Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Date: January 2009
Client: Galway County Council
Project code: NGB05
N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site E2046, an enclosure
ditch and cemetery in the townland of Carrowkeel, Co. Galway
Volume I
By: Brendon Wilkins and Susan Lalonde
Excavation no.: E2046
Director: Brendon Wilkins
NGR: 159326/223949
RMP No.: GA097‐066
Date: January 2009
Client: Galway County Council
Project code: NGB05
N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site E2046, an
enclosure ditch and cemetery in the townland of Carrowkeel, Co.
Galway
Volume I
By: Brendon Wilkins and Susan lalonde
Excavation no.: E2046
Director: Brendon Wilkins
NGR: 159326/223949
RMP No.: GA097‐066
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Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
CONTENTS PAGE
Vol I.
1 Summary 4
2 Introduction 4
3 Site description and location 5
4 Aims and methodology 5
5 Results 5
The natural deposits 6
Phase 1: features pre‐dating the main enclosure and cemetery 6
Phase 1 ditches 6
Phase 1 discrete features 7
Phase 2: the main enclosure and associated features 7
(excluding the cemetery)
Phase 2: the cemetery 14
Cemetery Phase 1 (c.650 – 850) 14
Cemetery Phase 2 (c.850 – 1050) 15
Cemetery Phase 3 (c.1050 – 1250) 15
Cemerty Phase 4 (c.1340 – 1450) 16
Phase 3: Linear cultivation, later agricultural and natural 16
features
6 Discussion
Settlement/cemeteries 16
Funerary practices 18
Segregated burial in the early medieval period 19
7 Archive 20
8 References 21
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Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
List of Figures
Figure 1 Location map of the excavation enclosure site at Carrowkeel E2046
Figure 2 RMP extract of GA097‐066 indicating the enclosure site at Carrowkeel
Figure 3 Overall site plan of the enclosure site at Carrowkeel E2046
Figure 4 Sections of the main enclosure ditch feature (1023)
Figure 5 Section of Phase 1 enclosure ditch feature (1015)
Figure 6 Section and plan of post‐hole feature (1051)
Figure 7 Section and plan of kiln feature (1292)
Figure 8 Sections of cemetery ditch features (1260) and (1359)
Figure 9 Sections of cemetery ditch feature (1260) and (1359)
Figure 10 Section of Phase 1 enclosure ditch feasture (1020)
Figure 11 Metal artefacts
Figure 12 Local medieval pottery
List of Plates
Plate 1 North‐facing section of ditch feature (1020) with fill 1021, Slot 2
Plate 2 Southeast facing section of ditch feature (1020) showing additional deposites (1369)
and (1370) slot 1
Plate 3 North facing section of pit feature (1050)
Plate 4 Southeast facing section of cooking pit feature (1292)
Plate 5 East facing section of main enclosure ditch feature (1023) Slot 1
Plate 6 South facing section of main enclosure ditch feature (1023) Slot 8
Plate 7 North facing section of main enclosure ditch feature (1023) showing considerable
slumping, Slot 8
Plate 8 Southeast facing section of main enclosure ditch feature (1023) truncating ditch
feature (1015) Slot 5
Plate 9 East facing baulk showing buried soil horizon and leaching in bank
Plate 10 Ditch feature (1023) and bank, Slot 16
Plate 11 West facing section of ditch feature (1260) Slot 6 and (1359) Slot 5
Plate 12 East facing section of ditch feature (1475) Slot 1
Plate 13 Working shot of modern pit feature (1375)
Plate 14 Working shot of possible furrow feature
Plate 15 main enclosure ditch featue (1023) and modern pit feature (1375)
Plate 16 Modern pit feature (1375)
Plate 17 Working shot, main enclosure ditch (1023), facing north
Plate 18 Working shot, main enclosure ditch (1023), facing north
Plate 19 Aerial view of northern ditches
Plate 20 Aerial view of northern ditches
Plate 21 Skeleton 27
Plate 22 Skeleton 49, with quartz
Plate 23 Skeleton 119
Plate 24 Skeleton 126
Plate 25 Skeleton 72, within 1260
Plate 26 Skeleton 82, tightly crouched
Plate 27 Skeleton 52
Plate 28 Skeleton 107
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List of Tables
Table 1: Main enclosure ditch (1023) described by ditch slot number
Appendices
PAGE
Appendix 1 Context Register 23
Appendix 2 Finds Registers 55
Appendix 3 Sample Register 60
Appendix 4 Bone Sample Register 64
Appendix 5 Photographic Register 70
Appendix 6 Drawing Register 82
Appendix 7 The Lithic Assemblage by Torben Bjarke Ballin 90
Appendix 8 Pottery Report by Niamh Doyle 94
Appendix 9 Soil Sample Assessment by Susan Lyons 96
Appendix 10 Human Remains Report by Susan Lalonde 99
Appendix 11 Phased skeletal catalogue 150
Appendix 12 Point‐Biserial Correlation for Sexual Diamorphism 155
Appendix 13 Different Diagnosis 156
Vol II.
Appendix 14 Faunal Remains Report by Auli Tourunen 160
Appendix 15 Faunal Remains Data 201
Appendix 16 Radiocarbon Dates 297
Appendix 17 General Site Matrix
Appendix 18 Cemetery Matrix
Appendix 19 Enclosure Ditch Matrix
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Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
1 Summary
This report presents the results of archaeological investigations carried out on behalf of Galway
County Council as part of Contract 2 Archaeological investigations prior to the commencement of
construction on the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme. The work was undertaken under Ministerial
Direction number A024 in the Townland of Carrowkeel, Co. Galway.
Contract 2 pre‐construction testing on this site in 2005 (Wilkins 2006) located the enclosure ditch that
was listed as RMP site GA097‐066 and identified on an archaeological geophysical survey
(ArchaeoPhysica 2004). This was undertaken by machine stripping 2000 square metres and it was
ascertained that the enclosure ditch was of considerable depth and of high archaeological potential.
The bank associated with the ditch was also discovered to be partly preserved under an upstanding
drystone field wall in the south‐west sector of the enclosure. Other discrete and linear features
suggested the site warranted full archaeological excavation.
Full archaeological excavation was conducted on this site between September 2005 and January 2006.
A further 1500 square metres was stripped of topsoil by machine. Subsequent excavation revealed a
multiperiod enclosure and cemetery site, the main phase of which was represented by a large ditch
approximately 65 m x 47 m with remnants of a substantial internal bank, some of which was
fortuitously preserved beneath a 19 th‐century drystone field boundary. The interior south‐east
quadrant of the enclosure had been used as a cemetery and four separate phases of burial activity
were recognised. Though much less substantial than the main enclosure ditch, an earlier phase of
enclosure was represented by a sequence of ditches forming what appeared to be an entranceway
leading onto the brow of the hill. A number of discrete pits, one of which produced three pieces of
late Neolithic struck chert, were also identified in the northern part of the site and could be associated
with this phase. A later phase of plough furrows was recorded across the site.
2 Introduction
Works were carried out along the route of the proposed N6 Galway to East of Ballinasloe national
road scheme, between the townlands of Doughiska in County Galway and Beagh in County
Roscommon. The proposed road will consist of approximately 56 km of dual carriageway, a 7 km
link road from Carrowkeel to Loughrea and approximately 23 km of side roads. There will be four
grade‐separated junctions, 36 bridges and a toll plaza, located at Cappataggle.
The main archaeological investigations were divided into four contracts, based on four sectors of
approximately equal extent. The work described here was undertaken under Archaeological
Investigations Contract 2. Contract 2 covered a stretch of road development of approximately 13.2 km
of dual carriageway and 7 km of single carriageway, and passed to the south of Athenry and
Kiltullagh in a generally east‐west direction. The project was funded by the Irish Government and the
European Union under the National Development Plan 2000—2006. Headland Archaeology Ltd was
commissioned by Galway County Council to undertake the works. RPS compiled an Environmental
Impact Survey of the route in 2005 and an aerial survey was also undertaken. A geophysical survey
was conducted by Archaeophysica in 2004. On the basis of findings from this work Contract 2
Investigations commenced in September 2005.
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3 Site description and location
The site was situated on the western brow of a long, low, east/west ridge in a landscape of gently
undulating low glacial hills. The site overlooked a valley to the west along which the road route runs.
It was located at NGR 159326/223949, in the townland of Carrowkeel, 7 km from Loughrea, at
chainage 25550—25620. It was recorded in the Sites and Monuments Record (GA097‐066) as an
enclosure, and it featured clearly on the First Edition OS map (sheet 72), but had since been subject to
extensive ploughing and was no longer visible as an upstanding earthwork. The site was less than 1
km from an extensive early medieval settlement complex (GA097‐068) also in the townland of
Carrowkeel, and 2 km from medieval churchyards at Kiltullagh to the northwest (GA097‐114) and
Tooloobaun to the south (GA097‐148).
4 Aims and methodology
The objective of the work was the preservation by record of any archaeological features or deposits in
advance of the proposed road construction.
Topsoil stripping of the site was conducted using a 360° tracked machine fitted with a 1.9 m wide
ditching (toothless) bucket under archaeological supervision. A total area of 3500 square metres was
exposed. The resulting surface was cleaned and all potential features investigated by hand.
Archaeological contexts were recorded by photograph and on record sheets. Plans and sections were
drawn at an appropriate scale. Context, finds, sample, bone, photograph and drawing registers are
provided in the Appendix. Ordnance Datum levels and feature locations were recorded using
penmap and an EDM. Environmental samples were taken on any deposits suitable for analysis or
dating.
Three main phases of activity were recognised: an early sequence of ditches and discrete cut features
possibly of prehistoric date (Phase 1), the main enclosure and associated cemetery (Phase 2) and a
phase of linear cultivation features outside the enclosure (Phase 3). These are discussed in sequence
below.
5 Results
The main enclosure at Carrowkeel comprised a large ditch and remnants of a substantial internal
bank, probably constructed in the seventh or eighth centuries and attributed to Phase 2. Originally the
enclosure probably encircled the brow of the hill, but approximately one third of it and an unknown
portion of the cemetery remained beyond the limit of the excavation. A small number of post‐holes
were identified in the north‐west of the enclosure but these could not be unequivocally assigned to
the main phase of enclosure and probably pre‐dated its construction (Phase 1). In the absence of clear
structural evidence associated with the main enclosure, general indicators of settlement included a
large animal bone assemblage, pits, two cooking pits, and iron slag recovered from ditch features.
Near the centre of the enclosure, but in its eastern half, was a cemetery which had probably been used
from the seventh to the fifteenth centuries. This was attributed to Phase 2 and although a general
continuity was observed in the burial evidence, a separate sequence of four cemetery sub‐phases was
defined on the basis of grave cut truncation and radiocarbon dating. A total number of 132 skeletons
were excavated but as the incidence of burials increased towards the edge of the excavation, it is safe
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to assume that the cemetery originally extended beyond the limit of excavation, possibly extending
over the brow of the hill.
The natural deposits
The site was situated on a limestone ridge, covered with a limestone derived till consisting of
calcareous silts, stony sand and clays with a highly mixed and variable character. A number of areas
of dense silty clay and clay were uncovered during topsoil stripping. These were examined and
determined to be naturally occurring, constituting variations in the glacial till. The orange colouration
of the silty‐clays and clays suggests that these deposits contain more iron or have iron in a higher
oxidation state than the majority of the surround till. The topsoil soil in the cemetery area was
extremely shallow. Some loss of topsoil in this area can be accounted for by soil creep and plough
wash, but the depth also reflects the fact that these graves were originally topsoil burials placed just
below the contemporary ground surface. This also accounts for why many burials often have no
identifiable grave cut, and in other cases only a slight cut into the sub‐soil was observed. The absence
of grave cuts is explicable in terms of ongoing processes of reworking in the topsoil, particularly
through earthworm activity.
Phase 1: features pre‐dating the main enclosure and cemetery
Though much less substantial than the main enclosure ditch, an earlier phase was represented by a
sequence of ditches. A number of discrete pits, one of which produced three pieces of undiagnostic
but possibly late Neolithic struck chert (Ballin 2007), were also identified in the northern part of the
enclosure and could be associated with this phase. These artefacts could also have been residual finds
indicative of a general ‘background noise’ of prehistoric activity, and although the sequence of Phase
1 ditches were truncated by the main enclosure, this could have occurred soon after silting, in which
case both phases may be early medieval.
Phase 1: Ditches
The early ditches (1015), (1020) and (1022) were located to the north of the main enclosure ditch.
Ditches (1015) and (1020) may represent an enclosure ditch forming an entrance onto the brow of the
hill, and ditch (1022) was possibly associated with this phase of enclosure, forming a secondary
barrier to the entrance ditches. The full extent of ditch (1015) was uncertain within the interior of the
main Phase 2 enclosure (1023), but it was clearly truncated by it. It may originally have extended
further south, but if so this section may have been shallower due to outcropping of bedrock at the top
of the hill and may subsequently have been adversely affected by the relatively deep plough
truncation in this area. It measured 1.95 m wide, 0.67 m deep and 11 m long. Two primary deposits of
red brown silt were noted at the base (1016 and 1018). The main fill was a mid to dark brown silt
(1017) with inclusions of approximately 35% small stones. A small gully (1535), 1.2 m long, 0.6 m
wide and 0.32 m deep, was associated with this ditch. It was filled by orange‐brown silty clay (1536)
of moderate compaction.
In conjunction with (1015) just described, ditch (1020) formed a possible entrance onto the brow of the
hill. It was V‐shaped in plan, 1.8 m wide and 0.6 m deep, and extended east‐west for 12 m before
turning sharply to run north‐south for 10 m. It was filled by a mid‐brown silty sand (1021) containing
a large quantity of stones, animal bones and charcoal. A weathered piece of medieval pottery
(E2046:1302:001) of a local, oxidized fine orange fabric was recovered from this feature, but its
abraded nature and position close to the surface of the feature suggested it was residual. Ditch feature
(1020) appeared to be truncated by the Phase 2 main enclosure ditch (1023) although at this point it
was very shallow and the area was disturbed by a large modern pit (1375). This modern pit truncated
the inside edge of the main enclosure but extended no further.
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Linear feature (1022) was L‐shaped in plan and was located to the north‐east of (1020) and (1015),
running west‐east for 15 metres before turning south and continuing in that direction for 7 metres. It
had sloping sides and a concave base that was almost V‐shaped in section to the western end but
flattened out considerably towards the eastern end. Deposit (1316) was light brown silty clay within
ditch (1022) and contained small stones, charcoal and animal bone inclusions. It contained an iron
strap (E2046:1315:001) and during environmental processing of the samples, a small blue glass bead
was retrieved. A small linear feature (1372) extended east‐west on the northern side of the main
enclosure ditch (1023), although its precise relationship with earlier ditches could not be determined
due to similarities of deposits. It had sloping sides and a flat base and was 0.6 m wide and 0.15 m
deep. It was filled by deposit (1373) which comprised a mid grey‐brown sandy silt of firm
compaction with animal bone and stone inclusions.
Phase 1: Discrete features
A linear arrangement of six cut features was identified in the northwest quadrant of the main (Phase
2) enclosure on the brow of the hill. These features are described below in sequence. Due to their
shallow nature these features could not be characterised as either post‐holes or pits, although their
linear arrangment suggests the former. Moving from north to south, the first sub‐circular cut feature
(1051) was 0.75 m long, 0.63 m wide and 0.23 m deep. It was filled by mid‐brown sandy silt (1052),
with a moderate quantity of stone inclusions up to 0.2 m in size. A sub‐circular cut feature (1049) was
excavated south of this. It was 0.5 m in diameter and 0.06 m deep with shallow sides and a flat base. It
was filled by a deposit of black‐grey silty clay (1050), with occasional charcoal flecks and small
fragments of chert inclusions. A sub‐circular cut (1047) had steep sides and a concave base. It was
0.6m in diameter and 0.11m deep, and was filled by black‐grey silty clay (1048) with inclusions of
small stones, frequent charcoal flecks and burnt bone. An irregular sub‐circular cut (1057) with
irregular shallow sides and a concave base was excavated adjacent to this feature. It was 0.5m in
diameter and 0.11 m deep and filled by black‐grey silty clay (1058). Cut feature (1045) was sub‐
rectangular with shallow sides and a flat base. It was uneven and only 0.05 m in depth and 0.4 m in
diameter. It was interpreted as a post‐hole in alignment with other features even though it was
rectangular, uneven and very shallow. It was filled by a dark grey silty clay (1046) of moderate
compaction with stones and occasional charcoal flecks. A sub‐oval cut (1053) was in alignment with
these features, but was likely to have been a natural feature.
Three pieces of black chert were recovered from a sub‐circular cut feature (1051). These artefacts were
not strictly diagnostic, but were the product of a well‐controlled flake industry supporting a date in
the late Neolithic (See Ballin Appendix 7). These included a secondary hard‐hammer flake, with an
untrimmed platform edge (30 x 28 x 8 mm), a proximal section of tertiary hard‐hammer flake (23 x 23
x 4 mm), and a tertiary irregular or multi‐directional core (24 x 19 x 19 mm). Although all these
features were assigned to Phase 1, they could equally be contemporary with the main enclosure, with
chert incorporated into earlier fills as residual material. A rim fragment characteristic of Carrowkeel
ware (E2046:1001:001) was also recovered from the topsoil (Doyle 2006). It consisted of a reduced
buff‐grey coloured fabric, with frequent black and red small stone and occasional mica inclusions,
and may also be indicative of generalised low level Neolithic activity.
Phase 2: The main enclosure and associated features (excluding the cemetery)
The main enclosure ditch (1023) was truncated by the line of the proposed road and continued
around the contour of the hill. There were three main sub‐phases recognized in the ditch and bank
sections (Phases 2a, 2b and 2c). In the eastern portion of the enclosure three contemporary ditches,
(1260, 1359, 1475), served to partially delineate the cemetery area, separating it from the rest of the
site. The similarity of the fills of these features, their parallel construction and the lack of truncation
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suggested that they were contemporary rather than successive phases of recut. A number of discrete
but undated features were also identified as most likely belonging to the occupation phase of the
enclosure.
The main feature of Phase 2 was a U‐shaped ditch (1023) with the partial remnants of an internal
upcast bank (Fig. 2, Pl. 2). It measured approximately 65m by 47m and was situated in a commanding
position at the top of the hill overlooking a valley and the surrounding landscape. The enclosure
continued around the brow of the hill and was truncated by the line of the proposed road scheme,
with approximately a third of the enclosed area beyond the limit of excavation. The enclosure ditch
was on average 1.5m deep and 3m wide at the top and was excavated by a series of 16 slots 2m in
width (slots are described sequentially below in Table 1). There were no breaks in the ditch indicating
an entrance, although this may lie in the unexcavated part of the site. The upcast bank was partly
preserved by a much later drystone field wall that respected the line of the bank for a short distance
in the southern part of the site.
The main deposits filling ditch (1023) were fairly uniform and variations were accounted for by
changes in the natural subsoil through which the ditch had been cut (Fig. 2). The three main sub‐
phases recognized in the ditch and bank sections are as follows. After the construction of the ditch
(Phase 2a), a thin layer of silt and unconsolidated natural subsoil was washed into its base (Phase 2b).
The primary silting began soon after construction, as the upcast bank began to slump back into the
ditch. The presence of slump material on both sides of the ditch indicates that unconsolidated
material eroded from the sides of the ditch as well as from the internal bank. Following this initial
slumping the ditch stabilized into an S‐shaped profile, consolidated by a possible vegetation layer
(Phase 2b). This was followed by a final phase when the ditch was deliberately backfilled with large
stones and boulders, probably as a result of field clearance (Phase 2c).A series of small, isolated, burnt
patches was identified in the upper topsoil deposits filling the ditch but proved too diffuse to section
properly. They were often discovered against, or near to, the outside of the ditch cut, particularly
around the north and northeastern parts of the ditch. These features were interpreted as temporary
hearths located within the depression formed by the partially silted ditch, which may have been
chosen because it would act as a windbreak.
Ditch Deposits Dimensions: Description Interpretation
Slot Length (L)
No. Width (W)
Depth (D)
1 1076 D 0.2 m Dark grey brown silty Phase 2a: primary silting.
1091 D 0.17 m sand Phase 2b; internal slump.
1090 D 0.15 m Orange brown sandy silt. Phase 2b; internal slump.
Dark orange brown sandy
1092 D 0.9 m silt. Phase 2b; external slump.
1093 D 0.45 m Mid grey brown sandy Phase 2b; disturbed,
silt. possible animal burrowing.
1029 D 0.53 m Grey brown sandy silt. Phase 2c; backfill.
Grey brown sandy silt.
1a 1402 D 0.3 m Mid brown grey silt. Phase 2a; primary silting.
1401 D 0.15 m Light grey brown silty Phase 2b; external slump.
1400 D 0.30 m clay. Phase 2b; internal slump.
1399 D 0.55 m Light brown silty clay. Phase 2c; backfill.
1398 Mid brown silty clay. Phase 2c; backfill.
Mid brown silty clay.
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House mice bones (Mus Musculus) were recovered from processed soil samples originating from a
context in the main enclosure ditch at the interface between Phase 2b and 2c. They were radiocarbon
dated to cal. AD 860 –1020 (GU‐15327) and cal. AD 670 – 890 (GU‐15326). Because mice are burrowing
animals it cannot be assumed that these ranges accurately date Phases 2b and 2c, but this possibility is
strongly supported by the fact that these date ranges are broadly contemporary with Cemetery
Phases 2 (below). The house mouse tends to live near to human population and do not dig deeply
into the ground, so there is every possibility that these bones derive from animals contemporary with
the main phase of occupation within the enclosure. In addition, these ranges are of intrinsic
significance. The arrival of this species in Ireland was assumed to date to the Norman period making
the Carrowkeel mice the earliest securely dated example (See Appendix 11).
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Phase 2: the cemetery
A clearly defined cemetery area was excavated in the eastern half of the large enclosure. It was
partially delimited by three slightly curving parallel ditches, (1260, 1359, 1475), which (within the
excavated area) extended from the south side of the cemetery to its eastern end. Here they terminated
leaving the north‐east and north‐west sides of the cemetery unenclosed. These ditches bounded the
cemetery in an area where the underlying topography took a pronounced slope. The division of this
area from the rest of the enclosure indicates an internal separation of activities, with no burials
extending beyond these ditches to the south‐east.
Two discrete features were excavated in the cemetery area, which could have been structural,
although no clear pattern could be discerned. An oval post‐hole (1229) was recorded adjacent to the
limit of excavation, truncated by the Cemetery Phase 2 burial of Skeleton 32. It contained a single bird
talon, but no other finds. Close to this a second oval post‐hole (1279) was recorded, truncated on the
south side by the Cemetery Phase 1 burial of Skeleton 49. These features were identified close to the
limit of excavation, and they raise the possibility that there was a structure in this area during
Cemetery Phase 2.
The human remains assemblage represented a total of 158 individuals; a minimum number calculated
from both articulated burials (132 individuals) and disarticulated bone (26 individuals). The burials
can be split into four cemetery phases over 800 years from the seventh to fifteenth centuries. Phasing
of the cemetery was undertaken using a combination of stratigraphic analysis and radiocarbon dating
of 40 individuals. Table 1 shows the distribution of adults and non‐adults across the cemetery
population. In this case, ‘Juvenile’ covers age categories from younger child to adolescent, 6 to 18
years at death (Appendix 4).
Cemetery Phase 1 (c.650 – 850)
At sometime between c. AD 650 and 770, ditch (1260) was dug at the eastern extent of the burial
ground, forming a curving boundary to this part of the cemetery. This was the largest of the three
ditches delimiting the cemetery area, with steep sides and a concave base, a maximum width of 2.46
m and maximum depth of 1 m. A consistent deposit sequence was observed although slight variation
in the composition of fills was recorded. The primary fill (1368) was identified in all sections. It was
rapidly deposited soon after construction as the sides of the freshly cut ditch weathered. This was
followed by secondary deposit (1353) that had gradually accumulated through the natural silting of
the ditch and surrounding ground surface over time. The carcasses of at least eleven sheep were
buried within the basal fill (1368). The colouration of the ends of long bones indicates that they were
articulated when buried, probably placed longitudinally, although there was some degree of post‐
depositional disturbance (Appendix 1). Any cutting of the bodies prior to deposition was likely
intended to make the bodies easier to transport rather than for consumption.
The adolescent remains of Skeleton 72 were also interred within ditch (1260), deposited as the feature
was beginning to silt‐up. The burial was partially cut into the silting deposit (1353) and the north‐
western section of the ditch terminus. This burial also cut the interface between this ditch and the
smaller ditch (1359). This individual was buried in a flexed position and dated to cal. AD 676 – 870
(UB‐7425) . Following this burial, the ditch continued to silt and Skeleton 33 (cal. AD 857 – 991 (UB‐
7482)) was interred directly above the south‐western end. Other Cemetery Phase 1 burials (Skeletons
42 and 52) were also interred over both ditches (1260) and (1359). Cemetery Phase 2 Skeleton 13, 14,
and 71 also utilised the ditch area once both ditches had fallen out of use. However, even then the
remnants of the ditches were probably visible and continued to be perceived as the boundary of the
cemetery for no interments took place outside the southeast edge of ditch (1260).
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A smaller ditch (1359) ran parallel to ditch (1260) (Fig. 1). It had steep sides with a concave base and a
maximum depth of 0.44 m. The function of this ditch was difficult to determine, as it was very close to
the larger ditch feature (1260) and comparatively very narrow. One possibility is that it formed the
foundation trench for a palisade fence, although no post‐holes were discovered within it. Ditch
feature (1475) was located 3 m south of these two ditches and further down slope. It also terminated
at the eastern end of the cemetery. It had a V‐shaped profile, was 1 m wide and 0.5 m deep, and the
primary deposit (1477) had accumulated as a consequence of slumping of upcast material and
colluvial erosion. The secondary deposit (1476) was likely to be the result of stones and gravel
accumulating at the base of the plough soil in the depression of the ditch, probably due to
bioturbation and worm action. The similarity of fills and the lack of intercutting stratigraphy made
the relationships between these three ditches difficult to determine. The presence of Cemetery Phase 2
burials directly above ditches (1359) and (1260) suggests that these ditches may be contemporary. It is
possible that ditch (1475) is a replacement cemetery boundary, dating to Cemetery Phase 2, but this is
not supported by any dating evidence.
The Cemetery Phase 1 assemblage totals 37 individuals (28% of the whole), 22 of which were
radiocarbon dated. Just over 70% of the individuals from Cemetery Phase 1 are non‐adults. This
group can be further subdivided into foetus (14%), perinate (8%), infant (16%), younger child (16%),
older child (11%) and adolescent (5%). Of the adults at Carrowkeel, Cemetery Phase 1 has 61% of the
total number, and almost 90% of the females. Of those burials for which it could be assessed, the
majority (76% n= 28) were orientated northeast‐southwest. Body position was recorded for 31
individuals; 71% (n=22) were supine extended while the remaining 29% (n=9) were found to be flexed.
The majority of the flexed burials were non‐adults, aside from Skeleton 51 and Skeleton 119, both
adult females.
Cemetery Phase 2 (c.850 – 1050)
The second cemetery phase dates from the mid‐ninth to the mid‐eleventh century. The largest part of
the assemblage, this cemetery phase contains 75 individuals, 93% (n=73) of which are non‐adult. The
only adult remains present were Skeleton 90 and Skeleton 105, both male. Cemetery Phase 2 contains
the largest proportion of very young children. Of these, 64% were below one year of age at death
(foetus 27%, perinate 7%, neonate 4% and infant 27%). Younger children made up 16%, and 12% were
older children. The excavated portion of the cemetery appears to be used almost exclusively for the
burial of non‐adults in this period. Body position was more varied than in Cemetery Phase 1. This is
probably linked to the higher number of non‐adults, who show more differention in their burial
positions than the adults. In total, 44% (n=33) were buried supine extended, 1% (n=1) crouched and
21% (n=16) flexed. One infant, Skeleton 50, was buried flexed and prone, the only burial of its type in
the cemetery. The crouched burial of a younger child, Skeleton 84, is also unique in the assemblage.
As in Cemetery Phase 1, the majority of burials were orientated northeast‐southwest. Four
individuals, Skeletons 10, 17, 18, and 34, were truncated by later agricultural activity in the form of an
east‐west furrow.
Cemetery Phase 3 (c.1050 – 1250)
It appears that the cemetery began to fall out of use during the latter part of Cemetery Phase 3, dating
from the mid‐eleventh to the mid‐thirteenth century (Table 4; Fig. 7). Only 18 individuals were
recovered from this phase, with a more even spread of age categories than in the previous cemetery
phases. This may indicate a shift in use of this portion of the cemetery towards a more ‘normal’ burial
population. Non‐adults still account for 78% (n = 14) of the Cemetery Phase 3, but they are older than
in Cemetery Phase 2, with only 44% (n = 8) below one year of age at death (foetus 17%, infant 28%).
No perinates, neonates or adolescents were recovered in this period. Burial orientation followed the
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Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
same broad pattern as Cemetery Phases 1 and 2, with 67% (n=12) orientated northeast‐southwest.
Body position was more uniform in this phase. Supine extended burials account or 50% (n=9) of the
group and 17% were flexed. The remaining 33% (n = 6) were disarticulated. East‐west furrow (1169)
also truncates two individuals in this period, Skeletons 46 and 47. Skeleton 46 was recovered
disarticulated within the furrow itself.
Cemetery Phase 4 (c.1340 – 1450)
Only two individuals belong to the final cemetery phase. One dates to the fourteenth century, while
the other dates to the fifteenth century. This may indicate a move away from this portion of the
cemetery, the discontinuation of use of the burial ground as a whole, or later burials unconnected
with the earlier cemetery phases. The very young age of both burials suggest that in this period the
site was used as a cillín.
Phase 3: Linear cultivation and later agricultural and natural features
A large oval pit (1375) truncated the main enclosure ditch during the final stages of silting. It had
concave sides and was 1m deep and 5m wide. The primary fill was predominantly silt and the
secondary fill was predominantly cobbles and large stones, the probable result of field clearance. A
series of parallel north‐south oriented linear cultivation features was identified outside the enclosure
to the north. They were generally 0.48 m wide and 0.08 m deep and 16 m long, with a concave profile
filled with orange‐brown silty clay. They respected the course of the main enclosure running up to
ditch but not continuing into the interior. The enclosure had been identified on the first edition OS
map dated to 1838 (sheet 72), though not on subsequent map surveys. These furrows repect the
enclosure and represent cultivation when the enclosure was still extant, sometime prior to the early
nineteenth century.
6 Discussion
The first phase of activity at Carrowkeel was represented by a sequence of ditches truncated by the
main enclosure ditch and a series of discrete pits. The ditches formed what appeared to be an earlier
enclosure, with an enterance onto the brow of the hill. One pit (1015) attributed to this phase
contained three lithics and they appeared to be from a secure context, with other chert finds recoverd
from the main enclosure ditch. The lithics were assessed by Torben Bjarke Ballin of Lithic Research
and comprised one concave scraper, two flakes, one multi‐directional core and two pieces with edge
retouch. They were of black chert which was of good quality, fine grained and with few planes of
weakness, resulting in excellent flaking properties. Black chert would have been local to Carrowkeel
although there was no evidence to suggest any working took place on site. The concave scraper
(E2046:1009:001) could possibly be dated to the Neolithic period. It should also be noted that lithics
were also recovered from the upper fill of the main enclosure ditch, although these are likely to be
residual finds indicative of a general background noise of prehistoric ativity.
These artefacts could also have been residual finds indicative of a general ‘background noise’ of
prehistoric activity. Although the sequence of Phase 1 ditches were truncated by the main enclosure,
this could have occurred soon after silting, in which case both phases may be early medieval. The
presence of the finds within the topsoil does, however, suggest Neolithic occupation here or at a
nearby location.
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Settlement/Cemeteries
The main enclosure at Carrowkeel (Phase 2) was probably constructed in the seventh or, less likely,
the eighth century. At this time a great number of enclosed settlements were being constructed in
Ireland. Most of them fall into one of two categories: ringforts and cashels which are secular
farmsteads of circular plan and ecclesiastical settlements, which often have larger, less regular but
usually curvilinear enclosures (e.g. Stout 1997, 14, 100; Swan 1983). Carrowkeel cannot be assigned to
either of these categories. Though structural evidence was limited, the large animal bone assemblage
suggests that it served as a settlement for a considerable period. Some 13631 specimens of faunal
remains were analysed by Auli Tourunen of Headland Archaeology Ltd. Bones were recovered by
hand‐picking during excavation, but the wealth of small animal information was recovered from
bones retrieved from the environmental soil sample processing. This highlighted the necessity to
sieve contexts containing faunal remains to avoid biases in the assemblage caused by hand picking
the bones.
The faunal remains overwhelmingly pointed to a domestic occupation of the site. It represented a
typical early medieval farmstead assemblage where cattle dominated the economy, although sheep
and pigs were also reared. Horse bones were also identified on the site, and a single goat core. There
were no signs of further carcass processing besides for consumption, and the low number of young
sheep and pigs may indicate animals were transported elsewhere. Carrowkeel did not have any
tannering or bone working, nor did it include any evidence of professional slaughtering. A pattern
was observed in the age range of cattle mandibles between Phase 1 and Phase 2. In Phase 1 the
mandibles derive from young and old animals, in Phase 2 all mandibles are from young animals. Pigs
and sheep were also more prevalent in Phase 2, along with more high utility skeletal elements and
more carnivore gnawing marks. One explanation of this data is that Phase 2 marked an increase in
wool production. A general change in subsistence strategy could have reflected the settlement
growing in complexity. The gnawing marks could be related to a higher number of dogs being kept.
Or the differences may just be changes in the locations of certain activities, as much of the enclosure
remained unexcavated.
Given that under two thirds of the enclosure was excavated, a question remains as to how
representative the recovered evidence is. A significant portion of the site lay beyond the line of the
proposed road scheme, and the location of possible structures in this area, especially towards the
brow of the hill, should not be ruled out. However, its overall morphology and the presence of a
cemetery rule out its classification as a ringfort. Its somewhat irregular shape is more reminiscent of
an ecclesiastical enclosure, and the position of its cemetery in the eastern half of the enclosure is also
paralleled in the majority ecclesiastical sites. Swan (1983, 274) defined ecclesiastical sites on the basis
of eleven attributes: evidence of enclosure, a burial area, normally in the southeast corner, a place‐
name with an ecclesiastical element, structural remains, a nearby holy well, a bullaun stone, a carved
or decorated stone cross or slab, a townland boundary forming part of the enclosure, a souterrain, a
pillar stone, a founders tomb, and a traditional ritual or folk custom. He further specified that at least
five of these are required. On this basis Carrowkeel would not qualify as an ecclesiastical site. The
absence of evidence for a church in particular means that it cannot be definitively classified as
ecclesiastical, though it is possible that a church stood in the unexcavated part of the enclosure.
Alternatively, Carrowkeel may belong to a group of sites recently recognised as a result of pre‐
development archaeology which are generally referred to as settlement/cemeteries (e.g. Clarke 2002;
Seaver 2006; O’Sullivan and Harney, 2008, 78‐84). In many respects these are similar to ecclesiastical
settlements but they appear to lack church buildings. The possibility that they were not ecclesiastical
sites is supported by documentary evidence which indicates that until at least the eighth century
some communities were not bringing their dead for churchyard burial, but continued to bury them in
non‐ecclesiastical family burial grounds (OʹBrien 1984; O’Brien 1999, 52). Compilers of the early
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eighth‐century Collectio Canonum Hibernensis were sympathetic to the continuing use of ancestral
burial grounds. It justifies the practice by citing the example of Jacob and Joseph who requested that
their bones be carried back from Egypt to the land of Canaan in order that they might be buried in the
tomb of their ancestors. However, increasingly monks, ecclesiastical tenants and sections of the wider
population were being encouraged to have their affiliation recognised in death through burial at
ecclesiastical sites (OʹBrien 1999, 52). Some ancestral burial grounds were unenclosed or partially
enclosed sites dedicated purely to burial, but others, the so‐called settlement/cemeteries, like
Johnstown, Raystown and Carrowkeel are within larger enclosures that were used for occupation as
well as burial. To date the vast majority of these have been identified in Leinster. Carrowkeel is
particularly significant as it is the first possible example excavated west of the Shannon.
The cemetery at Carrowkeel remained in use until the fifteenth century. The social conditions in
which the cemetery was established were very different to those that led to its eventual abandonment.
Both founding and abandonment represent breaks with tradition: a significant initial investment in a
new cemetery and an active decision not to continue to place the dead in the usual site of disposal
(Parker Pearson 1999). To focus discussion on the foundation of the site, Chrisitianity had already
become established as the dominant belief system by 600 AD (Edwards 1990, 99), so religious reasons
were unlikely to have been the only, or indeed the principal, motivation for the founding of
Carrowkeel. Possibly it was founded as a result of a family lineage breaking away from a larger kin
group. The prominence of Carrowkeel on a hill overlooking an area of known early medieval and
prehistoric activity (RMP: GA097‐068), may have influenced the choice of location for the main
enclosure. Another factor may have been the presence of earlier ditches and discrete features
predating the main enclosure, though the date, duration and character of this earlier phase of activity
remain unclear.
Notwithstanding the trend towards burial at ecclesiastical sites, it seems that a group at Carrowkeel
continued to bury their dead, or at least some of their dead, in a non‐ecclesiastical burial ground
throughout the early medieval period and beyond. They may have had pragmatic reasons for doing
so. The founding of the cemetery and its enduring use as a formal burial area was a deliberate
strategy by a group bound by familial and kinship ties to perpetuate their relationship with their
ancestors. The act of burial makes the remains of the dead a fixed part of the landscape, thereby
legitimizing the rights of the living to it (Parker Pearson 1999, 125). In a predominantly pastoral
economy based on a transhumance model of summer grazing (Kelly 2000, 43), the settlement
enclosure would also have helped to secure tenure of the surrounding land, and a seasonal habitation
may also explain the lack of substantial structural remains.
Funerary practices
The extent to which pagan or Christian religious beliefs can be seen to dictate burial custom at
Carrowkeel throughout this period is uncertain. The role of Christian ideology in the Irish early
medieval period can be usefully separated into two phases: an expansion period when the faith was
still a minority practice and not fully integrated, and a consolidation period when Christianity was
the dominant (but not exclusive) belief system (Mytum 1992, 60). The positioning of the body as a
supine west‐east inhumation is usually regarded as a Christian practice. This reflects the Christian
Belief that the dead will rise again, and an alignment with the orientation of the rising sun during
Eastertide (mid to late April) was preferred. A lack of grave goods is also interpreted as a changing
conception of the afterlife from a pagan to a Christian worldview.
Cross‐cultural surveys of burial practice also advise caution when applying generalizations: because
of the diverse nature of mortuary rites there will usually be divergences from the norm (Ucko 1969,
262). An analysis of the Irish excavation evidence indicates that Roman burial customs were adopted
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independently of Christianity, so there must be other supporting evidence to determine the religion
of an individual (Raftery 1981; Raftery 1984). The Carrowkeel burials were almost all uniformly
simple in nature with little evidence of lining of graves, grave markers or grave goods. Burial was in
accordance with Christian rites in a roughly east‐west orientation, although there were some startling
departures from the general pattern. Unusual burials included the flexed adolescent found at the
terminus of ditch (1260) from Cemetery Phase 1 (Fig. 4, Pl. 3), the tightly crouched adolescent from
Cemetery Phase 2 and the highly unorthodox ‘akimbo’ female burial, also from Cemetery Phase 2
(Fig. 4). The placement of these individuals in deliberately different burial positions may indicate that
some funerary rituals were the site of contested meaning, although the reasons why they were
accorded such treatment was not evident. No patterning in either age, sex or temporal and spatial
distribution could be identified, and no pathological conditions could be determined that would
singled these individuals out as different.
River‐rolled quartz and some animal bone were also found in a number of burials, which may
represent older non‐Christian practices retained by the population, though quartz pebbles are
commonly found in burials at early ecclesiastical sites (Cardy 1997, 556; White Marshall and Walsh
2005, 81) The pattern of quartz deposition does not vary greatly between the cemetery phases, nor
does there seem to be a significant trend in the inclusion of quartz with male, female or non‐adult
burials. The significance of the stone to Irish burial culture is not certain; quartz may symbolize the
soul of the dead, or light the way into the next world. Excavations in Wales have also found quartz
placed in graves dating from the early medieval period, and it has been suggested that the practice is
linked to a passage from Revelations which states ‘…give him a white stone, and in the stone a new
name written, which no man knoweth saving he that receiveth it’ (Revelations 2:17, quoted in
Holbrook 2004).
Segregated burial in the early medieval period
The cemetery consisted of four distinct sub‐phases, identified through stratigraphic analysis and a
programme of radiocarbon dating. The majority of burials (n = 75) were found in Phase 2 of the
cemetery, from 850 AD – 1050 AD. This is distinct in character from the earlier and later use of this
section of the cemetery, and seems to provide evidence for the deliberate spatial segregation of
children. Cillíní are essentially children’s burial grounds, common throughout Ireland but mainly
focussed in the Western counties such as Kerry and Galway (Dennehy 1997). They are known to have
been in use during the medieval and post‐medieval periods, but their origins remain obscure. Often
sited in visible monuments such as abandoned ringforts, tower houses and ecclesiastical ruins, they
have been described as a physical embodiment of limbo within the landscape. The development of
this practice is assumed to coincide with the twelfth century Church reformations, leading to the
establishment of the doctrine of limbo infantus (Finlay 2000, 408‐409).
Archaeologically, cillíní are recognised through the seemingly disorganised burial of very young
children within older monuments, often overlying more organised and formal burials. During
excavation it was assumed that the cluster of young children buried at Carrowkeel represented the
later, probably post‐medieval re‐use of the site as a cillín. The extensive programme of radiocarbon
dating undertaken on the remains showed this not to be the case, and generated questions about the
origin of the cillín tradition and how this may relate to the spatial segregation of children within early
medieval cemetery populations. It is possible that the separate burial of children in the early medieval
period was a common phenomnon across Britain and Ireland, one which had an influence on the Irish
tradition of cillín burial in later centuries.
While the separate burial of children in cillíní has been well‐documented for the later and post‐
medieval period in Ireland (Finlay 2000), there has been little evidence for the segregation of children
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Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
in the early medieval period, although in recent years, excavations at the Rock of Cashel and
Raystown, Co. Meath (Hodkinson 2003; Seaver 2006), have found separate clusters of non‐adults
within larger cemeteries. Clusters of child burials are often found within Anglo‐Saxon cemeteries, and
there does appear to be a Christian trend in early medieval Britain for the separation of young
children within cemeteries such as Raunds Furnells in Northamptonshire and Whithorn Priory in
Galloway (Boddington 1987; Cardy 1997). The pattern is also seen at other ecclesiastical sites in
Europe from the period ‐ Trondheim and Hamar Cathedrals in Norway for example (Lewis 2007, 30‐
33). The segregated burial of children has also been recognised at the Late Roman site of Cazzanello
in central Italy where a small group of perinate burials was found within the remains of a 4th century
AD bathhouse. This seems to form part of a wider Etruscan pattern which has been suggested as
precursor to the modern Italian practice of separate burial for foreigners and very young children
(Becker 2007, 290).
There is evidence for the segregation of certain groups during the medieval and post‐medieval period
at sites such as Relignaman, Co. Tyrone (Hamlin & Foley 1983) and St Ronan’s, Iona (O’Sullivan et al
1994), where the separate burial of women is connected to the presence of convents or chapels
dedicated to the Virgin. Defining conceptual divisions between the dead, therefore, may be a common
European practice which in some areas, especially in Ireland and Italy, develops into the practice of
establishing totally separate burial grounds for certain sections of society.
The Carrowkeel assemblage provides a securely dated example of the spatial segregation of children
in an Irish context. This spatial segregation of children in one section of the cemetery may be a
precursor to the later and post‐medieval cillín tradition which is now becoming better understood but
whose origins remain obscure (Finlay 2000). Recent excavations at Cloncowan II, Co.West Meath
(Baker 2007, 72) revealed an earlier ditched enclosure reused between the tenth‐ to thirteenth century
as a possible cillin. This corresponds to Carrowkeel cemetery Phase 3, and suggests an emerging
pattern. The work reported here should highlight the importance of extensive radiocarbon dating of
cemeteries, or areas within cemeteries, dominated by infant remains for it shows that we cannot
assume that these are post medieval cillín assemblages. Rather, like the Carrowkeel assemblage, they
may provide important new insights into the complex and potentially early origins of this
phenomenon.
7 Archive
The site archive is comprised of the following materials:
Item Quantities
sheets At least 600
Sample sheets 158
Registers 57
Photos 637
Plans 76
Sections 71
The archive material is contained within one box.
Storage of the archive in a suitable format and location is required in order to provide for any future
archaeological research. The archive is currently stored in the offices of Headland Archaeology, Unit
1, Wallingstown Business Park, Little Island, Co. Cork. It is proposed that following completion of
post‐excavation the archive is deposited with Galway County Council Archives.
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Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
9 References
ArchaeoPhysica Ltd. 2004. Archaeological Geophysical Survey Report. Unpublished report submitted to
Galway County Council.
Boddington, A. 1987. Raunds, Northamptonshire: analysis of a country churchyard World Archaeology
18 (3):411 ‐ 425.
Becker, M. J. 2007. Childhood among the Etruscans: mortuary programs at Tarquina as the indicator
of the transition to adult status. In: Cohen, A. & Rutter, J. B. (ed.) The Construction of Childhood in
Ancient Greece and Italy. Athens. 281 – 292.
Cardy, A .1997. The human bones. In: Hill, P. (ed.) Whithorn and St Ninian: the excavation of a monastic
town 1984 – 1991. Stroud. 519 ‐ 592.
Clarke, L. 2002. An early medieval enclosure and burials, Johnstown, Co. Meath Archaeology Ireland,
16 13‐15.
Dennehy, E. 1997. The ceallunaigh of County Kerry: an archaeological perspective. Unpublished MA
thesis, University College Cork.
Edwards, N. 1990. The Archaeology of Early Medieval Ireland. London: Routledge.
Finlay, N. 2000. Outside of life: traditions of infant burial in Ireland from cíllín to cist. World
Archaeology. 31 (3): 407 – 422.
Hodkinson, B.J. 2003. First draft final report on the Excavations at Cormac’s Chapel, Cashel 1992 and 1993.
http://homepage.tinet.ie/~dunamase/Dunamase.html Accessed 23.05.07.
Lewis, M. 2007. The Bioarchaeology of Children: Perspectives from Biological and Forensic Anthropology
.Cambridge.
Mytum, H. 1992. The Origins of Early Christian Ireland. London.
O’Brien, E. 1984. Late Prehistoric‐Early Historic Ireland: the burial evidence reviewed. Unpublished M.Phil.
Thesis, National University of Ireland, University College Dublin.
O’Brien, E. 1999. Post‐Roman Britain to Anglo Saxon England: burial Practices Reviewed. BAR British
Series 289. Oxford: Archeopress.
O’Sullivan, A. and Harney, L. 2008. EMAP: Investigating the Character of Early Medieval Archaeological
Excavations 1970‐2002. Report for the Heritage Council. Downloaded from
www.ucd.ie/t4cms/emap_report_january_2008.pdf.
Parker Pearson, M. 1999. The Archaeology Of Death And Burial. Stroud: Sutton.
Raftery, B. 1981. Iron Age Burials in Ireland. In O’Corrain, D. (ed.) Irish Antiquity. Cork. 173‐204.
Raftery, B. 1984. La Tene Ireland: problems of origin and chronology. Marburg.
21
Headland Archaeology Ltd: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2, E2046 Final Report
Seaver, M. 2006. Through the mill – excavation of an early medieval settlement at Raystown, County
Meath. In O’Sullivan, J. & Stanley, M. (eds.) Settlement , Industry and Ritual. Archaeology and the
National Roads Authority Monograph Series 3. Dublin. 73 – 88.
Stout, M. 1997. The Irish Ringfort. Cornwall: Hartnolls
Swan, L. 1983. Enclosed ecclesiastical sites and their relevance to settlement patterns of the first
millennium A.D. In Landscape Archaeology in Ireland. Reeves‐Smyth, T. and Hamond, F. (ed). BAR
British Series 116. 269‐280. Oxford: Archaeopress.
Ucko, P. J. 1969. Ethnography and the archaeological interpretation of funerary remains. World
Archaeology 1: 262‐90.
White Marshall, J. and Walsh, C. 2005 Illaunloughan Island: An Early Medieval Monastery in County
Kerry. Dublin.
Wilkins, B. 2006. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2.
Preliminary Report on archaeological investigations at Site A024/1, an enclosure ditch and cemetery in the
townland of Carrowkeel, Co. Galway. Unpublished technical report by Headland Archaeology Ltd. for
Galway County Council.
22
= CPO
Athenry
E2046
Galway
Reproduced from 2002 Ordnance Survey of Ireland 1:50,000 Discovery Series no 46,
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
0 100 m
= Excavated Area
0 250 m
cooking pit
1301
1022
Phase 1 1020
enclosure ditch Phase 3
1372
linear cultivation features
1015
1051
1535
post-holes 1049
1047
1375 1057
1023
1053
cemetery
1359
1260
1475
Phase 2
enclosure ditch
cemetery
1359
1260
0 4m
Enlarged schematic representation of cemetery
0 25 m
1030
1033 1071
1025
1026 1023 1034 1023
1032
Phase 2b Phase 2c
bone
1029 1034
Phase 2c Phase 2b burrow
1029
1035
Phase 2a 1024
1036
Section 27 1037
Phase 2a
E W Section 30
1030
W E
1023
1073 1030
1073 1023
1074 1079
1029 1075
1078
1077
1029
1076
1076
Section 33
Section 36
Section 30 NE SW
Section 27
Section 36
Section 33
1207 1211
1023
Section 85
1208 1210
1212
N
1209
0 10 m
0 1m
Section 85
= Location of sections
(triangles point to face of section)
Figure 4 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Carrowkeel E2046
Sections of main enclosure ditch 1023
Section 21
0 10 m
= Location of sections
(triangles point to face of section)
NE SW
1018
1017
1016
1015
Section 21
0 1m
1052 1051
0 0.5 m
Section 8
1051
0 0.5 m
Section 8
0 10 m
= Location of sections
(triangles point to face of section)
1293
1292
1294
1295
1297
1296 charcoal layer 1298 charcoal layer
1299
0 0.5 m
Section 123
1292
= Location of sections
0 1m
(triangles point to face of section)
1098
1360
1098
1359
1388
1367
1261
1260
1353
Section 182
1368
N 1253 1176 S
1360 1098
1388 1367
1359
1261
1260
1353
key
0 10 m charcoal
1360 1359
1098
1388
1367
1261
1260
1353
Section 169
1368
NW SE
1360 1098
1367
1359
1261
key
Section 170
Section 169 stone
N
1353 animal bone
1260
0 10 m charcoal
= Location of sections
(triangles point to face of section) 1368
0 0.5 m
Section 170
0 10 m
= Location of sections
(triangles point to face of section)
N S
1020
1370
Section 150
0 0.5 m
E2046:1029:001 E2046:1315:001
Metal Fragment Metal Pin
0 5 cm
E2046:1315:001
Metal knife
E2046:1001:001
Local Medieval rimsherd
E2046:1303:001
Local Medieval sherd
0 5 cm
Plate 2 - Southeast-facing section of Phase 1 ditch 1020, showing additional deposits 1369 and 1370, Slot 1
Plate 3 - North-facing section of pit 1050
Plate 8 - Southeast-facing section of main enclosure ditch 1023, truncating Phase 1 ditch 1015, Slot 5
Plate 9 - East-facing baulk showing buried soil horizon and leaching in bank
Plate 10 - main enclosure ditch 1023 and modern field wall overlying remnant of internal enclosure bank,
Slot 16
Plate 11 - West-facing section of cemetery ditches 1260, Slot 6 and 1359, Slot 5
Plate 20 - Aerial view of northern ditches, 1020, 1015, 1023, 1022 and furrows, facing North
Plate 21 - Skeleton 27
Appendix 1: Context Register
Context Type Description Interpretation
1000 Deposit Brown silty clay, including sod. Topsoil.
1001 Deposit Mid‐brown silty sand. Subsoil.
1002 Deposit Grey‐white stony sandy clay. Natural.
1003 Cut Diameter 0.70m, Depth 0.15m. Probable burrow. Phase 3.
Irregular in plan, irregular sides, irregular base.
Feature is in/under the bank of ditch (1023),
probable burrow except the fill (1004) contained
large amounts of charcoal.
1004 Fill Singular fill of probable burrow (1003). Fill of probable burrow.
Grey silty sand, few stones, frequent charcoal, very Phase 3.
loose compaction.
1005 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Green‐brown sandy clay, <5% stones, moderate
compaction. Basal fill. Found in slot 16.
1006 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Pale white‐brown sandy clay, no stones, moderate
compaction. Internal slump. Found in slot 16.
1007 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Pale green‐brown sandy clay, <5% stones,
moderate compaction. Internal slump. Found in
slot 16.
1008 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Pale brown‐orange sandy clay, large stones,
moderate compaction. Internal slump. Found in
slot 16.
1009 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Light brown stony silty clay, 80% stones, chert,
moderate compaction. Main fill. Found in slot 16.
1010 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Mid brown stony silty clay, 80% stones, moderate
compaction. Main fill. Found in slot 16.
1011 Fill Fill of enclosure ditch (1023). Fill of main enclosure ditch.
Orange‐brown silty clay, few stones, soft
compaction. Upper deposit. Found in slot 16.
1012 Fill Bank associated with enclosure ditch (1023). Bank associated with main
Grey‐brown silty clay, very few stones, animal enclosure. Phase 3.
bone, soft to moderate compaction. Below bank.
1013 Fill Bank associated with enclosure ditch (1023). Bank associated with main
Pale orange sandy clay, occasional stones, enclosure. Phase 2A.
moderate compaction. Upcast material for bank.
1014 Fill Bank associated with enclosure ditch (1023). Bank associated with main
White sandy clay, stones, moderate compaction. enclosure. Phase 2A.
Upcast material for bank.
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Appendix 2: Finds Register
Ceramic
Find Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
No.
E2046:1001:001 Ceramic Rim Small abraded rim sherd Headland 1
E2046:1303:001 Pottery Small fragment of plain Headland 1
earthenware pot, no
inclusions
E2046:1001:003 Pottery Modern pottery sherd Headland 1
E2046:1243:001 Pottery Pottery associated with Headland 1
Skeleton 48
E2046:1098:013 Pottery Post‐med Post‐med pottery Headland 1
E2046:1098:015 Pottery Post‐med Post‐med pottery Headland 1
E2046:1098:016 Pottery Post‐med Post‐med pottery Headland 1
Stone
Find Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
No.
E2046:1000:001 Stone Loom 5cm Diametermeter, circular Headland 1
weight
E2046:1175:001 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 33
E2046:1175:002 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 33
E2046:1175:003 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 33
E2046:1175:004 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 33
E2046:1175:005 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 33
E2046:1052:001 Stone Chert Scraper 3cm in length, chert scraper Headland 1
E2046:1052:002 Stone Chert 2.5cm in length, worked Headland 1
chert
E2046:1052:003 Stone Chert 2cm in length, worked chert Headland 1
E2046:1030:001 Stone Chert Scraper? 4cm in length, slot 8 Headland 1
E2046:1030:002 Stone Chert Worked chert, slot 2 Headland 1
E2046:1009:001 Stone Chert 3‐4cm in length, poss. Headland 1
worked chert
E2046:1254:001 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 52
E2046:1254::002 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 52
E2046:1254:003 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 52
E2046:1258:001 Stone Quartz Quartz pebble associated Headland 1
pebble with skeleton 57
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Metal
Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
Find No.
E2046:1217:001 Metal Fe Nail Rusted nail Headland 1
E2046:1217:002 Slag Fe Possibly 5cm Diametermeter Headland 1
smelting ‘honeycomb’ Fe slag,
slag possibly smelting
E2046:1098:001 Metal Fe 3cm x 2cm iron fragment Headland 1
E2046:1098:002 Metal Fe Nail Rusted nail Headland 1
E2046:1098:003 Metal Fe Nail Rusted nail Headland 1
E2046:1098:004 Metal Fe Nail Part of an iron nail Headland 1
E2046:1324:001 Metal Fe Nail Iron nail Headland 1
E2046:1030:002 Metal Strap Strap fragment with curved Headland 1
end and possible rivet
E2046:1261:001 Slag Fe Slag Headland 1
E2046:1261:002 Metal Fe Corroded Fe 7cm x 4cm Headland 2 in 1 bag
chunk & smaller chunk
E2046:1315:001 Metal Knife 15cm x2cm, corroded Headland 1
possible knife
E2046:1029:001 Metal Fragment Headland 1
E2046:1029:002 Metal Cu Ring Polished finger ring. Headland 1
Diameter. 25mm, int.
Diameter. 18mm
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Bone
Find No. Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
E2046:1364:001 Bone Polished bone Headland 2 in 1 bag
E2046:1377:001 Bone Comb Broken bone comb, could Headland 1
well actually be from topsoil
E2046:1261:004 Bone Pin 6cm long possible Headland 1
shroud/dress pin, broken
point
Glass
Find No. Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
E2046:1001:002 Glass Jar Complete post‐med glass Headland 1
CTP
Find No. Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
E2046:1098:005 CTP Pipe Clay pipe stem Headland 1
E2046:1098:014 CTP Pipe Clay pipe stem Headland 1
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Clay
Find No. Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
E2046:1468:002 Clay Oxidised clay fragments Headland 1
Shell
Find No. Material Type Id. Description Habitat Quantity
E2046:1463:001 Shell Mollus Seashell Near right leg of Skeleton Headland 1
111
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Appendix 3: Sample Register
Sample Context Number Amount Description
Number
01 1052 Fill of pit (1051)
02 1048 Fill of posthole (1047)
03 1046 Fill of posthole (1045)
04 1050 Fill of posthole (1049)
05 1058 Fill of pit (1057)
06 1067 10L Fill of pit with burning (1066)
07 1024 Primary fill of ditch (1023) slot 4
08 1037 Primary fill of ditch (1023) slot 6
09 1073 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 8
10 CANCELLED
11 CANCELLED
12 CANCELLED
13 1073 Charcoal rich fill of ditch (1023) slot 8
14 1076 Primary fill of ditch (1023) slot 8
15 1042 10L Grave fill, mid brown sand
16 1037 Shells from ditch (1023) slot 2
17 1024 Primary fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
18 1024 Primary fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
19 1125 Fill of post‐hole cut into ditch (1023) slot
9
20 1004 10L Fill of (1003), probable burrow but with
charcoal, in bank of (1023)
21 1189 Animal bone from ditch (1023)
22 1190 Animal bone from ditch (1023)
23 1191 Animal bone from ditch (1023)
24 1098 Fill from around infant Skeleton 5
25 1243 2L Grave fill Skeleton 46
26 1261 15L Main fill linear (1260) slot 3
27 1076 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 1
28 1090 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 1
29 1091 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot1
30 1092 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 1
31 1093 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 1
32 1029 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 1
33 1031 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 1
34 1024 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
35 1027 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
36 1038 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
37 1037 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
38 1025 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 2
39 1024 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 3
40 1100 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 3
41 1099 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 3
42 1111 10L Fill of ditch (1023) slot 3
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Appendix 4: Bone Sample register
Sample Context Description Bags
no. no.
1 (1052) Animal bone from pit (1051) Missing
2 (1048) Slightly burnt bone from post‐hole (1047) 1
3 (1037) Bone from basal fill of ditch (1023) slot 6 Missing
4 (1027) Bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 5 1
5 (1017) Bone from fill of ditch (1015) 1
6 (1018) Bone from fill of ditch (1015) 1
7 (1016) Bone from fill of ditch (1015) 1
8 (1029) Bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 6 1
9 (1036) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 6 1
10 (1031) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 6 Missing
11 (1024) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 5 1
12 (1029) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 5 1
13 (1031) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 5 1
14 (1030) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 8 1
15 (1076) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 8 Missing
16 (1073) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 8 1
17 (1030) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 2 1
18 (1031) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 2 1
19 (1024) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 2 1
20 (1001) Human bone recovered from machine disturbance 1
21 (1031) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 1 1
22 (1098) Human & animal bone scattered within deposit 1
23 (1042) Human & animal bone from grave fill 1
24 (1031) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 3 1
25 (1112) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 3 Missing
26 (1130) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 3 Missing
27 (1029) Animal bone from fill of ditch (1023) slot 3 Missing
28 (1041) Complete skeleton within (1040) Skeleton 1 Not with
animal
bones
29 (1060) Fragmented infant skeleton within (1059) Skeleton 2 Not with
animal
bones
30 (1109) Fragmented juvenile skeleton within (1088) Skeleton 8 Not with
animal
bones
31 (1106) Complete skeleton within (1080) Skeleton 3 Not with
animal
bones
32 (1105) Fragmented neonate skeleton within (1070) Skeleton 4 Not with
animal
bones
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Appendix 5: Photo Register
Photo Direction Description Initials/date
facing
1 North Ditch section field 3 (1015) T.D. 19.09.05
2 North Ditch section field 3 (1020) T.D. 19.09.05
3 South General shot of field 3 stripped area T.D. 19.09.05
4 North/west General shot of (1023) field 3 T.D. 19.09.05
5 North/east Hand dug trench 2a T.D. 20.09.05
6 West Crew hand digging trench 6a T.D. 20.09.05
7 North General shot of trench with skeletons T.D. 27.09.05
8 North General shot of trench with skeletons T.D. 27.09.05
9 West Remains of skeleton 3 T.D. 27.09.05
10 South General shot of trench with skeletons T.D. 27.09.05
11 South General shot of trench showing skeletons 1, 2 & T.D. 27.09.05
3
12 East Skeleton 3 T.D. 27.09.05
13 East Skeleton 3 T.D. 27.09.05
14 West Skeleton 1 (1041) T.D. 28.09.05
15‐19 Working Shots T.D. 28.09.05
20 North Pit (1050) T.D. 28.09.05
21 North South‐facing section of cut (1053) M.H. 29.09.05
22 South North‐facing section of posthole (1045) S.B. 29.09.05
23 South/west North/east‐facing section of posthole (1047) S.B. 29.09.05
24 South/west North/east‐facing section of posthole (1049) S.B. 29.09.05
25 South/west North/east‐facing section of pit (1057) S.B. 29.09.05
26 South North‐facing section of pit (1066) S.C. 29.09.05
27 South North‐facing section terminus of (1015) slot 2 S.C. 29.09.05
28 South North‐facing section of (1015) slot 3 S.C. 29.09.05
29 East West‐facing section of pit (1062) Z.M. 29.09.05
30 North/east South/West‐facing section of pit (1064) Z.M. 29.09.05
31 East Post‐excavation of posthole (1045) S.B. 29.09.05
32 East Post‐excavation of posthole (1047) S.B. 29.09.05
33 North/east Post‐excavation of posthole (1049) S.B. 29.09.05
34 North/east Post‐excavation pf pit (1057) S.B. 29.09.05
35 West East‐facing section of (1015) slot 5 J.W. 29.09.05
36 East West‐facing section of ditch (1023) slot 2 M.H. 29.09.05
37 +38 East West‐facing section of (1023) slot 5 D.R. 30.09.05
39 East West‐facing section of possible fire Z.M. 04.10.05
40 Void T.D. 04.10.05
41‐ 46 West East‐facing section of baulk showing bank D.R. 04.10.05
47 + 48 West East‐facing section of baulk showing bank from D.R. 04.10.05
slot 16
49 West East‐facing section of baulk showing bank D.R. 04.10.05
further away
50 West East‐facing section of baulk showing bank D.R. 04.10.05
closer up
51 West East‐facing section of (1023) slot 2 J.W. 07.10.05
52 East West‐facing section (1023) slot 2 J.W. 07.10.05
53 West East‐facing section (1023) slot 4 T.D. 07.10.05
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Appendix 6: Drawing Register
Drawing Drawing Description Scale Initials/date
no. type
1 Section South‐facing section of north/south linear, 1:10 S.C. 19.09.05
intersection of (1015)
2 Section East‐facing section of linear (1020) 1:10 S.C. 19.09.05
3 Plan Pre‐excavation plan of site 1:100 M.H. 19.09.05
4 Section East‐facing section of (1023) slot 4 1:10 D.R. 20.09.05
5 Plan Pre‐excavation plan of site 1:100 M.H. 19.09.05
6 Plan Pre‐excavation plan of site 1:100 M.H. 19.09.05
7 Section East‐facing section of pit (1043) 1:10 D.R. 20.09.05
8 Section South‐facing section of posthole (1051) 1:10 G.C. 28.09.05
9 Section South‐facing section of pit (1053) 1:10 M.H. 28.09.05
10 Section South‐facing section of posthole (1045) 1:10 S.B. 28.09.05
11 Section South‐facing section of posthole (1047) 1:10 S.B. 28.09.05
12 Plan Post‐excavation plan of pit (1043) 1:20 D.R. 29.09.05
13 Section South/west‐facing section of posthole (1049) 1:10 S.B. 29.09.05
14 Section South/west‐facing section of posthole (1057) 1:10 S.B. 29.09.05
15 Section East‐facing section of pit (1062) 1:10 Z.M. 29.09.05
16 Section North/east‐facing section of pit (1064) 1:10 Z.M. 29.09.05
17 Section North/east‐facing section of burnt pit (1066) 1:10 S.C. 29.09.05
18 Section South/east‐facing section of (1015) terminus slot 1:10 S.C. 29.09.05
2
19 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1015) terminus slot 2 1:20 S.C. 29.09.05
20 Section South/east‐facing section of (1015) slot 3 1:10 S.C. 29.09.05
21 Section North‐facing section of (1015) slot 3 1:10 S.C. 29.09.05
22 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1015) slot 3 1:20 S.C. 29.09.05
23 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1064) 1:20 Z.M. 30.09.05
24 Section West‐facing section of (1023) slot 15 1:10 M.H. 30.09.05
25 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1062) 1:20 Z.M. 30.09.05
26 Plan Post‐excavation plan of pit (1066) 1:20 S.C. 03.10.05
27 Section West‐facing section of (1023) slot 4 1:10 D.R. 03.10.05
28 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1023) slot 4 1:20 D.R. 03.10.05
29 Section East‐facing section of a possible fire 1:10 Z.M. 04.10.05
30 Section West‐facing section of (1023) slot 6 1:10 S.B. 05.10.05
31 Section East‐facing section of (1023) slot 6 1:10 S.B. 05.10.05
32 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1023) slot 6 1:20 S.B. 05.10.05
33 Section North‐facing section of (1023) slot 8 1:10 M.H. 05.10.05
34 Section Sections of (1023) & (1015) slots 4 & 5 1:10 S.C. 06.10.05
35 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1023) & (1015) slots 4 & 1:20 S.C. 06.10.05
5
36 Section South‐facing section of (1023) slot 8 1:10 M.H. 06.10.05
37 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1023) slot 8 1:20 M.H. 06.10.05
38 Section East‐facing section of (1023) slot 2 1:10 J.W. 07.10.05
39 Plan Plan of grave cut (1040) skeleton 1 1:20 S.C. 07.10.05
40 Section West‐facing section of (1023) slot 2 1:10 J.W. 10.10.05
41 Plan Post‐excavation plan of (1023) slot 2 1:20 J.W. 10.10.05
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Appendix 7: The lithic assemblage
By Torben Bjarke Ballin
Introduction
In 2005, Headland Archaeology Ltd carried out pre‐construction testing on a site in the townland of
Carrowkeel, Co. Galway (Wilkins 2006). During this work, an enclosure ditch was located, as had
been indicated by a previous archaeological geophysical survey by Archaeophysica (2004). This was
undertaken by machine stripping 2000 sqm, and it was concluded that the ditch was of considerable
depth and of high archaeological potential. The bank associated with the ditch had been partly
preserved by an upstanding drystone field wall. The site also included other discrete and linear
features.
A full archaeological excavation was carried out on the site between September 2005 and January
2006, and a further 1500 sqm were machine stripped. It was revealed that the inside of the enclosure
had been used as a cemetery, and later as a cillín. Ditches pre‐dating the enclosure ditch suggest the
presence of an older enclosure system. Below, the site is generally referred to as Carrowkeel.
During the investigation of the site, six pieces of worked chert were recovered. One piece was found
in (1009) and two pieces were found in (1030), fills of the main enclosure ditch (1023), whereas the
remaining three pieces were found in (1052), the fill of pit (1051), which was associated with the
earlier enclosure system. The purpose of the present report is to characterise and, to the degree this is
possible, date and interpret the lithic finds. The evaluation of the lithic assemblage is based upon a
detailed catalogue of all the lithic finds from Carrowkeel, and the artefacts in this report are referred
to by their number (CAT no.) in the catalogue.
Basic terminology
The definitions of the main lithic categories are as follows:
Chips: All flakes and indeterminate pieces the greatest dimension (GD) of which is ≤ 10 mm.
Flakes: All lithic artefacts with one identifiable ventral (positive or convex) surface, GD > 10 mm and L
< 2W (L = length; W = width).
Indeterminate pieces: Lithic artefacts which cannot be unequivocally identified as either flakes or cores.
Generally the problem of identification is due to irregular breaks, frost‐shattering or fire‐crazing.
Chunks are larger indeterminate pieces, and in, for example, the case of quartz, the problem of
identification usually originates from a piece flaking along natural planes of weakness rather than
flaking in the usual conchoidal way.
Blades and microblades: Flakes where L ≥ 2W. In the case of blades W > 8 mm, in the case of
microblades W ≤ 8 mm.
Cores: Artefacts with only dorsal (negative or concave) surfaces – if three or more flakes have been
detached, the piece is a core, if fewer than three flakes have been detached, the piece is a split or
flaked pebble.
Tools: Artefacts with secondary retouch (modification).
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Characterisation (catalogue)
The assemblage includes the following six lithic objects:
Context 1009 (fill of enclosure ditch C. 1023)
CAT 1. Concave scraper on tertiary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (36 x 24 x 10 mm). The platform‐
edge of the flake has been trimmed. The distal notch was formed by inverse retouch, and the chord of
the concavity is 14 mm. SF 001.
Context 1030 (fill of enclosure ditch C. 1023)
CAT 2. Secondary hard‐hammer flake with edge‐retouch, black chert (44 x 38 x 12 mm). The platform‐
edge of the flake is untrimmed. The piece has regular blunting along the right lateral side, distal end,
and sporadic retouch along the left lateral side, proximal end. Denticulation along the left lateral side
is probably use‐wear from cutting. SF 001.
CAT 3. A secondary indeterminate piece with edge‐retouch, black chert (37 x 24 x 10 mm). Most
likely, this is an inner piece – the apparent cortex may be coating of the cherts inherent planes of
weakness. Half of one lateral side has been retouched; the other lateral side has full, alternating
retouch. Irregular edges. Function unknown. SF 002.
Context 1052 (fill of pit C. 1051)
CAT 4. Secondary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (30 x 28 x 8 mm). The platform‐edge of the flake is
untrimmed. SF 001.
CAT 5. Proximal section of tertiary hard‐hammer flake, black chert (23 x 23 x 4 mm). The platform‐
edge of the flake has been trimmed. SF 002.
CAT 6. Tertiary irregular, or multi‐directional, core, black chert (24 x 19 x 19 mm). Unprepared. One
corner has broken off. SF 003.
Summary and discussion
In total, the assemblage from Carrowkeel includes six lithic artefacts, all of which are in black chert.
This small assemblage embraces: two flakes (CAT 4, 5), one irregular (multi‐directional) core (CAT 6),
one concave scraper (CAT 1), and two pieces with edge‐retouch (CAT 2, 3). The concave scraper is
based on a robust flake, and the two edge‐retouched pieces on a robust flake and an indeterminate
piece, respectively.
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Table 1. Worked chert.
Debitage
Flakes 2
Total debitage 2
Cores
Irregular cores 1
Total cores 1
Tools
Concave scrapers 1
Pieces w edge‐retouch 2
Total tools 3
TOTAL 6
In general, Irish black chert occurs in a number of qualities, with some being relatively fine‐grained
and some more coarse‐grained. Some cherts are homogeneous, whereas others are riddled with
intersecting planes of weakness, with the latter causing the raw material to flake in an uncontrollable
manner. The chert from the present site is generally of good quality: it is fine‐grained, with relatively
few planes of weakness, and, in the main, it has excellent flaking properties. The Irish chert is
associated with the island’s Carboniferous limestone, explaining its total dominance at Carrowkeel.
The western part of Co. Galway has a relatively mixed geology, consisting of a sequence of
sedimentary, igneous and metamorphic rock forms, whereas the geology east of Lough Corrib is
almost exclusively Carboniferous limestone, with the occasional occurrence of chert (Sevastopulo &
Jackson 2001).
As mentioned in the Introduction, the chert artefacts derive from two main contexts, namely a pit
associated with the site’s oldest enclosure system, and the ditch of the later enclosure. As it is not
possible to establish whether the pieces were deposited in the pit and the ditch during the
construction/use of these contexts, or simply as part of the backfilling or later silting‐up of the
features, it is not possible to determine on stratigraphical grounds whether the cherts are
contemporary with, or earlier, than the enclosure systems.
The assemblage does not include any strictly diagnostic pieces, but the concave scraper (CAT 1)
probably dates to the transition between the Early and Late Neolithic periods. In Ballin (2003, 33) it
was suggested to distinguish between hollow scrapers and concave scrapers as more or less
diagnostic variants of the same tool type. Hollow scrapers, which are strictly from the later part of the
Early Neolithic and from the Late Neolithic, are based on specialised flakes (discussed in Woodman
et al. 1992; also Nelis 2004), whereas concave scrapers, which are mainly from the later part of the
Early Neolithic and from the Late Neolithic, but occur in other chronological contexts also, are based
on ordinary flakes. The scraper‐edges of Irish hollow scrapers are usually acute, and most of the
hollow scrapers from the Three Towns flint hoard, Co. Antrim, are described as having edge‐angles
‘in the region of 45°’ or ‘in excess of 45°’ (Flanagan 1966). The present scraper has a relatively acute
working‐edge, with an angle of only c. 50°.
The assemblage appears to be the product of a well‐controlled flake industry, which supports a date
in the later part of the Irish Neolithic (compare, for example, the later Neolithic assemblages from
Townleyhall in Co. Louth (Eogan 1963), and Windy Ridge in Co. Antrim (Woodman 1992)). As Irish
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prehistoric enclosure systems appear to be a phenomenon largely associated with the island’s later
Neolithic period (O’Kelly 1989, 65), it is quite likely that the chert assemblage is contemporary with
one or more of the enclosures of the Carrowkeel site.
Bibliography
Ballin, T.B. 2003: The Lithic Artefact Assemblage in B. Ballin Smith: The Excavation of Two Bronze
Age Roundhouses at Townparks, Antrim Town. Ulster Journal of Archaeology 62, 30‐36.
Eogan, G. 1963: A Neolithic Habitation‐Site and Megalithic Tomb in Townleyhall Townland, Co.
Louth. Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland XCIII, 37‐81.
Flanagan, L.N.W. 1966: An unpublished flint hoard from the Braid Valley, Co. Antrim. Ulster Journal
of Archaeology 29, 82‐90.
Nelis, E. 2004: Neolithic Flint‐Work from the North of Ireland: Some Thoughts on Prominent Tool
Types and Their Production in A. Gibson & A. Sheridan: From Sickles to Circles. Britain and Ireland
at the Time of Stonehenge, 155‐175. Stroud: Tempus.
OʹKelly, M.J. 1989: Early Ireland. An Introduction to Irish Prehistory. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Sevastopulo, G.D., & Wyse Jackson, P.N. 2001: Carboniferous (Dinantian) in C.H. Holland (ed.): The
Geology of Ireland, 241‐288. Edinburgh: Dunedin Academic Press.
Wilkins, B. 2006: N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Preliminary report on archaeological
investigations at Site A024/001, an enclosure ditch and cemetery in the Townland of Carrowkeel, Co.
Galway. Headland Archaeology Ltd., unpublished report.
Woodman, P.C., Doggart, R., & Mallory, J.P. 1992: Excavations at Windy Ridge, Co. Antrim, 1981‐82.
Ulster Journal of Archaeology 54‐55, 13‐35.
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Appendix 8: Pottery Report
By Niamh Doyle
1 Introduction
The assemblage from Carrowkeel consists of six sherds. The fragments are extremely weathered with
little of the original surface remaining, but appear to represent local medieval wares.
Methodology
These fragments were identified visually in accordance with existing typologies. A brief description
of fabric and decoration is given. The different types of pottery are presented in tabular form.
Medieval vessel types and styles of manufacture were identified in accordance with the Medieval
Pottery Research Group’s classification of ceramic forms (1998). Both medieval and post medieval
types were identified based on information from published excavations in Ireland and existing
typologies.
Dating
Date ranges for the pottery types are based on published dates for the production and distribution of
pottery excavated from archaeological sites in Ireland.
Figure 1 ‐ Catalogue of pottery from excavations at Carrowkeel, County Galway E2046
Feature Find Context Type Part Origin
Number Number Description
1001 1 subsoil Pottery. Local Medieval. Buff‐grey Rim Local
reduced fabric. Multiple stone fragment
inclusions. Weathered
1243 1 Grave fill. Pottery. Local Medieval. Oxidised Body Local
Skeleton 48 pink fabric. Multiple inclusions. Very fragment
weathered
1303 1 Primary fill Pottery. Local Medieval. Oxidised Base Local
of ditch fine orange fabric. Weathered fragment
C.1302
Discussion
The assemblage contains sixfragments of pottery, all of which are abraded and weathered so that little
of the original surface remains. The subsoil contained a rim fragment (1001:1) that consists of a
reduced buff‐grey coloured fabric, with frequent black and red small stone inclusions and occasional
mica inclusions. The high number of inclusions and coarse nature of the pottery is similar to
Waddell’s description of Carrowkeel Ware, the fabric of which is described as ’usually hard and
invariable relatively thick and coarse with large grits of crushed pebble or shell‘ (Waddell 2000, 44).
Carrowkeel Ware occurs in a decorated bowl form and is one of several types of pottery identified
from the fourth millennium BC in Ireland (Waddell 2000, 42).
The remaining two fragments of pottery from Carrowkeel are most likely to be medieval in date. The
body fragment from grave fill (1243) is extremely worn, indicating it has been exposed to wear and
tear through weather or water action or agricultural activity. The fabric is red‐orange fired clay with
occasional stone inclusions. The third fragment of pottery in this assemblage (1303:1) is from the base
of a vessel and consists of fine, clean red‐orange clay with occasional very small inclusions of mica.
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A variety of fabrics representing local medieval wares were identified during analysis of the pottery
from excavations in Galway city (McCutcheon 2004, 374). The fragment of fine ware is possibly a local
medieval type manufactured in the surrounding area. Similar medieval fine ware was found during
excavations at Farranablake East (Doyle 2007a) and Clogharevaun Castle (Doyle 2007b). Local
medieval fine wares similar to this have been found associated with Irish towns and cities, including
Dublin (Papazian 1989); (McCutcheon 1006) and Drogheda (Doyle 2004) and are dated to the 13th ‐ 14th
century.
Bibliography
Doyle, N. 2004. An Analysis of Drogheda Ware and its origins. UCC. Unpublished MA thesis.
Doyle, N. 2007a. Pottery from Farranablake East, County Galway. In Janes, T. N6 Galway to Ballinasloe
Scheme, Contract 2. Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site A024/4, a Cashel in the townland of
Farranablake East, Co. Galway. Headland Archaeology
Doyle, N. 2007b. Pottery from Clougharevaun Castle, County Glaway. In Wilkins, B. N6 Galway to
Ballinasloe Scheme, Contract 2. Final Report on archaeological investigations at Site A024/19, a burnt mound
and medieval/ post medieval field system in the townland of Clougharevaun, Co. Galway. Headland
Archaeolog
y
McCutcheon, C. 2004. Pottery of the high medieval period. Archaeological Investigations in Galway City,
1987‐1998. Wordwell. Spain.
McCutcheon, C. 2006. Medieval pottery from Wood Quay, Dublin: The 1974‐6 Waterfront Excavations.
Royal Irish Academy. Dublin
Medieval Pottery Research Group. 1998. A Guide to the Classification of Medieval Ceramic Forms. BAS
Printers. Great Britain.
Papazian, C. 1989. The medieval pottery from the Dublin castle excavations. UCC. Unpublished MA thesis.
Waddell, J. 2000. The Prehistoric Archaeology of Ireland. Wordwell. Ireland
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Appendix 9: Soil Sample Assessment
By Susan Lyons
Background
The archaeological excavations at Carrowkeel (A024/1, E2046) were carried out in advance of the N6
Galway – Ballinasloe Road Scheme, on behalf of Galway County Council. The site was located in the
townland of Carrowkeel, 7 km from Loughrea. The excavation revealed an enclosure ditch, the
interior of which was used as a cemetery and later as a cillín. Ditches predating the enclosure ditch
suggest a previous system of enclosure. Pit and linear features were also identified associated with
the activity surrounding these ditches. A large pit filled with stones and assumed to be related to field
clearance was also recorded. A comprehensive sampling strategy was employed, where a total of 158
bulk soil samples were taken representing all significant fills and deposits.
Methodology for sample assessment
In total 143 soil samples were selected for the recovery of palaeobotanical remains and small finds.
Each sample was subjected to a system of flotation in a Siraf style flotation tank. The floating debris
(flot) was collected in a 250 μm sieve and, once dry, scanned using a binocular microscope. Any
remaining material in the flotation tank (retent) was wet‐sieved through a 1mm mesh and air‐dried.
This was then sorted by eye and any material of archaeological significance removed.
An assessment of each sample was made to determine whether it would benefit from any more
detailed analysis. The results from this are presented in Tables 1 and 2.
Results
The botanical remains were preserved by charring in all cases.
Wood charcoal –All samples contained wood charcoal in low to high concentrations. A higher
concentration of wood charcoal (+++ and ++++) was recorded from samples associated with the
excavation of ditch features (1023 & 1317), pit/linear features (1066, 1260, 1359), postholes (1047 &
1363) and deposits associated with skeletal remains (SK123 & SK125). Samples identified with an
asterisk (*) in Table 1 contain sufficient quantities of charcoal for obtaining a radiocarbon date.
Carbonised cereal remains
Cereal grain ‐ Seventeen features contained evidence for cereal remains; (1021) fill of ditch (1020), four
grave fills (1042, 1098, 1243, 1528) , a post hole (1048), (1121, 1179, 1213) fill of ditch (1023), natural
redeposit (1170) , (1261) fill of linear (1260), (1295, 1351, 1396) fills of pits (1292, 1346 & 1375), (1315
and 1353) fills of ditches (3117, 1260) and 1364 (fill of post‐hole 1363).
The grains of barley (Hordeum sp.), wheat (Triticum sp.) and oat (Avena sp.) were identified however
the preservation quality of the grain hindered any further species identification.
Vesicular and eroded grains identified from eight of the samples appear in the tables as indeterminate
grain. The vesicular character could be indicative of the grain having been charred at high
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temperatures, that the grain was damp when burnt or that this material had degraded due to
redeposition and exposure.
Cereal chaff –A fragment of cereal chaff was identified from a grave fill (1042). The material was very
fragmented, but tentatively identified as part of a barley rachis internode.
Carbonised weed seeds – Low concentrations of weed seeds were recorded from (1048, 1098 and
1170). Knotgrass (Polygonum sp.) and fat hen (Chenopodium sp.) were both identified, which are plant
species common to waste places and disturbed areas.
Carbonised hazelnut shell – Just two contexts contained very small fragments of carbonised hazelnut
shell, these were (1092) from ditch (1023) and (1315 ) from ditch (1317). Due to the low concentration
of material from these features, it is most likely that it entered these features inadvertently, beyond
this, no further interpretation of the material can be made.
Unburnt bone
The majority of the samples contained unburnt bone. High concentrations (+++ and ++++) were
identified from fills associated with ditch (1023, 1260, 1317), linear features (1359, 1372), pit cluster
(1375) and deposits associated with grave fills (1098, 1243). (Please refer the Faunal remains Report
and Osteological Report for further discussion).
Burnt bone – Burnt bone was recovered from many of samples in relatively low concentrations. A
slightly higher concentration was recorded from 1315 (fill of ditch 1317) and 1351 (fill of cooking pit
1346). (Please refer to the Faunal Remains Report for further discussion)
Mollusca – Low to moderate concentrations of molluscs were recorded from the majority of the
samples, with the fills associated with the enclosure ditch (1203) containing a very high concentration
of mollusca species.
Flint –Flint was retrieved in low quantities from many of the samples. Those fills associated with
ditch (1023) contained the most significant amounts of flint fragments. These will be assessed in the
lIthics Report
Chert – Fragments of chert were recovered in very high concentrations. The majority was recorded
from the enclosure ditch (1015, 1023, 1475), while a significant amount was also identified from pits
(051, 1057, 1375, 1492), post‐holes (1049, 1363, 1502), linear features (1260, 1330, 1372) and grave fill
deposits (1243, 1528). Evidence for secondary workings were noted from some of the fragments.
Quartz– Quartz was recovered from the majority of the samples however, whether this material has
any archaeological significance is difficult to ascertain.
Glass bead – A single blue glass bead, with a diameter of 3mm, was recovered from 1316 (fill of ditch
1317).
Discussion
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The soil sample assessment from Carrowkeel contained a mixed assemblage of archaeological and
archaeobotanical material reflecting the domestic material associated with occupational debris.
Charcoal is a common occurrence on archaeological sites and is likely to reflect a) the use of hearths in
and around the site and b) the cleaning out and dumping of this burnt debris into nearby open
features. The presence of carbonised cereal grain in some of the samples from this site indicates that a
degree of domestic activity may have been carried out in or around the site. Much of the grain was
abraded and proved difficult to identify further. Barley, wheat and oat were all identified and are all
crops collectively cultivated since the early medieval period. The grain, which was altogether
recorded in small numbers, were randomly scattered across the site in ones and twos and was not
associated with any conflagration deposits. This suggests that the material is the result of secondary
even tertiary deposition of crop processing debris, which would have entered structural deposits and
grave fills via local water channels, through wind and human activity, or during infilling of open
features. Cereal waste in the form of cereal chaff is usually indicative of crop processing (ie
winnowing, sieving etc.) being carried out nearby. However, it is difficult to make any assumptions
about the use of crops and crop processing techniques employed at Carrowkeel based on a single
chaff fragment and a small cache of cereal grain.
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Appendix 10: Human Remains Report
By Susan Lalonde
List of figures
Figure 1 Location of excavation area
Figure 2 Location of area and RMP extract
Figure 3 Overall site plan
Figure 3 Phase 1 burials plan
Figure 4 Orientation of individuals from Phase 1
Figure 5 Phase 2 burials plan
Figure 6 Orientation of individuals from Phase 2
Figure 7 Phases 3 and 4 burials plan
Figure 8 Orientation of individuals from Phase 3
Figure 9 Preservation levels of the human remains
Figure 10 Relative survival of skeletal elements from adults and subadults
Figure 11 Level of completeness of the human remains
Figure 12 Non‐adult age at death distribution of the assemblage presented as percentage of
individuals by phase
Figure 13 Distribution of adult age categories in the assemblage presented as percentage of
individuals by phase and sex
Figure 14 Distribution of fetal deaths by phase compared to modern stillbirth and livebirth
rates (after Mays 1998)
Figure 15 Patterns of non‐adult mortality presented by phase and in comparison with the
expected trend (after Lewis 2007).
Figure 16 Estimation of sex of adult human remains
Figure 17 Stature estimation of the assemblage, by phase
Figure 18 The point‐biserial correlation
Figure 19 Cranial non‐metric traits displayed by the adult sample, providing the expression of
a trait as a percentage of the possible expressions within the phase.
Figure 20 Crude Prevalence rates of Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis by phase
Figure 21 Crude prevalence rate of teeth affected by dental enamel hypoplasia presented by
phase
Figure 22 Crude prevalence rates of non‐specific stress indicators in the assemblage by phase
Figure 23 Total Prevalence rates (TPR %) of dental disease in the assemblage presented by
phase
Figure 24 Distribution of extra‐spinal joint disease in the assemblage
Figure 25 Skeleton 41 showing box details of lesions suggestive of child abuse
Figure 26 Illustrating the anterior‐posterior compression of the chest associated with the
shaking of an infant (after Reece 2006)
Figure 27 Distribution of body position within the cemetery, excluding crouched and prone
burials
Figure 28 Body positions of the assemblage presented by phase
Figure 29 Plans of Skeletons 49 and 119 (Phase 1)
Figure 30 Plans of Skeletons 72 (Phase 1) and 82 (Phase 2)
Figure 31 Plans of Skeletons 85, 86 and 87 (Phase 1)
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LIST OF PLATES
Plate 1. Lumbar vertebrae from Skeleton 69. Young adult male from Phase 1 showing
degradation and expansion of the vertebral body surface
Plate 2. Os acromiale of the right scapula, Skeleton 90 a middle adult male, (Phase 3)
Plate 3. View of calvarium of Skeleton 107 Phase 1 middle adult male (radiocarbon dated to
cal. AD 768 – 897). Proliferative new bone growth stretches from the mid‐point of the
saggital suture to bregma. Possible case of accidental scalping.
Plate 4. Radiograph of rib from infant Skeleton 41, showing raised area of callus formation
and superior‐inferior fracture line
Plate 5. Ulnae of Skeleton 17, a child aged 4 to 6 years (Phase 2), showing severe destructive
lesions to the proximal articulating surfaces
Plate 6. Left ulna of Skeleton 17, showing the highly aggressive lytic lesions on the proximal
articulating surface
Plate 7. The left proximal femur and illium of Skeleton 51 (Phase 1, radiocarbon dated to cal.
AD 761 ‐ 884), showing reactive new bone production, especially notable below the
anterior inferior illiac spine
Plate 8. Proximal joint surface of the tibia and femoral condyles (left) showing early stage of
osteochondritis dessicans – circular lesion to the centre of the picture. Skeleton 105,
young adult male Phase 2.
Plate 9. The femora of older child Skeleton 126 (Phase 2), showing proximal focal deficiency
of the right femur. Note the lack of femoral caput and considerable atrophy of the
right limb.
Plate 10. Middle adult female Skeleton 57 (Phase 1) with quartz placed at right shoulder
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1. Number of individuals in the assemblage from Carrowkeel, by phase and age
category
Table 2. Radiocarbon dating results from Phase 1 individuals
Table 3. Radiocarbon dating results from Phase 2 individuals
Table 4. Radiocarbon dating results from Phase 3 individuals
Table 5. Phase 4 burials
Table 6. Discrepancies between skeletal and dental age exhibited by some juveniles
Table 7. Life Table calculated for the assemblage
Table 8. Primary non‐metric traits (after Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994)
Table 9. Incidence and crude prevalence rate of metabolic skeletal disorders in Phases 1 ‐ 3.
The ‘total’ column provides the total number of parietals, frontals and dentitions
present in the phase assemblage.
Table 10. Crude and total prevalence rates for dental disease in Phases 1 ‐ 3
Table 11. Crude and total prevalence rates for periodontal disease in Phases 1 ‐ 3
Table 12. Prevalence rate of spinal joint disease in adults
Table 13. Prevalence rates of vertebral DJD presented by phase
Table 14. Prevalence of Schmorl’s nodes in adults
Table 15. Prevalence rate of extra‐spinal joint disease in the Phase 1 adult sample
Table 16. Trauma rates presented by phase
Table 17. Summary of infectious disease rates presented by phase
Table 18. Disarticulated bone
Table 19. Distribution of quartz pebbles in the burials from Carrowkeel
Table 20. Burials from Carrowkeel with associated animal bone
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SUMMARY
During the winter of 2005‐06, the enclosure site at Carrowkeel, Co. Galway, was excavated by
Headland Archaeology Ltd in advance of the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Scheme; Contract 2
Newford to Knocknadaula. Phase 2 excavations identified an area of skeletal remains within the
enclosure. Human remains were localised in an area measuring 15 m by 20 m but extended beyond
the limit of excavation. A total of 132 individuals, ranging from foetus to adult, were recovered from
within the Excavated area. The remains were examined at Headland Archaeology by Susan Lalonde,
adhering to internationally agreed standards of processing, recording and storage.
The burials could be split into four phases, over 800 years, from the 7th to 15th centuries. It is not
evident that the assemblage represented a single family, although non‐metric analysis suggested
some degree of relatedness within the assemblage. The average life expectancy was calculated to be
55 years of age. The assemblage was majority non‐adult, with a very high proportion of infant and
fetal remains. These represented normal child death and the mortality pattern did not suggest
infanticide. Carrowkeel appears to represent the spatial marginalisation of non‐adults within a
normal cemetery population, while only a small portion of the cemetery may have used as a cíllín
which are common in the later and post medieval period especially in the west of Ireland. However,
this marginalisation may be a precursor to this uniquely Irish tradition.
Introduction
This document is submitted as a report on the osteological analysis of human remains excavated from
the enclosure at Site E2046, Carrowkeel, Co. Galway. The excavation was undertaken by Headland
Archaeology Ltd, on behalf of Galway County Council in compliance with Ministerial Directions
issued for the N6 Galway to Ballinasloe PPP Scheme; Contract 2 Newford to Knocknadaula, under the
National Monuments Amendment Act 2004. Excavations were directed by Brendon Wilkins from
September 2005 to January 2006.
Archaeological testing, undertaken by Headland Archaeology Ltd, confirmed the presence of an
enclosure previously listed as an RMP site and later identified through geophysical survey.
Archaeological excavations identified an area of skeletal remains within the enclosure. Human
remains were localised in an area measuring 15 m by 20 m and extended beyond the limit of
excavation, with 132 individuals ranging from foetus to adult recovered from within the excavated
area. Four phases of activity were recognised within the cemetery, dating from the 6th to 15th
centuries. The majority of burials (n = 75) were found in the second phase, from AD 850 – AD 1050.
Methodology
The adult burials were assessed using a range of morphological and metrical analyses, according to
internationally agreed standards.
• A visual and written inventory was created for all surviving bone (Brickley 2004).
Preservation levels were recorded following McKinley (2004).
• The dentition was recorded using Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994) to record presence/absence,
attrition and dental pathology.
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• Cranial and post‐cranial metrics were taken at a standard 78 landmarks, (where possible), as
described by Buikstra and Ubelaker (1994); post‐cranial metrics were also employed in the
assessment of sex and stature (Trotter & Gleser 1952, 1958).
• Sex was assessed using diagnostic criteria of the cranium and pelvis (Buikstra and Ubelaker
1994).
• Age at death was assessed using morphological changes in the pelvis (Brooks & Suchey 1990;
Lovejoy et al. 1985), cranial suture closure (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994) and dental attrition
(Brothwell 1981; Miles 1962).
• Cranial and post‐cranial non‐metric traits as described by Berry & Berry (1967), and Finnegan
(1978) were recorded.
• Pathology was recorded using guidelines set down by Roberts & Connell (2004).
Assessments of joint disease followed Rogers et al. (1987).
Adult individuals were placed into one of five age categories
• Younger adult: 18 – 25 years
• Younger middle adult: 25 – 35 years
• Older middle adult: 35 – 45 years
• Older adult: 45+ years.
Analysis of the subadult remains necessarily followed different criteria for some categories. As with
the adult remains, a full inventory of skeletal and dental material was created for each individual
(Brickley 2004; McKinley 2004); dental pathology and skeletal measurements were taken using
Buikstra & Ubelaker (1994).
It is generally agreed by most authors that the accurate assessment of sex is not possible in subadult
remains, as sexual dimorphism of the skeleton only becomes clear after puberty (Scheuer & Black
2000). Assessment of the juvenile remains, therefore, concentrated on the accurate assessment of age
at death, using the following techniques:
• diaphysis length (Maresh et al. 1970; Scheuer & Black 2000)
• regression equations of diaphyseal length (Scheuer et al. 1980)
• epiphyseal fusion and primary ossification centres (Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994; Scheuer &
Black 2000)
• dental eruption and development ( Ubelaker 1978 & Moorrees et al. 1963)
There are several systems used in the categorisation of non‐adult remains. In this case, they were
placed into one of seven age categories, as used by skeletal biologists and clinicians (Scheuer & Black
2000).
• Foetus: 3rd fetal month until birth
• Perinate: around the time of birth
• Neonate: Birth – 2 months
• Infant: Birth – 1 year
• Younger child: 1 – 6 years
• Older child: 7 – 12 years
• Adolescent: 13 – 17 years
The disarticulated material was assessed following protocol devised by McKinley (2004); recording all
fragments for:
• element represented
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• preservation level
• fragmentation
• ancient modification
• pathology
• metrical assessment.
Results
Cemetery phasing
Four cemetery phases have been identified on the basis of grave cut truncation and radiocarbon
dating of 40 individuals, although a general continuity was observed. The full phase list can be found
in the appendices (Appendix 1), a summary list can be found in Table 1 showing the distribution of
adults, and non‐adults across the cemetery population. In this case, ‘Juvenile’ covers age categories
from younger child to adolescent, 6 to 18 years at death.
Period
Phase Foetus Infant Juvenile Adult Male Adult Female Total
(cal. AD)
Phase 1 650 – 850 8 6 12 3 7 37
Phase 2 850 – 1050 24 23 25 2 ‐ 75
Phase 3 1050– 1250 3 5 5 2 1 18
Phase 4 1250 – 1450 2 ‐ ‐ ‐ ‐ 2
Total 37 34 42 7 8 132
Table 1. Number of individuals in the assemblage, by phase and age category
Phase 1 AD 650 – 850, Figure 1
The Phase 1 assemblage totals 37 individuals (28% of the total), 22 of which were radiocarbon dated
(Table 2). Just over 70% of the individuals from Phase 1 are non‐adults. This group can be further
subdivided into foetus (14%), perinate (8%), infant (16%), younger child (16%), older child (11%) and
adolescent (5%). Of the adults, Phase 1 has 61% of the total number, and almost 90% of the females.
Of those burials for which it could be assessed, the majority (76% n= 28) were orientated NE‒SW
(Figure 4). Body position was recorded for 31 individuals; 71% (n=22) were supine (face up, lying on
the back) and extended (laid out in approximately straight line) while the remaining 29% (n=9) were
flexed (leg joints bent < 90°). The majority of the flexed burials were non‐adults, aside from Skeleton
51 and Skeleton 119, both adult females.
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3% 3%
3%
NE-SW
N-S
16%
E-W
SE-NW
Disarticulated
75%
Figure 4. Orientation of individuals from Phase I
At some point prior to the mid 7th century, a ditch (1260) was dug at the eastern extent of the burial
ground, forming a curvilinear boundary to this part of the cemetery. Parallel to this was a smaller
ditch (1359) which may have contained some kind of palisade or other fencing structure. The
carcasses of at least eleven sheep were buried within the basal fill of the first ditch (Tourunen 2007).
The adolescent remains of Skeleton 72 were also interred within this ditch, as the feature was
beginning to silt up. The radiocarbon dates and lab codes for Phase 1 are presented in Table 2. The
burial is in a flexed position and is situated at the northern terminus of the ditch. The ditch must have
fallen out of use quickly after this burial, as Skeleton 1 was interred directly above it.
Calibrated Age Relative Calibrated Age Relative
Lab Skeleton Radiocarbon
δ13C Ranges probability Ranges probability
Code No. age BP
(1 σ) (1 σ) (2 σ) (2 σ)
AD 688‐754 0.718
UB‐ AD 678‐832 0.907
1 ‐19.0 1249 +/‐ 31 AD 758‐779 0.223
7448 AD 836‐869 0.093
AD 794‐801 0.059
AD 721‐741 0.028
UB‐ AD 781‐791 0.120 AD 770‐899 0.904
22 ‐22.0 1186 +/‐ 32
7412 AD 807‐885 0.880 AD 918‐952 0.066
AD 959‐960 0.001
AD 783‐788 0.037
AD 814‐844 0.222 AD 779‐794 0.066
UB‐
27 ‐21.0 1156 +/‐ 31 AD 858‐899 0.419 AD 798‐906 0.605
7414
AD 919‐952 0.315 AD 911‐971 0.329
AD 959‐960 0.007
AD 717‐743 0.244
UB‐ AD 689‐752 0.303
51 ‐21.0 1228 +/‐ 31 AD 768‐828 0.536
7417 AD 761‐884 0.697
AD 839‐865 0.220
UB‐ AD 693‐748 0.164
53 ‐19.0 1214 +/‐ 31 AD 774‐871 1.000
7418 AD 765‐890 0.836
AD 667‐783 0.897
UB‐ AD 689‐753 0.835
57 ‐21.0 1264 +/‐ 31 AD 787‐823 0.074
7420 AD 760‐773 0.165
AD 841‐861 0.029
AD 688‐754 0.647
UB‐
69 ‐22.0 1244 +/‐ 32 AD 759‐781 0.216 AD 682‐872 1.000
7423
AD 790‐808 0.137
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AD 726‐737 0.014
UB‐ AD 781‐791 0.107
70 ‐22.0 1182 +/‐32 AD 771‐900 0.890
7424 AD 807‐887 0.893
AD 918‐964 0.097
UB‐ AD 687‐779 0.942
72 ‐23.0 1250 +/‐ 34 AD 676‐870 1.000
7425 AD 793‐802 0.058
AD 723‐740 0.022
UB‐ AD 781‐791 0.112
85 ‐21.0 1185 +/‐ 31 AD 770‐899 0.912
7430 AD 807‐886 0.888
AD 918‐951 0.065
AD 710‐746 0.062
UB‐ AD 779‐793 0.149
86 ‐24.0 1193 +/‐ 34 AD 766‐899 0.888
7431 AD 803‐881 0.851
AD 919‐949 0.050
UB‐ AD 688‐754 0.803 AD 668‐827 0.950
87 ‐22.0 1261 +/‐ 33
7432 AD 757‐775 0.197 AD 839‐864 0.050
UB‐ AD 692‐749 0.182
93 ‐22.0 1215 +/‐ 32 AD 773‐873 1.000
7434 AD 764‐890 0.818
AD 694‐701 0.008
UB‐ AD 707‐747 0.092
100 ‐21.0 1203 +/‐ 32 AD 778‐870 1.000
7435 AD 765‐895 0.890
AD 926‐936 0.011
AD 716‐743 0.044
UB‐ AD 780‐792 0.135
107 ‐19.0 1193 +/‐ 31 AD 768‐897 0.922
7436 AD 805‐880 0.865
AD 921‐943 0.034
AD 718‐743 0.224
UB‐ AD 689‐752 0.291
112 ‐20.0 1227 +/‐ 31 AD 769‐828 0.550
7483 AD 761‐884 0.709
AD 838‐866 0.226
AD 781‐790 0.082
UB‐ AD 775‐903 0.800
113 ‐21.0 1168 +/‐ 32 AD 808‐894 0.861
7439 AD 915‐968 0.200
AD 928‐934 0.057
UB‐ AD 667‐711 0.683
114 ‐20.0 1301 +/‐ 31 AD 660‐772 1.000
7440 AD 746‐766 0.317
AD 728‐736 0.010
UB‐ AD 781‐790 0.100
115 ‐21.0 1182 +/‐ 31 AD 771‐900 0.902
7441 AD 808‐887 0.900
AD 918‐962 0.088
UB‐ AD 665‐710 0.699
119 ‐24.0 1305 +/‐ 34 AD 658‐773 1.000
7443 AD 746‐766 0.301
AD 694‐701 0.006
UB‐ AD 779‐794 0.167 AD 707‐747 0.078
122 ‐25.0 1196 +/‐ 35
7445 AD 801‐880 0.833 AD 765‐898 0.874
AD 920‐946 0.042
AD 723‐740 0.141
UB‐ AD 689‐752 0.258
124 ‐23.0 1223 +/‐ 33 AD 770‐832 0.575
7446 AD 761‐887 0.742
AD 836‐869 0.284
AD 712‐745 0.056
UB‐ AD 780‐793 0.142
125 ‐22.0 1193 +/‐33 AD 767‐898 0.901
7447 AD 803‐881 0.858
AD 920‐947 0.044
Table 2. Radiocarbon dating results from Phase 1 individuals
Phase 2 AD 850 – 1050
The second phase of use of the Carrowkeel cemetery dates from the mid 9th to 11th century (Table 3).
The largest part of the assemblage, this phase contains 75 individuals, 93% of which are non‐adult.
The only adult remains present were Skeletons 90 and 105, both male. Phase 2 contains the largest
proportion of very young children. Of these, 64% were assessed to be below a year of age at death
(foetus 27%, perinate 7%, neonate 4% and infant 27%). Younger children made up 16%, and 12% were
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older children. This portion of the cemetery appears to be used almost exclusively for the burial of
non‐adults in this period (see ‘Funerary practices’).
Body position was more varied than in Phase 1. This is probably linked to the higher number of non‐
adults, who show more variation in their burial positions than the adults. In total, 44% (n=33) were
supine and extended, 1% (n=1) crouched (leg joints bent by > 90°), 21% (n=16) flexed. One infant,
Skeleton 50, was buried flexed and prone (face down, lying on the front), the only burial of its type in
the cemetery. The crouched burial of a younger child, Skeleton 84, is also unique in the assemblage.
As in Phase 1, the majority of burials were orientated NE‒SW (Figure 6). Four individuals, Skeletons
10, 17, 18, and 34, were truncated by later agricultural activity in the form of an east‐west furrow
(1169).
1% 4%
4%
NE-SW
23% N-S
S-N
E-W
68%
Disarticulated
Figure 6. Orientation of individuals from Phase 2
Calibrated Age Relative Calibrated Age Relative
Lab Skeleton Radiocarbon
δ13C Ranges probability Ranges probability
Code No. age BP
(1 σ) (1 σ) (2 σ) (2 σ)
UB‐ AD 894‐927 0.443 AD 832‐836 0.003
16 ‐20.0 1113 +/‐ 32
7449 AD 935‐974 0.557 AD 869‐1015 0.997
AD 782‐788 0.009
UB‐ AD 888‐904 0.208
17 ‐20.0 1129 +/‐ 31 AD 812‐845 0.054
7411 AD 912‐970 0.792
AD 857‐989 0.936
AD 785‐786 0.006
UB‐ AD 828‐838 0.066 AD 780‐792 0.041
24 ‐20.0 1148 +/‐ 31
7413 AD 866‐903 0.370 AD 804‐975 0.959
AD 915‐968 0.559
AD 782‐788 0.009
UB‐ AD 889‐905 0.203
33 ‐22.0 1127 +/‐ 32 AD 812‐845 0.055
7482 AD 912‐971 0.797
AD 857‐991 0.936
AD 793‐788 0.005
UB‐ AD 890‐904 0.187
41 ‐20.0 1125 +/‐ 31 AD 814‐844 0.040
7416 AD 912‐970 0.813
AD 859‐991 0.955
UB‐ AD 896‐923 0.396 AD 885‐999 0.974
82 ‐20.0 1104 +/‐ 31
7429 AD 940‐981 0.604 AD 1002‐1013 0.026
UB‐ AD 894‐927 0.443 AD 832‐836 0.003
121 ‐21.0 1113 +/‐ 32
7444 AD 935‐974 0.557 AD 869‐1015 0.997
Table 3. Radiocarbon dating results from Phase 2 individuals
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Phase 3 AD 1050 – 1250, Figure 7
It appears that the cemetery begins to fall out of use during this later phase, dating from the mid 11th
to mid 13th centuries (Table 4). Only 18 individuals were recovered from this period, with a more
even spread of age categories than in the previous phases. This may indicate a shift in use of this
portion of the cemetery towards a more ‘normal’ burial population (see ‘Funerary practices’). Non‐
adults still account for 78% (n = 14) in Phase 3, but they are older than in Phase 2, with only 44% (n =
8) below one year of age at death (foetus 17%, infant 28%). No perinates, neonates or adolescents were
recovered in this phase. Burial orientation followed the same broad pattern as Phases 1 and 2, with
67% (n=12) orientated NE‒SW (Figure 8). Body position is more uniform. Supine extended burials
account for 50% (n=9) of the group and flexed 17%. The remaining 33% (n = 6) were disarticulated.
An east‒west furrow (1169) also truncates two individuals in this phase, Skeletons 46 and 47. Skeleton
46 was recovered disarticulated within the furrow itself.
6% 28%
NE-SW
N-S
Disarticulated
66%
Figure 8. Orientation of individuals from Phase 3
Calibrated Age Relative Calibrated Age Relative
Lab Skeleton Radiocarbon
δ13C Ranges probability Ranges probability
Code No. age BP
(1 σ) (1 σ) (2 σ) (2 σ)
UB‐
60 ‐20.0 815 +/‐ 31 AD 1211‐1261 1.000 AD 1169‐1269 1.000
7422
UB‐ AD 1186‐1201 0.215
74 ‐20.0 830 +/‐ 31 AD 1159‐1265 1.000
7426 AD 1205‐1254 0.784
AD 1034‐1052 0.204
UB‐
77 ‐22.0 940 +/‐ 31 AD 1080‐1129 0.567 AD 1024‐1161 1.000
7427
AD 1132‐1153 0.229
AD 1045‐1097 0.557
UB‐
79 ‐21.0 906 +/‐ 31 AD 1119‐1142 0.217 AD 1038‐1208 1.000
7428
AD 1147‐1170 0.226
AD 1026‐1050 0.296
UB‐
89 ‐21.0 954 +/‐ 31 AD 1083‐1124 0.521 AD 1022‐1156 1.000
7433
AD 1136‐1151 0.183
AD 1028‐1051 0.272
UB‐
110 ‐22.0 949 +/‐ 32 AD 1081‐1126 0.541 AD 1023‐1158 1.000
7437
AD 1135‐1152 0.188
UB‐ AD 1039‐1053 0.165
111 ‐21.0 935 +/‐ 31 AD 1024‐1165 1.000
7438 AD 1079‐1153 0.835
UB‐ 116 ‐21.0 907 +/‐ 30 AD 1045‐1097 0.560 AD 1037‐1192 0.964
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50
45
40
35 Preservation Level 0
% Individuals
30 Preservation Level 1
Preservation Level 2
25
Preservation Level 3
20
Preservation Level 4
15
10
0
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 4
Preservation Category
Figure 9. Preservation levels of the human remains
Figure 9 demonstrates the generally well‐preserved nature of the Carrowkeel assemblage. All phases
show variable rates of preservation, with the majority of individuals classed as well or moderately
preserved (i.e. levels 1 and 2). There were no cases of heavy or penetrative erosion within the
assemblage. Non‐adult remains are often said to preserve less well than adult bones. Buckberry (2000)
suggests that non‐adult bones are more liable to decay as they are more porous and smaller than
adult elements. In contrast, Lewis believes ‘the histological structure of infant bones can be excellent
given the right burial circumstances’ (Lewis 2007, 20). Children can skeletonise in as little as six days,
and can become disarticulated more easily than adult remains.
Levels of completeness were investigated through element survival in both adults and subadults. The
differential survival and retrieval of certain elements creates problems in osteological and
paleopathological studies (Waldron 1987). Taking into account the limited nature of this study, the
relative survival of skeletal elements was recorded through a simple ‘presence / absence’ system.
While it is acknowledged that this methodology is not detailed enough for a full discussion of skeletal
survival and differential preservation, it is hoped that some wider trends will be highlighted (Figure
10).
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Adult Subadult
100
90
80
70
% of Expected
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Cervical
Cranium
Thoracic
Pelvis
L. Ribs
R. Ribs
R. Hand
Mandible
Sternum
L. Arm
R. Arm
L. Leg
L. Hand
L. Foot
Sacrum
R. Leg
R. Foot
Lumbar
L. Shoulder
R. Shoulder
Anatomical Region
Figure 10. Relative survival of skeletal elements from adults and subadults
Figure 10 demonstrates the differential preservation within the Carrowkeel assemblage. Although
overall preservation and completeness levels are good, subadults suffer from a lower level of element
survival. This is most clearly seen in areas such as the sternum (which in subadults is made of three or
four separate bones), as well as the smaller bones of the hands and feet. This may be due to recovery
processes: the sternum often slips into the rib cage and can be missed, it is also very fragile and tends
to crumble easily. Figure 5 shows the good survival rate of adult bones, with the majority at almost
90% survival. A combination of the recovery process, taphonomy and the more fragile nature of
subadult bones may explain the poor representation of many elements from the subadult sample.
Figure 11 shows the high level of completeness within the assemblage, with the majority of
individuals in all phases more than 75% complete. It should be noted that as Phase 4 only contains
two individuals and both are above 75%, the data is slightly skewed.
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100
90
80
% of Individuals
70
60
Phase 1
50
Phase 2
40
Phase 3
30
Phase 4
20
10
0
<25% ~50% ~75% >75%
Level of Completeness
Figure 11. Level of completeness of the human remains
Age at death
Age at death was assessed using a variety of morphological and metrical methods. The distribution of
age at death for each phase is presented in Figures 12 and 13. Phase IV data is skewed due to the
small number of individuals (n=2) and thus has been excluded.
30
25
20
% of Individuals
Foetus
Perinate
15 Infant
Younger Child
10 Older Child
Adolescent
5
0
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Phase
Figure 12. Non‐adult age at death distribution presented as a percentage of
individuals
The assemblage contains a very high percentage of non‐adults, almost 90%. This is unusual in
archaeological populations. The implications of this demographic trend are discussed in detail below
(see ‘Demography’ and ‘Funerary practice’)
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60
50
% of Indivdiduals 40
Younger Adult
30 Younger Mid Adult
Older Mid Adult
20
10
0
Phase 1 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3 Phase 3
Male Female Male Male Female
Phase
Figure 13. Distribution of adult age categories
The reader should note the lack of older adults (individuals over 65) in the assemblage. The data
from Figures 12 and 13 show a more ‘normal ‘age distribution for the assemblage in Phase 1, when
almost every age category is represented. The character of the assemblage undergoes a shift during
Phase 2 when young non‐adults begin to dominate. This may be linked to a change in the spatial
organisation of the cemetery during this period (see ‘Funerary practice’).
Using regression formulae developed by Scheuer et al. (1980), it was possible to further refine the age
estimation of the foeti through limb bone measurements. Age estimation data was then compared to
information on modern still and live births. Phases 3 (n=3) and 4 (n=2) were not included in this
analysis due to their small sample size. Fetal age distribution follows the ‘flat’ pattern of modern
stillbirths suggesting normal losses through premature birth or miscarriage rather than infanticide
practised at birth (Figure 14). If the latter were true, we might expect a peak of fetal deaths around 38
– 40 weeks, following the live birth pattern (Mays 1998).
70
60
50
% of Individuals
40
Modern Stillbirths
30 Modern Livebirths
Phase 1
20 Phase 2
10
0
23 - 25
26 - 28
29 - 31
32 - 34
35 - 37
38 - 40
41 - 43
Gestational Weeks
Figure 14. Distribution of fetal deaths compared to modern stillbirth and livebirth rates
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(after Mays 1998)
A number of juvenile remains showed discrepancies between dental and skeletal age. This has been
interpreted as evidence of nutritional stress within the assemblage. It is generally agreed that
dentition provides more accurate age estimations of chronological age than the skeleton, which is
subject to a wider range of environmental stressors, such as poor nutrition or a period of illness,
which can disrupt skeletal growth and maturation (Scheuer & Black 2000).
Table 6 lists those juveniles from the Carrowkeel sample that show a discrepancy between skeletal
and dental age. In all cases the dental age was taken as the most accurate assessment of chronological
age. Table 6 highlights the difference in years between the two estimates. As age estimates can only
ever give a range of years, in this study the midpoint of these estimates is provided for the sake of
clarity. The average difference is 3.5 years, a large gap in the growing years of a child. Almost 82% of
the juveniles in the table also show some form of nutritional deficiency. It is clear that a proportion of
individuals in this population were suffering from considerable nutritional stress to stunt their
growth. Although 58% of the table are Phase 2 individuals make up only 9% of the Phase 2
individuals. The Phase 1 individuals represent almost 14% of their phase. This suggests that Phase 1
may be the more physiologically stressed.
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Skeleton Dental Age (yrs) Skeletal Age (yrs) Difference
Phase Stress Indicators
No. ‐ midpoint ‐ midpoint (yrs)
Cribra orbitalia, dental enamel
17 2 4 2 2
hypoplasia (DEH)
49 1 14.5 9.5 6 DEH
33 2 7.5 4 3.5 Cribra orbitalia
52 1 8.5 3.5 5 Cribra orbitalia, Porotic hyperostosis
70 1 8.5 5.5 3 ‐
75 2 9.5 6 3.5 Cribra orbitalia
87 1 5 2 3 DEH, Cribra orbitalia
88 1 6.5 3 3.5 ‐
95 2 4 1.5 2.5 DEH, Cribra orbitalia
97 2 4 1.5 2.5 Cribra orbitalia
99 2 5.5 1.5 4 DEH
121 2 8.5 5 3.5 DEH
Table 6. Discrepancies between skeletal and dental age exhibited by some juveniles
Non‐Adult Mortality
High infant mortality is a common feature of past populations when for the first year of life children
were particularly vulnerable. In a review of 42 assemblages and 9658 individuals, Lewis (2007) found
a second peak of mortality during the weaning period, a highly dangerous time due to bacterial
infections from feeding bottles and a lack of nutrition provided by weaning ‘paps.’
The Carrowkeel assemblage does not follow the expected trend of non‐adult mortality (Figure 15). In
contrast to the expected peak between 10 to 19 years, all phases from Carrowkeel experience a fall.
This may have more to do with spatial uses of the excavated portion of the cemetery than an actual
mortality pattern. Certainly we do see a peak in infant losses and again in the 5 to 9 age group. The
age at which children enter the adult world can also sometimes be recognised in the archaeological
record with an increase in deaths around the age of 10 to 19 years as they are exposed to the dangers
of the wider world (Lewis 2007). It is possible that the children of the Carrowkeel population are
entering the adult world at this stage, being expected to help with domestic and agricultural task and
suffering fatal accidents while undertaking these duties. This peak in the mortality of older children
has been found at later medieval sites in Yorkshire such as Wharram Percy, St‐Helen‐on‐the‐Walls,
Fishergate and Jewbury (Lewis 2007).
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60
40
Phase 1
Phase 2
30
Phase 3
20
Expected Trend
10
0
0-1 0-4 5-9 10 - 19
Age Cohort (yrs)
Figure 15. Patterns of non‐adult mortality in comparison with the
expected trend (after Lewis 2007
Life tables are used by paleoanthropologists to determine the life expectancy of archaeological
populations. Data from the Carrowkeel assemblage was used to create a life table (Table 7) following
a method outlined by Williams (1992).
Table 7 shows the estimation of life expectancy in the Carrowkeel assemblage, where:
x: age group
a: range of age group (yrs)
dʹ (x) : number of deaths in x
d (x): relative number of deaths in x (%)
l (x): relative number of survivors in x (%)
q (x): probability of dying in x
L (x): total number of years lived between age intervals x and x+1
T (x): total number of years still to live
e (x): average life expectancy in x
The final column provides the calculated life expectancy. We can see that the Carrowkeel assemblage
had a minimum life expectancy of 28.5 years. This increases slowly throughout childhood, and once
an individual attained 10 years of age, life expectancy rises suddenly by 10 years to 46.1.
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Life Expectancy
x a dʹ (x) d (x) l (x) q (x) L (x) T (x) e (x)
(yrs)
0‒1 1 41 42.27 100 0.422 95.88 2849.36 28.5 28.5
7
Number of individuals
6
5
Male
4
Female
3
2
1
0
Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 3
Phase
Figure 16. Estimation of sex of adult human remains
It is not possible to provide an accurate assessment of sex for juvenile remains, as testosterone, which
controls the development of sexually diagnostic features, only begins to affect development during
puberty. Until this process is complete it is generally agreed that any attempts to sex individuals will
be skewed (Scheuer & Black 2000; Lewis 2007).
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Metrical analyses
Estimation of Stature
Stature could be calculated for fourteen individuals, using lower limb bone measurements after
Trotter & Gleser (1958). The male mean was estimated to be 168 cm (5’5”), with a female mean of 164
cm (5’4”) (Figure 17). While the male height appears short for modern and historical standards, the
female is around the modern average, although both are in the ‘short‘class, at below 170 cm (Roberts
& Manchester 1998). It has been found that in nutritionally stressed populations, males and females
will often achieve a similar attained stature.
180
170
Avergae Stature (cm)
160
150
140
130
120
110
100
Phase 1
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 3
Female
Female
Male
Male
Male
Indiviudals by Phase
Figure 17. Stature estimation by phase
In order to fully investigate the possible lack of sexual dimorphism displayed by the assemblage, data
on attained stature was used in a point‐biserial correlation (rpb) test (Figure 18). This equation
examines the level of dimorphism between two groups, and provides a level of statistical significance
(Lewis 1997).
Figure 18. The point‐biserial correlation (rpb) where M1 is the mean value on the continuous variable
X for all data points in group 1, M0 is the mean value on the continuous variable X for all data points
in group 2. In addition, n1 is the number of data points in group 1, n0 is the number of data points in
group 2 and n is the total sample size.
Data from the assemblage was used in the online statistic calculator provided by Vassar College, New
York, USA at http://faculty.vassar.edu/lowry/pbcorr.html. A result of no significant difference was
found.
(Appendix 2).
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Non‐metric traits
Non‐metric, or discontinuous, traits are classed as non‐pathological variants in bone morphology,
such as the presence of an extra foramen on the anterior mandible, ossicles within cranial sutures or
the presence of a third trochanter on the femur. There is some argument in the literature as to the
cause and significance of these traits, and several studies have used them as marker of biodistance
between populations and within samples (Bondioli et al. 1986; Ossenberg 1976). The relationship
between trait expression and age is controversial; trait expression is not necessarily an indicator of
familial relationships. Many infra‐cranial traits may be related to physiological rather than genetic
factors (Tyrrell 2000).
50
45
40
35
30
CPR %
Phase 1 (n = 20)
25 Phase 2 (n =15)
20 Phase 3 (n = 7)
15
10
5
0
Mandibualr
Apeture
Supraorbital
Supraorbital
Foramina
Septal
Parietal
Foramina
Notch
Tori
Non-Metric Trait
Figure 19. Cranial non‐metric traits displayed by the adult sample, providing
the expression of a trait as a percentage of the possible expressions within the
phase. Definitions of each trait can be found in Table 8.
The Carrowkeel sample was assessed for 45 traits in total, 28 cranial and 17 postcranial. Primary traits
(Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994) that were expressed by more than one individual were plotted into Figure
19. Phases 1 and 2 show an increase in the parietal foramina and mandibular tori. The septal aperture
is only found in Phase 1. This trait is reliably genetically linked, and is often expressed only by
females. It is likely that it only appears in Phase 1 due to the high number of females in this phase.
The absence of the trait in the later phases does not indicate a change in population. The positive
expression of mandibular tori is thought to have a genetic cause (Gorsky 1998). The consistent
presence of this trait in the assemblage may indicate a familial relationship between some of the
individuals. However, the general low level of trait expressions and the partial nature of the
assemblage mean any trends within the data may not be reliable.
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Primary Trait Description
Supraorbital Notch Notch present at the supraorbital margin of the frontal bone
Supraorbital
Foramen present at the supraorbital margin of the frontal bone
Foramina
Parietal Foramina Foramen located on the parietal bone within or near the suture at obelion
Body ridge or series of nodules developed near the lingual aspect of the mandible near the
Mandibular Tori
premolars and canines
Septal Apeture Perforation between the olecaranon fossa and coronoid fossa of the distal humerus
Table 8. Primary non‐metric traits (after Buikstra & Ubelaker 1994)
Health and disease
Diseases of the skeleton and dentition were assessed using macromorphological methods and
internationally recognised criteria (see ‘Methods’). Probably due to the small number of adults, the
level of disease in the assemblage was deemed to be low. Disorders associated with nutritional
deficiencies and joint disease were the most common. The fracture rate was very low, as was the rate
of infectious disease.
The crude prevalence rate (CPR) is a useful tool in examining pathological conditions such as cribra
orbitalia. By providing the percentage of affected elements by the number of elements actually
present, this method avoids the skewing of data, which often occurs when prevalence rates are
presented by the number of individuals in an assemblage.
Metabolic disorders
Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic Hyperostosis
Sufficient levels of iron in the diet are essential for the maintenance of bodily systems. Adult males
require between 10 mg and 18 mg of iron a day, adult females need 18 mg or more and up to 60 mg
during pregnancy. Children require around 10 mg to 15 mg a day. Iron‐rich foods include red meat,
sea food and poultry, as well as legumes and leafy green vegetables. A lack of iron during the crucial
early years can lead to iron‐deficiency anaemia. Infants normally gain sufficient iron form breast milk
for the first months of life. If the mother herself is anaemic, or during the weaning period, iron levels
in the diet may fall to such an extent that the bone marrow expands to increase hemoglobin
production (Aufderheide & Rodríguez‐Martin 1998). This response is seen in the cranium as porotic
hyperostosis of the vault or cribra orbitalia in the orbits. Possible causes of anaemia within
archaeological populations include poor maternal nutrition, poor general nutrition and parasitic
infection (Grauer 1993).
Figure 20 displays the CPR of cribra orbitalia and porotic hyperostosis in the Carrowkeel assemblage,
by phase. While the rate of cribra orbitalia remains stable throughout the phases, the prevalence of
porotic hyperostosis clearly rises in the Phase 3, from 2% to 33%. This could indicate a drop in
nutrition and general health of the population during this period. The higher rate of cribra orbitalia
follows a general European trend, where cribra orbitalia is more frequent than in North American
archaeological populations (Lewis 2000). Neither pathology was noted in Phase 4.
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50
45
Phase
Figure 20. Crude Prevalence Rates of Cribra Orbitalia and Porotic
Hyperostosis displayed by the Carrowkeel assemblage by phase
Dental Enamel Hypoplasia
The growth of dental enamel is incremental. Traumatic events in childhood such as a drop in
nutrition, or acute illness, cause the deposition of the enamel to halt until the body is in equilibrium
again. Dental enamel hypoplasia occurs most commonly between the ages of 2 and 4 years. During
this period the enamel is developmentally weak and more susceptible to dietary and environmental
stressors. Previous studies linking this peak of defect formation to weaning are beginning to be
discredited (Lewis 2007).
Stressors can cause a noticeable defect in the otherwise smooth enamel, in the form of lines or pitting.
In the majority of paleopathological cases, it is not possible to ascribe a definite aetiology to the
defects, but they are a permanent record of childhood environmental stress of one kind or another.
The CPR of DEH in an assemblage is calculated from the number of teeth present, rather than the
number of individuals (Figure 21). It is also possible to calculate the age range during which the
defect formed, thus providing a record of childhood stressors from birth to around 12 years (Lewis
2000).
Figure 21 shows the steady increase in the prevalence of dental enamel hypoplasia during the active
period of the Carrowkeel cemetery. This increase is not as marked as the increase noted in porotic
hyperostosis, only 3% from Phase 1 to Phase 3, however it may still indicate a decline in general
health and nutrition in the population. The pathology was not noted in Phase 4.
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10
9
Phase
Figure 21. Crude prevalence rate of teeth affected by dental enamel
hypoplasia presented by phase
Levels of Physical Stress
Non‐specific stress indicators such as dental enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis and cribra
orbitalia can provide useful information on the general health of a population.
The prevalence as well as the CPR of non‐specific stress indicators is provided in Tables 9.
Pathology Phase Total Affected Male Female Juvenile CPR%
Cribra Orbitalia 1 18 7 2 1 4 22
2 32 9 1 ‐ 8 28
3 13 4 ‐ 1 3 31
Porotic Hyperostosis 1 20 1 ‐ ‐ 1 5
2 58 1 ‐ ‐ 1 2
3 9 3 ‐ ‐ 3 33
Dental Enamel Hypoplasia 1 29 7 3 2 2 24
2 45 10 ‐ ‐ 10 22
3 11 5 1 1 3 45
Table 9. Incidence and crude prevalence rate of metabolic skeletal disorders in Phases 1‐ 3.
The
‘total’ column provides the total number of parietals, frontals and dentitions present in the
phase assemblage.
A summary of the information provided in Tables 9 can be found in Figure 22. This graph shows the
increase in non‐specific stress indicators during Phase 3, suggestive of a fall in general levels of health
and nutrition during this period.
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45
40
35
CPR% in Phase 30
Phase 1
25
Phase 2
20
Phase 3
15
10
0
Cribra Orbitalia Porotic Hyperstosis DEH
Figure 22. Crude prevalence rates of non‐specific stress indicators by phase
Dental disease
Dental disease is the most immediate form of evidence for diet in the past. The presence of caries,
calculus and the level of wear all provide information on the kind of food consumed, as well as levels
of hygiene and the general health of a population. In general, medieval populations tend to have
better oral health than later peoples. This is closely linked to the wholesale arrival of sugar in the 18th
century, first as a luxury and then as a staple, as import duty was gradually removed during the 19th
century (Mays 1998).
The incidence of caries appears to be sex‐linked, with a higher rate among females. This is thought to
be liked to the denigration of tooth enamel which occurs during pregnancy (Hillson 1986). The low
number of affected individuals from Carrowkeel precluded the investigation of caries prevalence by
sex.
Periodontal disease is a consequence of plaque and calculus deposition. When plaque is present, the
gums become inflamed, leading to gingivitis. Contributing factors are a soft, carbohydrate diet, dental
anomalies such as crowding and malocclusion, and nutritional deficiencies such as scurvy which case
general problems with epithelial tissues (Hillson 1986). If left untreated this can cause the gum and
alveolar bone of the jaw to recede. Eventually this will lead to tooth loss.
Table 10 provides the prevalence rates of dental disease throughout the assemblage, by age group and
phase. Table 11 displays the results for periodontal disease. The phase prevalence trends can be seen
in Figure 23. No evidence for dental disease was found in Phase 4 individuals.
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Dental Total Affected TPR
Phase CPR% Male Female Juvenile Teeth Affected
Pathology Individuals Individuals %
Calculus 1 37 21 57 3 7 11 575 237 41
2 75 17 23 3 0 14 569 154 27
3 18 6 33 1 2 3 252 92 36.5
Caries 1 37 4 11 1 3 0 575 9 2
2 75 1 1.3 1 0 0 569 2 0.3
3 18 3 17 2 0 1 252 5 2
Abscesses 1 37 1 3 0 1 0 575 3 0.5
2 75 0 0 0 0 0 569 0 0
3 18 1 5.5 1 0 0 252 1 0.4
Table 10. Crude and total prevalence rates for dental disease in Phase 1
Total Affected
Phase CPR% Male Female Juvenile Sockets Affected TPR%
Individuals Individuals
1 37 19 51 3 5 11 269 207 77
2 75 10 13 2 0 8 172 82 48
3 18 6 33 2 1 3 57 51 89
Table 11. Crude and total prevalence rates for periodontal disease in Phases 1 ‐ 3
100
90
80
70
60
TPR %
50
40 Phase 1
30 Phase 2
20 Phase 3
10
0
Periodontal
Calculus
Caries
Abcess
Disease
Dental Pathology
Figure 23. Total Prevalence rates (TPR %) of dental disease by phase
Figure 23 shows the prevalence of dental disease within the Carrowkeel assemblage. Rates of calculus
and periodontal disease are high in all phases, while caries and abscesses are rare throughout the
sample. This suggests the assemblage’s diet probably did not contain a lot of cariogenic foods such as
sugar and refined carbohydrates. The pattern of calculus deposition suggests oral hygiene was poor.
Phase 2 sees a clear reduction in all types of dental disease. This is probably due to the high number
of infants and fetal remains with unerupted dentition.
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Joint disease
Joint disease is primarily a pathology born of increasing age and activity. There are exceptions, such
as rheumatoid arthritis, which is an immunological problem and is thought to be a modern disease
(Aufderheide & Rodríguez‐Martin 1998). The Carrowkeel sample shows very low levels of joint
disease. This could be due to the low number of adults in the sample, and their relatively young age
at death.
The degenerative joint change which is present is focused primarily in the vertebral column, with
little evidence for extra‐spinal manifestations of joint degeneration. There were no cases of
osteoarthritis – which requires eburnation for a positive diagnosis (Rogers et al. 1987). The majority of
joint degradation manifested as osteophytic lipping of the articular surface, some porosity of the joint
surface and Schmorl’s nodes (Plate 1).
Tables 12 and 13 show the prevalence rates of spinal joint disease in the assemblage. Only adults were
assessed for these pathologies. The tables are presented by spinal region, as different loads and
movements are required to produce bony reactions at different levels in the vertebral column. The
total prevalence rates are provided in Table 12, and are separated by sex. No evidence for spinal
degradation was found in Phase 2. This is probably due to the small sample size (n= 2).
Vertebrae Total No No Affected CPR% Male Female
Cervical 87 12 14 7 5
Thoracic 151 46 30 27 19
Lumbar 67 30 45 16 14
Total 305 88 29 50 38
Table 12. Prevalence rate of spinal joint disease in the adults
A total of 29% of the present vertebrae are affected to some degree. The table is separated by sex, with
males clearly showing more signs of vertebral degradation than females. This is more noticeable in
the thoracic region of the spine, and may be related to higher levels of activity.
Total Affected
Vertebrae Phase CPR% Male Female Vertebrae Affected TPR%
Adults Individuals
Cervical 1 11 3 27 1 2 65 8 12
3 4 1 25 1 0 20 4 20
Thoracic 1 11 8 73 3 5 109 31 0.4
3 4 2 50 2 0 30 11 0.4
Lumbar 1 11 7 64 3 4 53 28 11
3 4 7 25 1 11 11 2 4
Table 13. Prevalence rates of vertebral DJD by phase
When the TPR% for each phase is calculated, Phase 1 has 29.5% of vertebrae affected with some form
of DJD, while 28% of Phase 3 vertebrae are affected. These figures suggest that the activities being
undertaken by individual’s remains constant throughout the life of the cemetery, with no increase in
wear and tear of the vertebral column.
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Plate 1. Lumbar vertebrae from Skeleton 69. Young adult male from Phase 1
showing degradation and expansion of the vertebral body surface
Schmorl’s nodes form on the body surface of the vertebrae when the intervertebral disc herniates,
causing a depression on the bone surface. They are common features of archaeological populations,
and are activity‐related. Lifting heavy objects, for instance, can cause this type of injury. Table 14
shows their prevalence in the Carrowkeel sample. As they are related to weight‐bearing activity, they
are necessarily only found in the lower regions of the spinal column – the thoracic and lumbar
vertebrae, and often increase in severity downwards through the column.
Male and female prevalence rates for Schmorl’s nodes are similar in Phases 1 and 3. The lack of
female data from Phase 3 may be due to a small sample size rather than a true trend.
Total Affected
Phase CPR% Male Female Vertebrae Affected TPR%
Adults Individuals
1 11 7 64 4 3 162 32 20
3 4 2 50 2 0 41 11 27
Table 14. Prevalence of Schmorl’s nodes in adults from Carrowkeel
Extra spinal joint disease occurs at a very low rate in this population. It is only found in the adults
from Phase 1 This could be due to a difference in physical activity during this phase, or more likely, is
attributable to the more balanced adult sample from this phase. This is likely due to the young age at
death of the majority of adults, as extra spinal joint degradation is closely connected to ageing or
trauma, which also has low incidence in the assemblage as illustrated below (Table 16).
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Joint Total No Affected CPR% Males Females
Tempromandibular 13 3 23 2 1
Sternoclavicular 14 1 7 ‐ 1
Acromioclavicular 15 1 6 ‐ 1
Elbow 16 1 6 ‐ 1
Wrist 16 1 6 ‐ 1
Table 15. Prevalence rate of extra‐spinal joint disease in the Phase 1 adult sample
Figure 24. Distribution of extra‐spinal joint disease in the Carrowkeel assemblage
Trauma
Trauma covers any kind of injury, sustained through accident or interpersonal violence. The latter is
difficult to interpret accurately in paleopathology, although this can sometimes be possible. The
Carrowkeel assemblage displays a very low rate of traumatic injury. As with much of the pathology
shown by this collection, this low rate could be due to the small number of adults within the sample.
Fractures
Skeleton 1, a younger adult female (Phase 1 cal. AD 678 – 832), shows distortion of the lower left tibia
shaft. This is likely due to a spiral fracture which has healed well, with the formation of a callus made
up of dense cortical bone. Spiral tibial fractures are usually the result of sudden, violent, rotating
movements, such as twisting the leg during a fall. The injury this individual sustained appears to
have been a simple one, although some medical care has obviously been received due to the small
level of displacement.
Skeleton 57, a younger adult female (Phase 1 cal. AD 667 – 783), displays a compression fracture of
the 11th thoracic vertebrae. This type of injury is more commonly associated with older, post‐
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menopausal women, who suffer vertebral fractures as a result of osteoporosis and the subsequent loss
of bone density. In a younger woman like this individual the aetiology is almost certainly traumatic.
This ‘telescoping’ deformity, causing the anterior portion of the vertebral body to be compressed,
appears to be the result of a forward‐shearing stress of vertical compressive force – for instance,
landing on one’s feet from a height (Aufderheide & Rodríguez‐Martin 1998). This individual also
shows evidence for severe Schmorl’s’ nodes throughout the lumbar spine.
As discussed above, these lesions occur as the result of weight‐bearing action, such as heavy lifting.
When combined, the vertebral fracture and severe degenerative joint disease suggest a highly active
individual.
Os acromiale
Non‐fusion of the acromiale to the scapula was thought to be developmental in origin for many years.
Work by Stirland (2001) on the crew of the Mary Rose suggested that the condition was more likely to
be activity based. Os acromiale is thought to be the result of strenuous movements of the shoulder
during an individual’s period of growth. Regarded as a rare anomaly today, it is largely seen in
professional sports people such as baseball players. There is thought to be an especially strong
connection with the trait and over‐arm movements, as seen on the archers aboard the Mary Rose. The
relatively high incidence of the trait in medieval populations is thought to be linked to the higher
demands of activity which would have been placed on the developing skeleton. (Knüsel 2000)
The Carrowkeel assemblage shows two instances of bilateral os acromiale; Skeleton 90 (Phase 3), a
middle adult male (Figure 21), and Skeleton 57 (Phase 2), a younger adult female radiocarbon dated
to cal. AD 667 ‐ 783. The bilateral nature of these pathologies suggests an activity‐related origin, and
could be related to high levels of strenuous activity while adolescent.
Plate 2. Os acromiale of the right scapula, Skeleton 90 a middle adult male, Phase 3
Soft‐tissue injury
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Plate 3. View of calvarium of Skeleton 107 Phase 1 middle adult male
(cal. AD 768 – 897). Proliferative new bone growth stretches from the mid‐point
of the saggital suture to bregma. Possible case of accidental scalping.
Skeleton 107 (Phase 1), a middle adult male, displays unusual cranial pathology. Radiocarbon dated
to cal. AD 768 – 897, proliferative new bone extends from the posterior of the frontal bone (bregma) to
the mid‐point of the saggital suture (Figure 17). The focus appears to be a tear‐shaped area of porosity
approximately 55 mm by 30 mm to the right of the saggital suture (Figure 22). The porosity combined
with new bone production is suggestive of soft‐tissue injury, and the lesion does not extend into the
inner table as may be expected with an infective pathology. Although no cut marks are evident, it is
hypothesised that this injury was sustained as the result of an accidental scalping.
Non‐accidental injury (NAI)
Healing fractures were noted at the right and left 3rd ribs of an infant, aged 3 to 9 months at death. The
area of fracture was identified through soft callus formation made up of woven bone at the angle of
the ribs (Figure 25, Plate 4). Woven bone was also noted throughout the rib cage and on the limb bone
shafts, with the right femur and radius being most heavily affected. Grey deposits of woven bone
were also noted on the endo‐cranial surface.
These lesions could have several aetiologies. A differential diagnosis of this case is provided below,
and discusses possibilities of infantile scurvy, oetogenesis imperfecta fetalis (brittle bone disease) and
traumatic origins (Appendix 3).
Infantile scurvy
Primates, including humans and guinea pigs, are some of the few animals who cannot produce
Vitamin C. Instead, we must ingest ascorbic acid with our food which allows for the uptake of this
essential vitamin (Aufderheide & Rodriguez‐Martin 1998). Vitamin C is required for the synthesis of
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collagen. A deficiency in ascorbic acid can lead to a weakening of collagen structure, resulting in
haemorrhaging of defective connective tissues.
In infants, symptoms appear around 4 to 10 months after the deficiency begins (Lewis 2007). Minor
traumas can lead to subperiosteal haemorrhaging at long bone joints, hypertrophic lesions of the
exocranial surface as the marrow expands, orbital porosity following retinal haemorrhaging, tooth
loss, vertebral fracture and rib fractures at the costochondral junction (Aufderheide & Rodriguez‐
Martin 1998; Lewis 2007). The infant shows cranial lesions, although they are endocranial and appear
to be made up of new bone formation rather than porosity. Bilateral porosity is noted in the upper
orbit. This may be a result of retinal haemorrhaging. The rib fractures found in Skeleton 41 are at the
posterior aspect, not the costochondral junction. Woven bone is found on the diaphysis of the limb
bones, not at the epiphyses or metaphyses. There is some woven bone on the body of the scapula. The
metaphyses appear normal and not widened. The remains are too young to assess vertebral fracture
or any dental developments.
It is not felt that the remains represent a case of infantile scurvy.
Ostegenica imperfecta fetalis
Ostegenica Imperfecta Fetalis, or Brittle Bone Disease, is a genetic condition affecting between 1 in
30,000 to 1 in 60, 000 live births in the USA today. Four forms of the condition exist. The infantile
(Type II) is considered the most severe and leads to intrauterine fractures before birth. Individuals
suffer birth trauma in the form of more fractures. Paleopathologically, the disease is recognised
through multiple and repeated fractures, leading to shortened limbs. Bone quality can be seen to be
poor radiologically, with a thinned cortex and sparse trabecular structure. Ossification in the cranium
can be affected, leading to cranial deformities (Aufderheide & Rodríguez‐Martin 1998). Infant
Skeleton 41 displays fractured ribs, but no breaks in the remainder of the skeleton. Radiographs show
the bone structure to be normal. It is not felt that the remains represent a case of ostegenica imperfecta
fetalis.
Non‐accidental injury (NAI)
Battered‐Baby Syndrome, or Non‐Accidental Injury, was first clinically described by French physician
Ambrose Tardieu in 1860, although it was not until the 1960s that his work began to find acceptance
in the medical community. Current estimates suggest that 20,000 children are physically abused each
year in the United States, 2500 of these children will die from their injuries (Lewis 2007).
The combination of fractures at different stages of healing and periostisis on the limb bones of
Skeleton 41 is suggestive of non‐accidental injury. Limb bones are often used as ‘handles’ by abusers,
in order to grip or shake the child, resulting in diaphyseal woven bone production from the heavily
bruised soft tissues (Walker 2001). The shaking movement also results in the subdural haematomas,
which could cause endocranial lesions and orbital porosity (Lewis 2004; 2007).
Infant bones are substantially more elastic than adult bones, and take considerable force to break. The
force exerted on the rib cage during anterior‐posterior compression, when combined with the shaking
movement, is one of the few mechanisms liable to cause this kind of injury (Figure 26). Posterior rib
fractures are considered by modern clinicians ‘to be quite specific for abuse’ (Bulloch et al. 2000, 7).
Periostisis (woven bone) formation occurs between 4 and 14 days after the incident.
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Figure 26. Anterior‐posterior compression of the chest associated with
the shaking of an infant (after Reece 2006) 1: Posterior angle, 2: Neck
Radiographically, the remains show two rib fractures at different stages of healing (Plate 4). The
fracture of the left rib was assessed to be around 3 to 6 months old, with the injury to the right rib
older. It was not felt that this injuries could be ascribed to birth trauma, and were felt by the
consulting radiologist to be ’highly suggestive of non‐accidental injury’ (O’Keefe pers. comm.). The
implications of this will be discussed further below.
Trauma rates for the assemblage are summarised in Table 16.
Fracture Os Acromiale Soft‐Tissue NAI
Phase CPR%
(n) (n) (n) (n)
1 2 0 1 0 8
2 1 1 0 1 4
3 0 1 0 0 5.5
Total 3 2 1 1 6
Table 16. Trauma rates in the Carrowkeel assemblage presented by Phase
Plate 4. Radiograph of rib from infant Skeleton 41, showing raised area of
callus formation and superior‐inferior fracture line
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Infectious Disease
Tuberculosis
Mycobacterium tuberculosis usually enters its host through droplet infection, settling in the lungs and
causing the classic pulmonary form of the disease which leads to violent coughing, lethargy and low
grade fever. Ingestion of milk from infected cows causes lesions in the intestinal tract and infection of
the lymph nodes (Bullen 2003). Skeletal involvement only occurs in the second phase of the disease
and indicates a robust immune system which has been able to stave off serious infection for some
time. Skeletal lesions only occur in 7% of modern cases (ibid.), thus the true level of infection in a
population will likely not be visible archaeologically. Tubercular skeletal lesions are recognisable by
their overwhelmingly destructive nature – forming lytic areas of reaction with little or no evidence of
healing or remodelling. They are normally focussed in the vertebral column, followed by the hip and
knee. However, virtually any bone and joint can be affected.
Skeleton 75, an older child aged 7 to 11 years (Phase 2), shows evidence for some kind of pleural
infection, through woven bone on the anterior pleural surface of the right ribs. This may be indicative
of droplet‐infection tuberculosis. Skeleton 17, a younger child aged 4 to 6 years (Phase 2), display
unusual lesions of the proximal ulna which may also relate to tuberculosis. Tuberculosis of the elbow
accounts for up to 8% of all reported cases (Dahl 2001).
Plates 5 and 6 show the aggressive bilateral lesions on the proximal ulnae of Skeleton 17. The lesions
have caused medio‐lateral expansion with apparent necrosis of the joint surface. Radiographic
examination showed an intra‐articular infective process, possibly leading to olecranon bursitis.
Tubercular infection was thought to be the most likely aetiology (O’Keefe, pers. comm.). They were
active at the time of death, suggesting that they had a role to play in the demise of this individual.
Bilateral tuberculosis of the elbow is unusual, but not unknown. In their presentation of a modern
clinical case from Pakistan, Ali et al. (2004), describe aggressive lytic lesions of the proximal ulna,
caused by the granulomatous lesions of tuberculosis. They point out that although bilateral cases of
the disease are rare; it is more likely to occur in the epiphyses and metaphyses of the growing child.
Once infected, the joint becomes inflamed and produces granulation tissue, which begins to erode the
joint and produces the lytic lesions seen in Skeleton 17 (Dahl 2001).
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Plate 5. Ulnae of Skeleton 17, a child aged 4 to 6 years (Phase 2), showing
severe destructive lesions to the proximal articulating surfaces
Plate 6. Left ulna of Skeleton 17, showing the highly aggressive lytic lesions
on the proximal articulating surface.
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Non‐specific infection
Osteomyelitis and periostisis are symptoms of the body’s reaction to chronic and acute infections.
Osteomyelitis occurs most commonly through a primary blood infection by a pyogenic bacterium,
which then metastasises to the bone marrow. The most common sites of involvement are the femur,
tibia, humerus and radius. In its acute form, infection can also occur as a result of a compound
fracture where the bone breaks the skin. The resulting infection can lead to suppurating lesions from
the medullary cavity, necrosis of bone, the formation of a sequestrum and active disorganised new
bone production. This new bone can eventually form a sheath known as an involcrum around the
affected area. Periostisis has a much broader aetiology. Striated new bone is produced when the
periosteum surrounding the bone is inflamed. The tibia is the most commonly affected element, and
inflammation can occur as a result of infection or a physical blow (Aufderheide & Rodríguez‐Martin
1998).
Skeleton 51, an older adult female (Phase 1, cal. AD 761‒884), shows evidence of possible osteomyeltis
of the left femur and pelvis. Although the femoral head is missing, the subtrochanteric area of the
shaft displays active formation of irregular new bone. The left illium is also fragmented, but the
sciatic notch is filled by an irregular tumor‐like mass of new bone (Plate 7). The aetiology of chronic
infective osteomyeltis is suggested, metastasised from the pelvis to femur. Healing periostisis of the
anterior tibia shaft suggests the infection may have spread into the lower leg.
Skeleton 90, a middle adult male (Phase 3), also had evidence for infection through bilateral
periostisis affecting his anterior tibiae.
A summary of infectious disease rates is provided in Table 17.
Phase Tuberculosis Osteomyelitis Periostisis CPR%
1 0 1 0 2.7
2 2 0 0 2.6
3 0 0 1 5.5
Total 2 2 1 3.7
Table 17. Summary of infectious disease rates in the assemblage
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Plate 7. The left proximal femur and illium of Skeleton 51 (Phase 1, cal. AD 761‒884),
showing reactive new bone production, especially notable below the anterior inferior
illiac spine
Circulatory Disorders
Osteochondrosis dessicans is primarily a disorder of the young, affecting individuals between the
ages of 10 and 25 years. Usually of traumatic origin, it occurs when the blood flow to an area of bone
within a diathrodial joint is disrupted. The bone subsequently dies and detaches. The detached piece
of bone is sometimes retained within the joint space, and is described as a ’joint mouse’. Skeleton 105,
a young adult male (Phase 2), shows the classic form of the condition with a small, circular lesion of
the left femoral condyle. The lesion is in its early stages, with necrosis having taken place but no
detachment of bone (Plate 8)
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Plate 8. Proximal joint surface of the tibia and femoral condyles (left) showing
early stage of osteochondritis dessicans – circular lesion to the centre of the picture.
Skeleton 105, young adult male, Phase 2.
Congenital Conditions
Congenital failure of any limb to form is known as aplasia. Skeleton 126 (Phase 2) is an older child
aged 7 – 10 years, showing evidence of femoral aplasia. The right femoral caput and acetabulum have
failed to form, and there is congenital fusion of the 4th and 5th thoracic vertebrae. The femur is
considerably smaller than its partner, the diaphysis measuring some 20 mm less. There is a small
degree of anterior‐posterior shaft rotation, with no evidence for trauma, infection or new bone
production (Plate 9).
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Plate 9. The femora of older child Skeleton 126 (Phase 2), showing
proximal focal deficiency of the right femur. Note the lack of femoral
caput and considerable atrophy of the right limb.
Proximal femoral focal deficiency is considered to be rare by modern clinicians, and describes the
developmental failure of the proximal femur; it is unilateral in 90% of cases (Aufderheide &
Rodríguez‐Martin 1998). Although a congenital defect, the condition has no known genetic cause
(Ozkan et al. 2005). It is likely in the case of Skeleton 126 that the failure of the hip to develop
correctly has caused instability of the axial skeleton, leading to the fusion of the thoracic vertebrae.
Disarticulated Material
Only a small amount of disarticulated bone was present in the collection, likely representing
contemporary disturbance caused by the placing of new graves into the cemetery. The two contexts
which produced the largest amount of disarticulated material are topsoil (1002) and the general
cemetery soil (1098).
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Total Frag Upper Lower MNI MNI
Context Axial
No. Limb Limb Adult Subadult
1002 638 518 82 38 3 3
1021 1 1 ‐ ‐ ‐ 1
1098 106 63 38 5 4 6
1173 51 39 2 7 2 3
1261 1 ‐ ‐ 1 1 ‐
1365 30 23 1 6 1 1
1367 1 ‐ ‐ 1 ‐ 1
Total 828 644 123 58 11 15
Table 18. Disarticulated bone
The minimum number of individuals represented by this material is 26 ‐ 11 adults and 15 subadults.
This brings the MNI of the excavated part of the cemetery to 158, 27 adults and 131 subadults (Table
18)
Funerary Practice
70
% of Burial Position within Age
60
50
Category
40
Extended
30 Flexed
20 Disarticulated
10
0
Foetus Infant Child Adolescent Adult
Age Category
Figure 27. Distribution of body position within Carrowkeel cemetery, excluding crouched
and prone burials, which only occurred once within the assemblage.
Burial and funerary practices appear to have undergone little change during the period of use at
Carrowkeel. The majority of burials were interred in the traditional Christian manner, supine
extended and orientated NE‒SW. Body position appears to be related to the age of an individual,
rather than the phase to which they belong. Figure 27 shows that older children, adolescents and
adult burials were more likely to be interred in the traditional supine extended position, while the
infant and fetal remains not only have a tendency to be buried in a flexed position but are also more
likely to become disarticulated.
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60
50
% of Individuals
Phase I
40
Phase II
30 Phase III
20 Phase IV
10
0
Extended
Crouched
Flexed
Prone
Disarticulated
Body Position
Figure 28. Body positions by phase
Figure 28 shows a consistency in body position trends throughout the active period of the cemetery.
Phase 1 has the highest percentage of extended burials, this is probably linked to the high number of
adults in this phase.
An unusual deviation from the normal burial practice was found in burial 119. The remains of a
younger adult female, aged 25 to 35 (cal. AD 658 – 773) were discovered to be in an unusual flexed
position (Figure 29). Cut by the burial of Skeleton 114 (cal. AD 660 – 772), which removed the left leg
(found with the grave cut of Skeleton 114); this individual has been placed with her legs in a tightly
flexed and lateral position. The position of the left foot indicates that the left leg too, was placed in an
outwardly flexed position. No pathology was found which may have necessitated this position.
Few individuals were buried crouched or prone. Skeleton 82 (cal. AD 885 – 999) was found in a
tightly crouched position, with its hands wrapped around the knees (Figure 30). A single perinate
from Phase 2 (Skeleton 56) was found prone within a relatively deep grave cut of 15 cm. The burial
was also situated in an unusual north‐south orientation.
The only examples of stone linings for graves were found in the non‐adult sample. Four partly stone
lined graves were found, for Skeletons 49 and 70, (Phase 1, Figure 29) and Skeletons 97 and 121 (Phase
2). These were older children and adolescents, and had been placed in the southern part of the
excavated area
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Grave goods
There were few examples of grave goods. A number of skeletons were found with river‐rolled
quartzite pebbles, and these were placed in a variety of positions around the body (Plate 10). The
pattern of quartz deposition does not vary greatly between the phases, nor does there seem to be a
significant trend in the inclusion of quartz with male, female or non‐adult burials (Table 19).
Quartz has significance in Irish historical burial practice, especially in the medieval period at church
cemeteries such as Ballyshannon, Co. Donegal, where quartz pebbles were found with many burials
(Ó Donnchadha 2007) and Relickoran on Inishmurray (O’Sullivan & Ó Carragáin 2008). The
outstanding example is Knockea, Co. Limerick (O’Kelly 1967) where there were c. 35 quartz pebbles
in a ‘tribal’ cemetery of extended burials within a palisaded bank, with no entrance. The significance
of the stone to Irish burial culture is not certain; quartz may symbolize the soul of the dead, or light
the way into the next world. Excavations in Wales have also found quartz placed in graves dating
from the early medieval period, and it has been suggested that the practice is linked to a passage from
Revelations which states ‘give him a white stone, and in the stone a new name written, which no man
knoweth saving he that receiveth it’ (Revelations 2:17, quoted in Holbrook 2004).
Animal bone was also found associated with many of the burials, although deliberate placing was
hard to identify in most cases. Due to the generally high level of disturbance within the cemetery, it is
probable that this material was placed into graves during the burial process, or found its way there
during the later burial phase and subsequent disturbance of earlier graves. However, in some cases it
is possible to ascertain deliberate placement. The majority of these were in Phase 2 (Table 20).
Skeleton 52, an older child aged 6 to 10 years, appeared to be holding a piece of animal bone in its
hand, although as yet the species and significance of this is unknown. In addition, pigs’ teeth were
placed either side of the cranium of several skeletons; see Table 20, below.
Plate 10. Middle adult female Skeleton 57, (Phase 1) with quartz placed at right
shoulder
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Skeleton No. Phase Age Category Animal Bone Location
17 2 Younger Child Pigs teeth Cranium
31 2 Perinate Pigs teeth Cranium
36 2 Infant Unknown Cranium
76 3 Older Child Unknown Cranium & hand
90 2 Middle Adult Horse molar, cattle molar and ribs Cranium
Table 20. Showing burials from Carrowkeel with associated animal bone
Multiple burials
The only confirmed multiple burial is that of Skeletons 85 and 86 from Phase 1 (Figure 31). Skeleton
85 is an older child of 7 to 9 years, while 86 represents a much younger individual of around 1 to 2
years. They were dated to cal. AD 770 – 899 and cal. AD 766 – 899 respectively. The older child
(Skeleton 85) showed no evidence for disease or malnutrition; the younger child (Skeleton 86) did
have evidence of nutritional deficiency in the form of cribra orbitalia on both orbits. The burial cut
that of Skeleton 87, dated to cal. AD 668 – 827 (Phase I). This individual represents a younger child of
around 4 to 6 years of age. The burials lie within a cluster of non‐adult burials in this Phase.
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Discussion
The excavated assemblage represents only a proportion of the individuals buried at Carrowkeel. The
lack of a complete cemetery population limits the usefulness of this study in many ways. The inherent
skew in the data must be kept in mind during all discussions of the assemblage’s character,
demography and meaning.
The Development of the Cemetery
Radiocarbon dates suggest that the cemetery at Carrowkeel was in use from at least the 7th to 15th
centuries. A span of 800 years or more, this shows a strong tradition and continuation of use for the
site. It is not known whether the same population used the site for the whole of this period, and the
later burials (Phase 4) may be completely unrelated in both familial and cultural terms to the
remainder of the assemblage. The earliest phase is characterised by adult burials, both male and
female (although predominately female), interred in NW‐SE orientated rows. There is a cluster of
non‐adult burials towards the centre of the excavated area, made up two infants, two neonates and
four juveniles. This cluster may be the beginning of the spatial dominance of non‐adult burials seen in
Phase 2, when the character of the cemetery changes markedly.
One of the earliest burials in this part of the cemetery is Skeleton 72, an adolescent dated to AD 676 –
870. This individual was buried in a flexed position at the terminus of the ditch (1260) that provides a
rough southwestern boundary for the burial ground. Pre‐dating this burial, the ditch had also
become the final resting place for at least 11 sheep, laid at its base. The ditch was falling out of use
when Skeleton 72 was interred within it. There appears to be no pressure of space on the cemetery at
this time, and the reason why this individual was buried within the ditch is unclear. There may have
been a social message behind the action, or it could have been the use of a ‘grave’ already partly dug
in the form of the silting‐up ditch. The ditch was soon obliterated and more burials placed on top,
like young adult female Skeleton 01, dated AD 678 – 832 who was buried to the west of the terminus.
Phase 2 saw a big increase in the number of non‐adults buried in this part of the cemetery. The
separate burial of children in cíllíní has been well documented for the later and post‐medieval period
in Ireland (Finlay 2000). There has been little evidence for the marginalization of children in the early
medieval period. Clusters of child burials are found within Anglo‐Saxon cemeteries, and there does
appear to be an early Christian trend for the separation of young children within cemeteries in Britain
such as Raunds Furnells, Northamptonshire (Boddington & Cadman 1981), Whithorn St Nininan,
Scotland (Hill 1997), Jarrow, Tyneside (Cramp 1969), Winchester, Hampshire (Hawkes & Grainger
2003) and Fishergate, York (Spall & Toop 2005). The pattern is also seen at sites in Europe such as
Trondheim and Hamar Cathedral in Norway as well as Lugano and Cazzanello in Italy (Becker 1995;
Lewis 2007). The majority of these sites are ecclesiastical and early medieval in date. Carrowkeel
provides evidence for this kind of spatial organization in an Irish context. It is likely that had the
whole cemetery been excavated, the assemblage would have resembled a ‘normal’ population, with a
more balanced number of adults.
Phase 3 continued the pattern seen in Phase 2, with a high number of non‐adult burials, although
much less than previously. This period may represent the gradual disuse of the cemetery, or a change
in its spatial organization.
Phase 4, dated to the 14th – 15th centuries, may represent the use of the cemetery as a cíllín. Cíllíní were
often sited in earlier religious sites or areas with local significance such as ringforts or prehistoric
monuments (Finlay 2000). The late date of both burials, and their very young ages (both are fetuses)
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suggests that Carrowkeel may have been in use as a clandestine burial ground in the later medieval
period.
The Character of the Assemblage
The calculation of a life table provided an estimated life expectancy of 55 years for the assemblage.
The contributing population size was estimated to be 379 for the part of the population relating to the
excavated assemblage, and not for the cemetery as a whole. As discussed above, the assemblage was
characterised by young children; there was a large proportion of fetuses and newborns. It s felt that
this reflects the spatial organization of the cemetery, rather than the totally separate burial of children
as in a cíllín. Had the entire cemetery been excavated the assemblage may have resembled a normal
population with an even distribution of age categories.
The health of the assemblage remained stable throughout the three phases for which it could be
ascertained. In general, the sample appears to be healthy with low rates of infectious disease and
trauma. Prevalence rates of congenital conditions were also low. Pathological conditions that were
noted were linked to poor nutrition and physical activity. Poor levels of nutrition were also seen in
metrical analyses. Estimations of attained adult stature showed close male and female means. Often
stressed populations will not achieve their full genetic potential, especially in adult stature levels.
Males tend to be more affected than females, with the result that there is less sexual dimorphism in
stature level (Lewis 1997). The male and female stature means showed only a 4 cm difference. A
point‐biserial correlation test was applied, which determined that there was no statistically significant
difference in stature. This supported the pathological observations of a population under
environmental stress.
Levels of general health appear to have fallen in the later phases. This can be seen through the
increasing rates of dental enamel hypoplasia, porotic hyperostosis and cribra orbitalia in Phases 2 and
3. These increases could be linked to a genuine fall in the levels of nutrition and general health of the
population, or they could be connected to the shift in focus of the cemetery towards more child
burials. If the section of the population being buried in this part of the cemetery is different, we may
expect a difference in rate of general health indicators.
Although fracture rates were low, the assemblage clearly derives from an active population. Non‐
adult mortality rates showed a peak at around 5 to 9 years, suggesting that this was the age children
began to enter the adult world and thereby increased their exposure to dangerous activities (Lewis
2007, 86‐87). The presence of Os acromiale also indicates an active non‐adult population. This defect
in the scapula is known to occur during adolescence due to strenuous activity. Examples in the
Carrowkeel assemblage are found in Phases 2. Only the adult sample was assessed for degenerative
joint disease. The rate of vertebral degradation remained constant at 28%‒29% from Phase 1 to Phase
3. Males showed higher rates of degradation probably linked to more strenuous activity. While DJD
was a constant in the adult sample, cases were mild and restricted to osteophytic lipping of joint
surface. There were no cases of osteoarthritis, which requires eburnation (polishing of the joint
surface) for a positive diagnosis. Extra‐spinal joint degradation was only found in Phase 1. This is
probably due to the low number of adults in the later phases, and their younger age profile.
Research into early medieval cemeteries in Ireland suggests that they may be used by single families
over generations as tribal burial grounds (OʹBrien 1984; O’Brien 1999, 52). Due to the partial nature of
the assemblage and the dominance of non‐adults; it is not possible to ascertain if the Carrowkeel
cemetery represents a family or kin group. However, some work was done to try to ascertain familial
groupings within the cemetery. The prevalence of non‐metric traits in the assemblage was examined,
but the results were felt to be inconclusive. Spatial grouping of several traits also proved to be
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inconclusive. The prevalence of the septal aperture and mandibular torus were plotted onto the site
plan. Although very loose groupings for both traits could be seen, it was not felt that the data
supported a familial relationship between the individuals concerned.
Funerary Practice and Burial Ritual
The burials at Carrowkeel were almost uniformly simple in nature. There was little evidence of lining
of graves, grave markers and little variety in body position. Flexed and crouched burials were more
likely to be non‐adult. Unusual burials included the flexed adolescent found at the terminus of a ditch
(1260) from Phase 1, the tightly crouched adolescent from Phase 2, and the highly unorthodox
‘akimbo’ female burial also from Phase 2. Unfortunately the meaning behind these variations in burial
rite cannot be explained as no patterning in their temporal and spatial distribution, sex, age or
pathological conditions could be found.
In general, the individuals forming this assemblage are in accordance with Christian rites in a roughly
east‐west orientation and lacking grave goods. River‐rolled quartz and some animal bone were found
in a number of burials, which may represent older non‐Christian practices retained by the population.
Phase 2 sees the most dramatic change in the nature of the cemetery, as the assemblage becomes
dominated by non‐adults. This spatial margialiastion of children in one section of the cemetery has
British and European parallels for the early medieval period, and may be a precursor to the later and
post‐medieval cíllín tradition. It is hoped that more radiocarbon dating work can be undertaken on
early medieval skeletal populations, some of which may have been wrongly assumed to be cíllín
assemblages simply due to the high number of infants.
Evidence for Child Abuse
The mistreatment of children is a highly emotive subject. There is little concrete evidence for child
abuse in the archaeological record; some researchers to conclude that it is a modern phenomenon
(Walker 2001). Often diagnosis of abuse in modern forensic cases can prove extremely difficult; when
only the dry bones are laid before us it may seem almost impossible. Battered‐child syndrome
requires multiple fractures in different stages of healing to be positively identified. Walker (1997) has
used paleopathological methods to diagnose abuse in several forensic cases, but has never found an
archaeological case.
There may be several reasons for this. Firstly, non‐adults are usually under‐represented in
archaeological populations, from lack of preservation, problems with recovery, or separate burial
practices. Secondly, it is rare for osteoarchaeologists to examine material using radiographs. These are
essential in any case of possible abuse when the timing and pattern of fractures and other injuries
need to be examined in detail. Finally, researchers are often unwilling to consider abuse as an
aetiology for traumatic injures in non‐adult remains. Walker (2001) suggests that battered children are
a result of modern isolation and the decline in community support networks.
One of the only paleopathologically recognised cases was described by Blondiaux et al. (2002). The
remains of a two year old female child, from 4th‐century Lisieux in Northern France, displayed signs
of rickets as well as skeletal trauma. A series of cranial fractures associated with chipped dental
enamel and plaque‐like deposits of new bone on the endocranial surface suggested the injuries were
as a result on non‐accidental trauma. The combination of trauma and vitamin deficiency provided
compelling evidence for abuse and neglect of this young girl. Her sex was determined using PCR
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amplification; the authors feel that sex determination in such cases is vital in order to properly
understand the social implications behind abuse.
It is felt that the evidence from Carrowkeel provides important positive evidence for child abuse in
the past. Multiple rib fractures, as this child sustained, are thought by modern clinicians to be
indicative of abuse.
It is hoped that future researchers will examine the possibility of abuse when undertaking differential
diagnoses of non‐adult trauma from the archaeological record.
Conclusions
An assemblage of 132 individuals was excavated from a medieval cemetery at Carrowkeel, Co.
Galway. The burials could be split into four phases over 800 years from the 7th to 15th centuries. It is
not believed that the assemblage represented a single family, although non‐metric analysis suggested
some degree of relatedness within the assemblage. The average life expectancy was calculated to be
55 years of age. The assemblage was majority non‐adult, with a very high proportion of infant and
fetal remains. It is believed that these represented normal child death and the mortality pattern did
not suggest infanticide. Carrowkeel appears to represent the spatial marginalisation of non‐adults
within a normal cemetery population, and is not felt to be a cíllín, a type of site which is common in
the later and post‐medieval periods, especially in the West of Ireland. However, this marginalisation
may be a precursor to this uniquely Irish tradition.
The health of the assemblage was deemed to be good, with very low rates of trauma, infectious and
congenital disease. However, the reader is once again cautioned that as the assemblage is a sub‐
sample; the true disease prevalence within the cemetery population can not be known from present,
limited evidence. Metabolic and degenerative joint disease were common, but were not severe.
Evidence for nutritional stress in the population was also seen in the lack of sexual dimorphism
between the adult sample and the stunted growth pattern of some non‐adults. Of most interest was
evidence for non‐accidental injury of an infant aged between 3 and 9 months from Phase 2. This
individual was radiocarbon dated to AD 859 – 991 and is felt to be one of the first cases of child abuse
to be reported paleopathologically.
The bioarchaeology of childhood is an area of research which is becoming more widespread and
better understood. Sites such as Carrowkeel provide an excellent opportunity to investigate the lives
of children in early medieval Ireland, their ways of life and death, and how they were viewed and
treated by society. It is hoped that future research will examine the assemblage in yet more detail in
order to fully understand this population and their context.
6. Acknowledgments
The author would like to acknowledge the help received from Jerry O’Sullivan of the National Roads
Authority in the production of this report. Thanks are also due to Ruaridh Allen and Dr David
O’Keefe of the Radiology Department, University College Hospital, Galway, for their assistance in the
examination of skeletal remains.
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Dr David O’Keefe, Consultant Radiologist, University College Hospital Galway
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C Ordnance Survey of Ireland, Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
C Ordnance Survey of Ireland and Government of Ireland. Licence No. EN 0008105
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Juvenile
Infant
Foetus
122 96
112
57
70
83
104 115
27
113 53
51
22
114
72
93
119 88 94
107
102
100
85
106 86
87
69
42
43
125 49
52
0 2.5 m
Adult Female
Adult Male
Juvenile
75
Infant
Foetus
90
101
108
109
62
50 95
59
56
61
34 103
124 35 97
105
31 36
30
92 12
41 82
21 23
29
37 65 39 11
73
38
91 18
99
84 10
126
40
66 9
5
48
121 45 28
24
25 58
19 20 8
17
123
4
32 16
6
26
63
33
71
14
13
0 2.5 m
Adult Female
Adult Male
Juvenile
Infant
Foetus
111
110
117
116
46 67
80
47
79
44 89
76
60
54 (Phase 4)
15 (Phase 4)
78 74
77
0 2.5 m
detail of ribs
cemetery
41
0 12.5 cm 0 8m
Figure 25 - N6 Galway to Ballinasloe Bypass, Co. Galway, Contract 2: Carrowkeel A024/1 E2046
Skeleton 41 showing box details of lesions suggestive of ‘shaken baby’ syndrome
quartz animal bone
quartz
0 0.5 m
Skeleton 49 Juvenile, extended
cemetery
119
N 49
0 8m
0 0.5 m
Skeleton 119 Adult female, flexed
0 0.5 m
Skeleton 72 Juvenile, flexed
cemetery
82 72
0 8m
0 0.5 m
Skeleton 82 Juvenile, crouched
86
87
0 0.5 m
Skeletons 85, 86, 87 Juvenile, extended
cemetery
85
86
87
N
0 8m
Appendix 11 Phased skeletal catalogue
SK
No. Context No. Phase Age Sex Stature (m) Comments
1 1041 1 16 - 18 yrs F? 1.73 Healed tibia fracture (left)
2 1060 1 1 year - - -
3 1106 1 40 - 45 yrs F? - Calculus / Caries / Vertebral DJD
4 1105 2 32 - 34 fetal wks - - -
5 1117 2 39 fetal wks - - -
6 1104 2 33 - 34 fetal wks - - -
7 1108 2 Birth - 1 year - - -
9 1107 2 6 - 12 months - - -
10 1132 2 4 - 6 yrs - - Calculus
11 1158 2 Birth - 1 month - - -
12 1142 2 12 - 24 months - - -
13 1150 2 40 fetal wks - Birth - - -
14 1151 2 36 - 38 fetal weeks - - -
15 1118 4 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
16 1119 2 6 - 9 yrs - - -
17 1129 2 4 - 6 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia / DEH / Calculus / Extraspinal TB
18 1157 2 10 - 11 yrs - - -
19 1133 2 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
20 1148 2 8 - 16 months - - -
21 1137 2 Birth - 1 year - - -
22 1138 1 35 - 40 yrs M - Cribra Orbitalia / DEH / Calculus / Extraspinal DJD / Vertebral DJD
23 1159 2 < 1 year - - -
24 1149 2 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
25 1145 2 6 - 12 months - - -
26 1146 2 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
27 1147 1 4 - 6 yrs - - Calculus
28 1156 2 Birth - 1 year - - -
29 1164 2 Birth - 2 months - - -
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SK
No. Context No. Phase Age Sex Stature (m) Comments
30 1166 2 6 - 7 months - - -
31 1173 2 Birth +/- 2 months - - -
32 1174 2 12 - 16 months - - DEH
33 1175 2 5 - 6 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia / Caluclus / Periodontal Disease
34 1187 2 Birth - 2 yrs - - -
35 1194 2 25 - 26 fetal weeks - - -
36 1195 2 2 - 6 months - - -
37 1203 2 Birth - 2 yrs - - -
38 1204 2 6 - 12 months - - -
39 1216 2 30 - 38 fetal weeks - - -
40 1222 2 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
41 1225 2 3 - 9 months - - Rib fracture (bilateral) / Woven bone (limbs) / Cribra Orbitalia
42 1227 1 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
43 1226 1 34 - 36 fetal weeks - - -
44 1228 2 7 - 9 yrs - - Caluclus / Periodontal Disease
45 1240 2 Birth +/- 2 months - - -
46 1241 3 34 fetal weeks - - -
47 1242 3 3 - 4 yrs - - Porotic Hyperostosis / Cribra Orbitalia / DEH
48 1243 2 6 - 12 months - - -
49 1275 1 14 - 15 yrs - - Calculus / Periodontal Disease / DEH
50 1247 2 Birth +/- 2 months - - -
51 1250 1 45 - 60+ F 1.53 Calculus / Caries / Extraspinal & Vertebral DJD / Osteomyelitis / Periostisis
52 1251 1 6 - 10 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia / Porotic Hyperostosis / Periostisis / Calculus / Periodontal Disease
53 1252 1 2 - 3 months - - -
54 1255 4 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
55 1256 3 - - - -
56 1257 2 37 fetal weeks - - -
57 1258 1 25 - 30 yrs F 1.59 Os Acromiale / Compression fracture T11 / Cribra Orbitalia / Calculus / Periodontal Disease
58 1259 2 1 -2 yrs - - Porotic Hyperostosis
59 1514 2 8 - 10 yrs - - -
60 1271 3 32 - 36 fetal weeks - - -
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SK
No. Context No. Phase Age Sex Stature (m) Comments
61 1272 2 2 -3 months - - -
62 1273 2 < 1 year - - -
63 1274 2 37 - 38 fetal weeks - - -
64 1278 2 Birth - 2 months - - -
65 1307 2 12 - 13 yrs - - Caluclus / Periodontal Disease
66 1308 2 3 - 9 months - - -
67 1313 3 1 - 1.5 yrs - - -
68 1314 2 7 - 8 yrs - - Periodontal Disease / Calculus / DEH
69 1318 1 20 - 25 yrs M 1.66 Periodontal Disease / Calculus / DEH / Vertebral DJD / Periostisis
70 1321 1 8 - 9 yrs - - Caluclus / Periodontal Disease
71 1322 2 2 - 3 yrs - - -
72 1510 1 12 - 14 yrs - - Caluclus / Periodontal Disease
73 1335 2 Birth - 2 months - - -
74 1336 3 2 - 3 months - - Porotic Hyperostosis / Cribra Orbitalia
75 1337 2 7 - 11 yrs - - Pleural infection / Cribra Orbitalia / Periodontal Disease / Calculus
76 1338 3 <13 yrs - - -
77 1340 3 > 18 yrs F? - -
78 1345 3 26 - 38 fetal weeks - - -
79 1354 3 35 - 45 yrs M? 1.67 Schmorl's Nodes / Calculus / Caries / Periodontal Disease
80 1355 3 8 months - 1 year - - -
82 1357 2 6 - 10 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia / Periodontal Disease / Calculus
83 1358 1 Birth +/- 2 months - - -
84 1361 2 2 - 4 yrs - - -
85 1381 1 7 - 9 yrs - - Calculus / Periodontal Disease / DEH
86 1382 1 1 - 2 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia
87 1385 1 4 - 6 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia / Calculus / Periodontal Disease / DEH
88 1407 1 4 - 8 yrs - - Periodontal Disease
89 1386 3 17 - 21 yrs F 1.59 Cribra Orbitalia / Calculus / Periodontal Disease / DEH
90 1387 2 25 - 35 yrs M 1.81 Os Acromiale / Periostisis / Cribra Orbitalia / Calculus / Periodontal Disease
91 1391 2 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
92 1403 2 34 - 36 fetal weeks - - -
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SK
No. Context No. Phase Age Sex Stature (m) Comments
96 1424 1 7 - 7.5 yrs - - -
97 1427 2 3 - 5 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia / Periodontal Disease
99 1434 2 5 - 6 yrs - - DEH
100 1435 1 18 months - 2 yrs - - Cribra Orbitalia
101 1444 2 Birth - 6 months - - -
102 1438 1 Birth +/- 2 months - - -
103 1441 2 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
104 1442 1 1 - 3 months - - -
105 1443 2 17 - 21 yrs M 1.67 Osteochondrosis Dessicans (distal left femur)
106 1447 1 38 - 40 fetal weeks - - -
107 1450 1 25 - 35 yrs M 1.68 Soft tissue cranial injury / Caries / Calculus / Periodontal Disease / Vertebral & Xspinal DJD
108 1451 2 36 - 38 fetal weeks - - -
109 1452 2 34 - 36 fetal weeks - - -
110 1456 3 1 yr - - Cribra Orbitalia / Porotic Hyperostosis
111 1461 3 30 - 35 yrs Calculus / Periodontal Disease / Abscess (maxillary) / Vertebral DJD
112 1484 1 36 - 38 fetal weeks - - -
113 1489 1 2 - 4 yrs - - Calculus / Periodontal Disease
114 1506 1 25 - 35 yrs M? 1.5 Cribra Orbitalia / Calculus / Periodontal Disease / DEH / Vertebral DJD
115 1509 1 18 - 29 yrs F 1.79 Calculus / Vertebral DJD
116 1516 3 5 - 6 yrs - - Calculus / Periodontal DJD
117 1519 3 7 - 9 yrs - - Calculus / Periodontal Disease / Caries / DEH
118 1520 2 29 - 30 fetal wks - - -
119 1521 1 25 - 35 yrs F? 1.63 Calculus / Periodontal Disease / Vertebral DJD
121 1525 2 7 - 9 yrs - - Calculus / DEH / Periodontal Disease
122 1526 1 18 - 25 yrs F? 1.62 Calculus / Periodontal Disease / DEH / Caries / Vertebral DJD
123 1527 2 6 - 8 yrs - - Calculus / Periodontal Disease / Cribra Orbitalia
124 1540 1 3 months - - -
125 1541 1 Birth - - -
126 1544 2 7 - 10 yrs - - Prox. Femoral Focal Deficiency / Congenital fusion T4 & T5
127 1547 1 26 - 28 fetal weeks - - -
128 1548 2 Birth - - -
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SK
No. Context No. Phase Age Sex Stature (m) Comments
129 1549 2 3 - 9 months - - -
130 1550 2 7 - 12 yrs - - -
131 1551 2 Birth - 2 months - - -
132 1552 1 Birth - I year - - -
133 1553 3 3 - 6 months - - Porotic Hyperostosis
134 1554 3 8 - 12 months - - Porotic Hyperostosis
135 1555 2 37 - 39 fetal wks - - -
136 1556 2 22 - 24 fetal wks - - -
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Appendix 12 Point‐Biserial Correlation for Sexual Dimorphism (Vassar Statistics. Package)
Where M1 is the mean value on the continuous variable X for all data points in group 1 (male
stature) and M0 is the mean value on the continuous variable X for all data points in group 2
(female stature). Further, n1 is the number of data points in group 1, n0 is the number of data points
in group 2 and n is the total sample size.
For M=0 For M=1
173.47 166.51
152.88 166.7
158.97 181.94
159.39 167.37
178.96 167.68
163.01 178.98
161.89 149.79
Summary Data
M=0 M=1 Total
n 7 7 14
one‐tailed 0.211372
P
two‐tailed 0.422744
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Appendix 13
Differential Diagnosis of Skeleton 41
Unknown
Pathology Age Group Symptoms Present Absent
(n/a)
Infantile Scurvy 6 months – 2 yrs Bilateral hypertrophic lesions on the exocranial surface affecting: x
(Cranial lesions most common 3 – 7 yrs) Vault x
Greater wing of sphenoid x
Orbits x
Maxilla x
Zygomatic x
Palate x x
Endocranial lesions x
Woven bone at limb epiphyses x
Woven bone on scapula x
Widening of limb metaphyses x
Distortion of costochondral rib end (fracture) x
Vertebral fracture & collapse x
Dental caries x
Tooth loss x
Osteogenica Imperfecta
Fetalis Fetal > onwards Intrauterine fetal fractures x
(Brittle Bone Disease) Often fatal by early childhood Multiple transverse rib fractures x
Multiple limb fractures x
Shortened extremities x
Cranial abnormalities x
Thinned cortex and sparse cancellous bone
Delayed deciduous dentition x
Non‐Accidental Injury Below 12 months, peak age 3 months Endocranial woven bone x
(Shaken Baby Syndrome) Orbital Porosity x
Multiple bilateral rib fractures x
Woven bone on limbs x
156