where? And, in order for the scientific method to answer the question it must be about something that you can measure, preferably with a number. Do Background Research: Rather than starting from scratch in putting together a plan for answering your question, you want to be a savvy scientist using library and Internet research to help you find the best way to do things and insure that you don't repeat mistakes from the past. Construct a Hypothesis: A hypothesis is an educated guess about how things work: "If _____[I do this] _____, then _____[this]_____ will happen." You must state your hypothesis in a way that you can easily measure, and of course, your hypothesis should be constructed in a way to help you answer your original question. Test Your Hypothesis by Doing an Experiment: Your experiment tests whether your hypothesis is true or false. It is important for your experiment to be a fair test. You conduct a fair test by making sure that you change only one factor at a time while keeping all other conditions the same. You should also repeat your experiments several times to make sure that the first results weren't just an accident. Analyze Your Data and Draw a Conclusion: Once your experiment is complete, you collect your measurements and analyze them to see if your hypothesis is true or false. Scientists often find that their hypothesis was false, and in such cases they will construct a new hypothesis starting the entire process of the scientific method over again. Even if they find that their hypothesis was true, they may want to test it again in a new way. Communicate Your Results: To complete your science fair project you will communicate your results to others in a final report and/or a display board. Professional scientists do almost exactly the same thing by publishing their final report in a scientific journal or by presenting their results on a poster at a scientific meeting.

Why Scientific Method is Important?

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The great advantage of the scientific method is that it is unprejudiced: one does not have to believe a given researcher, one can redo the experiment and determine whether his/her results are true or false. The conclusions will hold irrespective of the state of mind, or the religious persuasion, or the state of consciousness of the investigator and/or the subject of the investigation. Faith, defined as belief that does not rest on logical proof or material evidence, does not determine whether a scientific theory is adopted or discarded. A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing powers of the proponent, but on the results obtained through observations and/or experiments which anyone can reproduce: the results obtained using the scientific method are repeatable. In fact, most experiments and observations are repeated many times (certain experiments are not repeated independently but are repeated as parts of other experiments). If the original claims are not verified the origin of such discrepancies is hunted down and exhaustively studied. When studying the cosmos we cannot perform experiments; all information is obtained from observations and measurements. Theories are then devised by extracting some regularity in the observations and coding this into physical laws. There is a very important characteristic of a scientific theory or hypothesis which differentiates it from, for example, an act of faith: a theory must be ``falsifiable''. This means that there must be some experiment or possible discovery that could prove the theory untrue. For example, Einstein's theory of Relativity made predictions about the results of experiments. These experiments could have produced results that contradicted Einstein, so the theory was (and still is) falsifiable. In contrast, the theory that ``the moon is populated by little green men who can read our minds and will hide whenever anyone on Earth looks for them, and will flee into deep space whenever a spacecraft comes near'' is not falsifiable: these green men are designed so that no one can ever see them. On the other hand, the theory that there are no little green men on the moon is scientific: you can disprove it by catching one. Similar arguments apply to abominable snow-persons, UFOs and the Loch Ness Monster(s?). A frequent criticism made of the scientific method is that it cannot accommodate anything that has not been proved. The argument then points out that many things thought to be impossible in the past are now everyday realities. This criticism is based on a misinterpretation of the scientific method. When a hypothesis passes the test it is adopted as a theory it correctly explains a range of phenomena it can, at any time, be falsified by new experimental evidence. When exploring a new set or phenomena scientists do use existing theories but, since this is a new area of investigation, it is always kept in mind that the old
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theories might fail to explain the new experiments and observations. In this case new hypotheses are devised and tested until a new theory emerges. There are many types of ``pseudo-scientific'' theories which wrap themselves in a mantle of apparent experimental evidence but that, when examined closely, are nothing but statements of faith. The argument, cited by some creationists that science is just another kind of faith is a philosophic stance which ignores the trans-cultural nature of science. Science's theory of gravity explains why both creationists and scientists don't float off the earth. All you have to do is jump to verify this theory - no leap of faith required. b) Scientific Skills To be able to perform the above operations, a scientist must possess some skills. According to Opong (1981), the skills to be learnt or acquire to be able to do science are: 1. To observe - That is, they are able to use the sense organs to examine nature. They do this with as many senses as possible and as the phenomena demand. 2. To identify problems - ability to identify discrepancies in the observed phenomena or objects. 3. To communicate their ideas with others - ability to describe observations to others and use diagrams, charts and graphs. 4. To formulate hypothesis ability to make an intelligent guess based on the observation made.
5. To design experiments - to find scientific explanation for the observation. 6. To ask questions. 7. To control variables.

8. To measure and use numbers 9. To keep records 10. To analyse data 11. To make inference 12. To formulate operational definitions 13. To make predictions 14. To classify Scientific skills relate to experiences in the social, biological, and physical sciences. The most popular current application of scientific skills involves the applications of computers.
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Scientific skills include:

Laboratory Work (experiences you have had in a science or computer lab) Report Writing (writing scientific reports based on data collected in a study) Research (researching a problem in the library or a database and writing a report based on the findings) Computers (knowledge of various hardware, e.g., recommending a computer purchase for a group you're involved with, installing a software system on your personal computer)

Software (experience with software programs, e.g., word-processing, e-mail, graphic presentations, spreadsheet calculations, and database entry/editing) Systems (understand the operation of organizational, technical, and social systems) Troubleshooting (solving hardware/software problems with computers and telecommunications systems)

Diagram 2: The overview of Scientific Skills over the manipulative skills c) Scientific Attitudes and Noble Values

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Apart from acquiring scientific skills, scientists should develop certain attitudes in order to use the processes or methods. Opong (1981:12) explained that: it is the possession of the skills and attitudes necessary for the usage of the scientific process and the possession of the knowledge acquired through the process that make a person a scientist. These attitudes, according to James (1995), include honesty, open-mindedness, patience, curiosity, humility and scepticism. According to Abdullahi (1982), through science teaching certain social ethics and values such as honesty, rationality, objectivity and making judgement on the basis of reliable information can be developed in our youths. He also listed open-mindedness, curiosity and an optimistic approach to failure as values that are closely related to scientific training. These attitudes are very important for all citizens. Why Scientific Skills and Scientific Attitudes are Important? The National Policy on Education advocated educational opportunity for all citizens irrespective of cultural background, sex and disability. Huebner, Lucci, Malore and Olson (1986) argued that science should be recognised as a fundamental component in the education of all children including the Visually-Impaired. The attitude of most people to the teaching of Science to the blind has been negative. This according to Harwood (1973) as cited by Ojo (1994) is due to the general feeling that it is an impossible task. It is too dangerous, and even if it is possible of what use win it be to the blind? From all indications, these feelings are wrong. A lot of inventions and discoveries as made by man affect the living conditions of all men (normal or disabled). The VisuallyImpaired as an integral part of the society are affected by these achievements. Tunnicliffe (1987), cited in Ojo (1994), argued that Science opportunity for the children with special educational needs are often restrictive, sometimes non-existent. This is quite unfortunate. Science is not only for scientists. It is not a myth and is certainly not against God. Scientific knowledge is needed to achieve greater understanding of God and His work. Aminu (1979) contended that the individual and societal objectives are as easy to achieve without science as it is to play "Hamlet" without the prince of Denmark. Akale (1992), Abang (1980) and Balogun (1981) opined that the Visually-Impaired should be taught science to be able to provide meanings to environmental changes. Thus, they call for a programme of science education for all citizens.

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Science affects the child in the totality of his environment. Since the visually impaired are a heterogeneous group of people, their needs will vary but, nonetheless, they should be encouraged to make the best possible use of then* senses to be able to understand the world. In this wise they need science education than their sighted peers. According to Lomas (1992), technology plays an important role in curriculum access for many children with a visual impairment. Choate and Rakes (1992) observed that the content and skills of science are the substance of a science programme, and the two can and should be manipulated to meet the needs of the particular learners. The content and skills are interrelated. The content of a science programme is the knowledge to be acquired while the skills of science provide the means to master the particular content, utilize that knowledge meaningfully and then continue to acquire and apply the knowledge beyond the content presented. Going over the skills listed, all are necessary for the Visually-Impaired than the sighted. For example the skill of making prediction will help a visually impaired to visualise phenomena he cannot see and predict the outcome of such events. According to Openg (1981), facts are easily forgotten but skills and attitudes remain with the learner. So if children of today are equipped with the tools for scientific search for knowledge, they will be able to use these tools to deal with ideas and discoveries not yet made. The skills and strategies for learning the content are equally, if not more important than some of the actual content. Scientific skills and attitudes are more necessary to prepare visually impaired children for independent successful living as adults in and sighted world. The visually handicapped, according to Todd (1986), may need specialised materials and equipment to acquire information readily available to students who are not visually handicapped. Fitzgerald (1988:17) observed that: many children feel inadequate because of lack of reading and writing skills, but for science they can make a real contribution as long as they are observant, aware and able to contribute practical suggestions. The visually impaired children need science education to be able to imbibe all the scientific attitudes earlier listed. These attitudes are necessary for individuals so as to change the unprogressive habits and beliefs among many citizens. According to Abdullahi (1982), through understanding of basic natural laws and principles science can contribute to die happiness of children and adults by liberating their minds from fears arising from lack of deep understanding of natural forces. In this wise pupils living in a culture that is surrounded by the products of science need science education not only to obtain certificates but also to be able to adjust to technological devices
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as they affect their lives daily. Visually-Impaired children use talking clock, talking tape, talking calculator, etc. These aids help them a lot. They therefore need science education to understand and use the aids well. Fafunwa (1967:5) submitted that scientific attitude can be acquired as a way of life in the same way as socialism capitalism; communism and the like are injected into some societies as a way of living.

QUESTION (b)

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In the recent technology, specifically in genetic engineering, genes from other organisms are inserted into the DNA of a harmless bacteria. These bacteria were then be able to generate hormones that can benefit young children who are suffering from dwarfism. Discuss the advantages and drawbacks of this genetic engineering. What is your opinion regarding any issue related to genetic engineering?

Introduction The genes present in the body of all living organisms helps determine the organisms habits. Genetic engineering is defined as a set of technologies that are used to change the genetic makeup of cells and move the genes from one species to another to produce new organisms. The techniques used are highly sophisticated manipulations of genetic material and other biologically important chemicals. Genetic engineering in its present form has been around for approximately 25 years. It has also been a very hotly debated topic from its beginning in 1970s. There are many social consequences that are associated with genetic engineering that makes the overall risk or benefit assessment very complicated. Almost every day, a scientist makes a new breakthrough in the field of human engineering. Mammals have been successfully cloned and the human genome project has been completed. This is pushing the scientists all over the world to research many different facets of human genetic engineering. These researches have allowed a better understanding of DNA and its role in medicine, pharmacology, reproductive technology and various other fields. In humans, the most promising benefit of genetic engineering is gene therapy which is the medical treatment of a disease wherein the defective genes are repaired and replaced or therapeutic genes are introduced to fight the disease. Over the past decade, many autoimmune and heart diseases have been treated using gene therapy. Certain diseases like the Huntingtons disease, ALS and cystic fibrosis is caused by defective genes. There is hope that a cure for such diseases can be found by either inserting the corrected gene or modifying the defective gene. Eventually, the hope is to completely eliminate genetic diseases and also treat non-genetic diseases with appropriate gene therapy. Advantages
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Thanks to genetic engineering, the pharmaceutical products available today are far superior to their predecessors. These new products are created by cloning certain genes. Some of the prominent examples are the bio-engineered insulin which was earlier obtained from sheep or cows and the human growth hormone which was earlier obtained from cadavers. Genetic engineering is also a boon for pregnant women who can choose to have their fetuses screened for genetic defects. These screenings can help the parents and doctors prepare for the arrival of the child who may have special needs during or after the delivery. A possible future benefit of genetic engineering which is very eagerly awaited is that a fetus with a genetic defect could be treated with genetic therapy even before it is born. Research is going on for gene therapy for embryos before it is implanted into the mother via in-vitro fertilization. The field of agriculture too greatly benefits from genetic engineering which has improved the genetic fitness of various plant species. The common benefits are increase in the efficiency of photosynthesis, increasing the resistance of the plant to salinity, drought and viruses and also reducing the plants need for a nitrogen fertilizer. Here is a list of some of the most upfront benefits of genetic engineering:

Genetic engineering when used on microorganisms help in the creation of new pharmaceuticals which cannot be made in any other way. Genetic engineering helps in the process of bioremediation which is the process of cleaning up waste and pollution with the help of living organisms. Genetic engineering has helped lower the overall usage of herbicide and pesticide. Genetic engineering has helped with the production of vaccines and other drugs in plants. Genetic engineering has helped produce quicker and more predictable way of generating new cultivars. Further, the cultivar properties are better known today than it was ever known before.

Today, genetic engineering can produce sustainable agriculture. Genetic engineering has produced very useful genetically modified breeds which can tolerate factory farming without any suffering. In humans, genetic engineering is used to treat genetic disorders and cancer. It also helps in supplying new body parts.
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Although, this has not been done today, genetic engineering has the potential of creating new types of human beings with many advantageous traits. Disease could be prevented by detecting people/plants/animals that are genetically prone to certain hereditary diseases, and preparing for the inevitable. Also, infectious diseases can be treated by implanting genes that code for antiviral proteins specific to each antigen.

Animals and plants can be 'tailor made' to show desirable characteristics. Genes could also be manipulated in trees for example, to absorb more CO2 and reduce the threat of global warming.

Genetic Engineering could increase genetic diversity, and produce more variant alleles which could also be crossed over and implanted into other species. It is possible to alter the genetics of wheat plants to grow insulin for example.

Disadvantages Of course there are two sides to the coin; here are some possible drawbacks and disadvantages.

Nature is an extremely complex inter-related chain consisting of many species linked in the food chain. Some scientists believe that introducing genetically modified genes may have an irreversible effect with consequences yet unknown.

Genetic engineering borderlines on many moral issues, particularly involving religion, which questions whether man has the right to manipulate the laws and course of nature.

My Opinion Regarding Issue of Genetic Engineering

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The application of genetic engineering on human beings relates to the controlled alteration of all the genes in the human chromosomal. Deoxyribonucleic acid, otherwise known as DNA, is responsible for the genetic characteristics for every living organism. It can influence the individual's physical appearance, actions and abilities. Now with the advance of DNA technology, scientists are able to change the gene expressions and the individuals' abilities, cognitively, communally or physically. With these, I will analyze the pros and cons of human genetic engineering by presenting two sides of an argument and my personal opinions on the topic itself. Genetic engineering is use to repair damages or replace the missing genes in those who have genetic disorders in the form of gene therapy otherwise known as somatic. This state of genetic engineering can help lessen many genetic disorder problems, such as severe combined immunodeficiency, cystic fibrosis and so on. The process of somatic undertakes a non- pathogenic virus system. The good copy of the individual's genesis been inserted into liposome, which are the microscopic fatty droplets. The new cells would separate as normal cells and each division would stimulate the destined cells trait. The result of the procedure would be that the individual would then have the gene cells that were absent previously. Personally, I think this trade of genetic engineering is useful as it helps those who have genetic disorders and make them better. This can lead to an improved future for them, as they do not feel isolated from the society because of their health problems. On the contrary, genetic disorders only represent a small fraction of the ill health burden. Despite this figures, a large disproportionate amount of research funding is being spend on gene therapy protocols, yet however in spite of many years of research, none of the protocols have so far succeeded. Adenoviruses, a type of pathogenic attenuated vectors are use to transfer genes into patients. In this case, the genes may experience an unflavoured manner as it combines with wild type versions of viruses in the body and this generally results to further complications. It can weaken the patient or even can lead to fatal. This gene therapy has already resulted one death from their use. Even though it can be great achievements on patients with disorders of genetic, I feel that it is unnecessary for researchers to invest a large amount of money for the therapy protocols. These huge sums can help those who are hungry, homeless and so on. DNA resulting from gene-splicing is use in genetic screening that is to test the patient's genomes for gene distinguishes which might later result to genetic disorders. This procedure is also tested on unborn babies for the sign of mongolism, also known as Down's syndrome. These abnormal chromosomes resulting to mental deficiency, slanted eyes and
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short broad hands, cause this disease. Any unwanted fetuses can be aborted hence it will gradually decrease the undeliverable population traits. Gene screening can also be carried out on embryos produced for in vitro fertilization, IVF. This method will save implanting embryos with undesired characteristics for example the gender of the baby. Soon, parents might be able to create babies designed to meet their own wishes. Sperms and eggs from intelligent and attractive people are already offered for sale on the Internet. This means that by genetically extract the right DNA from the sperms and eggs, scientist will be able to design a perfect human being of the parents' desires. Although this manner of proceeding will result to the decrease number of unwanted babies and help those who are infertile in the form of IVF, I feel that designer babies is not morally right as the individual would be an instrument of the parents' desires and reflects their vanity and selfishness self. An argument to follow my opinion is as follow. IVF procedure is highly wasteful of eggs, sperms and embryos. Hundreds are needed for one successful implantation. Each and every one of the embryos has a potential to be a full human beings. So, is it morally right for parents to kill the numerous amounts of unwanted embryos just because they do not qualify the parents' desire? Surely not. This treatment could lead human beings to be egotistical and only care about one's self. In addition, Down's syndrome children are often regards as a gift in their families. These special children are grateful of their lives and they also propose opportunities for family members to learn and develop the skills and knowledge which they might not developed previously. Also how the society that we live in changes its attitude as it accepts those people with essential needs and disabilities. Experimentally, gene therapy is being applied to treat cancer. Cancer is the major class of diseases in the total burden of ill health. The advantage of this procedure is that it only aims at the cancerous cells therefore avoiding collateral damage to other tissues on the surrounding by the chemical therapies and current radiation. This technique is effective as it prevents any further complications on the patients as it only targets on the damage cancerous cells. Also, the patient will be least affected by the radiation. If gene therapy is approved and could be done widely, it will reduce the amount of patients with cancerous problems. Conversely, cancer is influenced by the environmental circumstances as food, water, lifestyle and carcinogenic chemicals in air, by tackling these factors, we will be able to reduce the numerous amount of cancer rather than using the technology of gene therapy. Also, whilst removing the cancer growth, the doctor might not observe the underlying causes of the cancer and as a result, a tumor will formed. It will take another chemical therapy to
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remove it and therefore it just creates more problems and money is needed to pay for the treatment. Therefore, I generally feel that it is a waste of time, effort and money to try to reduce the major class of diseases when it can be done through the everyday lifestyles of the individuals that is by looking after their health diet.

Conclusion In conclusion, I would consider that genetic engineering has its advantage and disadvantages. It can help those with genetic disorders and treat cancer in a form of gene therapy. It is also useful for infertile parents who wished to have a child of their own. On the other hand, it makes human beings to become selfish. Just a tiny error can cause a fatal result on the patients and can lead to death. On the whole, I feel that genetic engineering is morally right thing to do if is done in a well manner with careful concentration and without selfishness. I believe that designer babies and cloning is morally wrong as it is an act of egoism and manifest.

References

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Abang, T. B. (1981). Educating Mentally Retarded and Gifted Children in Nigeria. Jos: Organisation of Children with Special Needs. Abdullahi, A. (1982). Science Teaching in Nigeria: Uorin: Atoto Press Limited. Akale M. A (1992). Integrated Science Programme Constraints and Prospects in Nigeria Schools. The Nigerian Teacher Today, 1 (2) 96 -101. Amen, C. (1991). Science and Technology for the Citizenry Consideration for the Handicapped. The Journal of Special Education and Rehabilitation 1 (2) 183 -190. Aminu J. (1979). Science and National Development. Journal of the Science Teachers Association of Nigeria 17 (3) 14 - 21. Choate, J. S. Rakes A. T. (1992). Science and Health Detecting and Correcting Special Needs. Fafunwa, A. B. (1967). New Perspectives in African Education Lagos: Macmillan and Co. Nigeria Ltd. Fitzgerald, J. (1988). Curiosity with a purpose. Special Children 16 (2) 16-18. Huebner K. A. James T. (1995). Encouraging Chance Discovery in Science education in Nigeria. Zaria Journal of Educational Studies, 1(3)80-84. Lomas, J. (1992) Using tbe Skills of the Peripatetic Teacher of the Visually Impaired. Eye Contact (2). Ojo, J. A. (1994) The Teaching of Science to the Visually Impaired Students in Secondary Schools. Journal of Issues in Special Education 2 (2)46-49.

Opong, I. K. (1981) Science Education in Primary Schools: Toe product of Science or the way to Science. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 19 (2) 9 - 17.
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Taiwo A. A. (1981) In Search of a Feasible Strategy for the Inculcation of Scientific Attitude in the African Society. Journal of Science Teachers Association of Nigeria, 19 (3) 9 14. Todd, J. H. (1986) Resources, Media and Technology in School, G. T. (Ed) Foundation of Education for Blind and Visually Handicapped children and Youth: Theory and Practice. New York: American Foundation for the Blind.

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