Journal of the Geological Society, London, Vol. 164, 2007, pp. 371382. Printed in Great Britain.

A deep geothermal exploration well at Eastgate, Weardale, UK: a novel exploration concept for low-enthalpy resources
D. A . C . M A N N I N G 1,2 , P. L . YO U N G E R 2 , F. W. S M I T H 3 , J. M . J O N E S 4 , D. J. D U F TO N 5 & S. DISKIN6 1 School of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK (e-mail: david.manning@ncl.ac.uk) 2 Institute for Research on the Environment and Sustainability, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE1 7RU, UK 3 FWS Consultants Ltd, Merrington House, PO Box 11, Merrington Lane Trading Estate, Spennymoor DL16 7UU, UK 4 March House, Horsley NE15 0HZ, UK 5 PB Power, William Armstrong Drive, Newcastle upon Tyne NE4 7YQ, UK 6 ForacoBoniface SA, ZI des Fournels, BP 173, 34401 Lunel, France
Abstract: The rst deep geothermal exploration borehole (995 m) to be drilled in the UK for over 20 years was completed at Eastgate (Weardale, Co. Durham) in December 2004. It penetrated 4 m of sandy till (Quaternary), 267.5 m of Lower Carboniferous strata (including the Whin Sill), and 723.5 m of the Weardale Granite (Devonian), with vein mineralization occurring to 913 m. Unlike previous geothermal investigations of UK radiothermal granites that focused on the hot dry rock concept, the Eastgate Borehole was designed to intercept deep fracture-hosted brines associated with the major, geologically ancient, hydrothermal vein systems. Abundant brine (<46 8C) was encountered within natural fracture networks of very high permeability (transmissivity c. 2000 darcy m) within granite. Evidence for the thermal history of the Carboniferous rocks from phytoclast reectance measurements shows very high values (>3.3%) indicating maximum temperatures of 130 8C prior to intrusion of the Whin Sill. Geochemical analysis of cuttings samples from the Eastgate Borehole suggests radiothermal heat production rates for unaltered Weardale Granite averaging 4.1 W m3 , with a mean geothermal gradient of 38 8C km1 . The Eastgate Borehole has signicant exploitation potential for direct heat uses; it demonstrates the potential for seeking hydrothermal vein systems within radiothermal granites as targets for geothermal resources.

Geothermal energy is used globally in applications ranging from electricity generation (using steam to drive turbines) to space heating using ground source heat pumps (GSHP), which extract energy from shallow groundwater and/or soil atmospheres. In Europe, geothermal energy use depends on the balance of availability of differing energy sources. Thus Iceland, with readily available volcanogenic geothermal resources, is one of the worlds major users for space heating. The UK has been very slow to develop its more modest geothermal resources, with only one signicant scheme (<1.4 MW; a single geothermal well contributing to Southamptons district heating scheme), and a growing number of GSHP applications for individual buildings (mainly new-build domestic premises). The slow uptake in the UK partly reects the ready availability of indigenous oil and gas over the last three decades. Norway and Sweden show the contrast in geothermal uptake between countries with and without hydrocarbon resources: Norway makes almost no use of geothermal energy, whereas Sweden is one of Europes greatest users, entirely in the form of GSHP (Sanner et al. 2003). As energy costs rise, especially for fossil fuels, interest in alternative sources is increasing. Globally, nuclear energy and coal (with varying degrees of cleanliness in burning) will be used increasingly for electricity generation during the 21st century. Interest in renewable sources of energy, such as wind power, is also increasing. But geothermal energy can play a much greater role within a portfolio of energy supply options
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than is currently considered. There are potentially many locations where geothermal energy is insufcient to generate electricity, but where it can contribute to space heating and other low-grade uses currently met by distributed fossil fuel combustion. Displacement of the domestic gas boiler from tens of millions of homes would contribute more to the UKs greenhouse gas emission reduction obligations than almost any other technological change (cf. Caneta Research 1999). In Weardale, County Durham, UK, the recent decommissioning of the Lafarge cement works has led to a major redevelopment opportunity at a rural site. The Weardale Task Force anticipates a mixed-use redevelopment, making use of indigenous renewable energy sources, including wind and hydroelectric power generation, and biomass combined heat and power. Geothermal energy is being considered for space heating and for use in a spa tourist attraction. The concepts underlying the geothermal exploration activity undertaken at the Eastgate site are novel, and represent a signicant development from those previously applied to the inferred geothermal resources of the UK. Initiated in 1976 at the time of the Middle East oil crisis, geothermal exploration in the UK focused until its end in 1990 on the potential for generating electricity. The cost-effective generation of electricity from geothermal resources (DiPippo 2005) generally requires that waters yielded by production wells have temperatures considerably in excess of 100 8C, so that on exposure to atmospheric

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(or near-atmospheric) pressure, they will ash, i.e. liberate steam at rates high enough to drive conventional turbines. Additionally, binary cycles (including the Kalina cycle) are used for power generation in which geothermal waters at ,140 8C vaporize other working uids to produce gas streams sufcient to turn turbines (DiPippo 2005). Outside active volcanic areas, there are few parts of the world in which economically accessible geothermal waters are hot enough for ash or binary cycle electricity generation. However, there are many direct uses that can exploit the thermal energy in sub-100 8C geothermal waters (e.g. space or district heating; greenhouse heating; aquaculture; health spa tourism developments, etc.; Lund et al. 1998; Dickson & Fanelli 2005). These options were not a priority during the 19761990 investigations in the UK. Rather, two principal options for deriving supra-100 8C waters from the UK continental crust were examined (Barker et al. 2000). (1) Hydrothermal aquifers: corresponding principally to Mesozoic basins, in which permeable formations are likely to be present at depths that will ensure that they contain hot water. (2) Hot dry rock (HDR): in which the heat generated by radiothermal granites was to be exploited by drilling deep boreholes, between which fractures would be developed articially (e.g. hydraulic fracturing; explosives). Cool water would be pumped down into the fractured granite, left to equilibrate thermally, and then pumped out again at much higher temperatures. In many ways, both of these exploration concepts were decades ahead of their time. Although the hydrothermal aquifer investigations did not result in the identication of ash or binary grade energy, they did identify resources suitable for direct-use applications, as used to the present day by the Southampton Geothermal Heating Company. Many other similar resources await exploitation. Although the HDR experiments undertaken in the Carnmenellis Granite (Cornwall), using boreholes sunk at Rosemanowes Quarry to depths of 17002600 m, did not result in an operational geothermal exploitation scheme (Richards et al. 1994), they did yield a dataset used widely to test numerical simulation codes (Kolditz & Clauser 1998). They provided much of the conceptual basis upon which the European Union pilot project at Soultz-sousForets (Rhine Graben) has successfully built (e.g. Bachler & Kohl 2005), using articial fracturing to enhance natural structures in granite to obtain an exploitable resource, which is now generating electricity using a binary power plant. Given their focus on resources suitable for electricity generation, the 19761990 investigations did not fully consider the direct use for space heating of deep groundwater or GHSP resources. They were also too early to investigate the possibilities of man-made hydrothermal aquifers now associated with saturated mine workings at great depth (.1000 m), which have become ooded only since 1990 (see Younger & Adams 1999; Banks et al. 2004). In this paper, we present a further exploration possibility: the concept that ancient hydrothermal vein structures associated with the radiothermal granites of the UK still function as geothermal plumbing systems, and may be economically viable. In testing this concept, we have sunk the rst deep geothermal exploration borehole to be drilled in the UK for 20 years, and only the second borehole ever to penetrate the Weardale Granite, a key component of the classic block-and-basin geology of the Carboniferous of northern England (e.g. Fraser & Gawthorpe 2003).

Geological background
Weardale lies within the UKs rst Geopark, designated in recognition of the importance of the North Pennines in shaping

views on the origin of Mississippi-Valley Type mineral deposits. The North Pennines Oreeld is famous (Dunham 1990) for its zoned uoritesphaleritegalenabarite mineralization, which is principally developed in Lower Carboniferous limestones. The zoning of the oreeld stimulated geophysical investigations that demonstrated a gravity low coinciding with the uorite zone of the mineralization (Bott & Masson-Smith 1953, 1957), which was interpreted as being due to the presence of a buried granite. Drilling at Rookhope in 1960 (Dunham et al. 1965) proved the existence of the Weardale Granite, which unexpectedly proved to be Early Devonian in age, hence older than the mineralized host rocks, a nding that required a complete revision of ore deposit models for the North Pennines (Dunham 1990). Interest in the Weardale Granite as a radiothermal granite is based on its comparatively high concentrations of uranium, thorium and potassium. It is one of a family of similar granites in the UK with high heat production rates (Webb et al. 1985, 1987; Downing & Gray 1986), including the Carnmenellis Granite (the former HDR prospect in Cornwall; Richards et al. 1994). In the late 1980s, investigations were carried out on a tepid saline water found at depth in Cambokeels Mine at Eastgate (Manning & Strutt 1990), issuing from the eastern forehead of the uorite-bearing Slitt Vein where it cuts Dinantian limestones and clastic sediments. Manning & Strutt (1990) compared the Cambokeels mine water with saline waters, originating from fractures in the Carnmenellis Granite, reported by Edmunds et al. (1984). They suggested that the Eastgate mine water was derived from deep within the Weardale Granite, and that it had precipitated silica minerals during its ascent through the Slitt Vein fracture system. Use of geochemical thermometers suggested that the water had equilibrated with a granitic host at temperatures up to 150 8C. There is further evidence of a high geothermal gradient in the EastgateRookhope area. Downing & Gray (1986) reported a temperature gradient of 30 8C km1 for the Rookhope Borehole, and Younger (2000) reported a gradient of over 60 8C km1 from the Frazers Grove Mine (Greencleugh Vein, similar in structure and lling to the Slitt Vein), several kilometres west of the Rookhope Borehole and directly above a mineralization spreading centre (Dunham 1990). On the basis of the geological information summarized above, it was decided that the geothermal exploration well at Eastgate should commence within the Slitt Vein as a suspected pathway for deep water upow, and attempt to follow the vein and associated splays vertically downwards for up to 1 km (Fig. 1), the total depth being limited by the available budget. A starting position above the sub-crop of the Slitt Vein against the base of the Quaternary deposits was identied by trial-pitting and drilling ve inclined boreholes (at 45608) to depths of up to 60 m. The nal borehole site was precisely surveyed by global positioning system (GPS) with reference to the National Grid, and lies at 393890.932 E 538200.147 N, commencing at a surface elevation of 250.867 m above Ordnance Datum (AOD). In the interests of speed and economy, the deep borehole was drilled open-hole (by Foraco, Lunel, France), recovering cuttings at 1 m intervals (within sedimentary rocks and granite) down to 615 m, and then at 5 m intervals (granite). From surface to 93 m the well was cased and grouted to 133 inches, from 93 m to 403 m cased and 8 grouted to 95 inches (with this casing being continued to 8 surface). From 403 m to full depth at 995 m, the borehole was completed without casing, at a drilled diameter of 81 inches. 2 Cuttings taken from the well were washed and their lithologies logged on site. A complete suite of cutting samples was

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deposited with the British Geological Survey. Selected samples of cuttings from the sedimentary sequence were taken for vitrinite reectance determination, and samples of cuttings from the granite were taken at intervals of c. 50 m for analysis using X-ray uorescence (XRF; fused beads for major elements; powder pellets for trace elements) at the University of Leicester, Department of Geology. Water samples were taken for analysis every 1020 m down to 300 m, and then at 50 m intervals. Specic electrical conductance (conductivity) and temperature of the water arising from the borehole were monitored continuously at the cuttings separator at the wellhead.

Summary of ndings: geology

The Eastgate Borehole penetrated 271.5 m of recent and Lower Carboniferous cover rocks then nearly 723 m of basement granite. Overall, the sequence closely resembled that penetrated by the Rookhope Borehole (Dunham et al. 1965; Fig. 2). Supercial deposits of Recent and Quaternary age were encountered down to rockhead at about 4 m (all depths in this section are below drilling table, which was at 252.75 m AOD), and consisted mostly of sand, gravel and boulders. The borehole was

Fig. 1. Schematic cross-section to illustrate the design of the Eastgate Borehole.

Fig. 2. Summary lithological log, comparing Rookhope and Eastgate boreholes. Lst, limestone; qtz, quartz; uor, uorite; gal, galena; py, pyrite; hm, hematite.

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open-holed to 10 m without casing, so that there was considerable cross-contamination of rock cuttings with caved drift material over that interval. The Scar Limestone was present from rockhead to about 12 m below drilling table, and was karstied (the shallow inclined boreholes penetrated caves that were entirely lled with damp mud). This was underlain by the Alternating Beds, a sequence of thinly bedded limestones, mudstones and sandstones. The Tynebottom Limestone was recognized between 39.5 and 51.5 m. As with the other horizons below the Scar Limestone, this formation was heavily mineralized (by a combination of quartz replacements and veinlets); it was also the source of a signicant increase in groundwater inux to the borehole. The Jew Limestone was encountered between 76 and 83 m, again mineralized. Immediately beneath it (8387 m) was a vein of coarse green uorite, interpreted as a branch of the Slitt Vein. The Great Whin Sill, extensively carbonated and altered to white whin, was intercepted at 92 m, and continued to 158.5 m. Rocks beneath the Great Whin Sill were heavily silicied and veined by quartz down to about 175.5 m. Beneath this the sequence was essentially devoid of mineralization for almost 50 m, and the Smiddy, Upper and Lower Peghorn, and Birkdale Limestones were easily recognized. The Robinson Limestone (223.5234.5 m) was fractured and heavily replaced by quartz and calcite. Similar mineralization continued into the Melmerby Scar Limestone (239.5249.5 m), below which the Orton Group and Basement Beds (sandstones with occasional thin limestones) occurred between 249.5 and 272.5 m, cut by veinlets of mineralization. The granite surface at 272.5 m below table (271.5 m below surface) was marked by the occurrence of cuttings of a sticky white clay, presumably kaolinitic, over an interval of 0.5 m. The rst few metres of granite were relatively soft, then became harder and more coherent. The granite resembles the cored material from the Rookhope Borehole, and is fairly uniformly coarse grained (26 mm), consisting of feldspars, quartz, muscovite and biotite. It has a greenish hue, probably the result of hydrothermal alteration of the feldspars. Mineralization was found throughout the granite, usually as quartz veinlets with sporadic occurrences of pyrite, chalcopyrite or galena. Cuttings from 415 to 615 m were uniform, with sparse indications of mineralization. Below 615 m cuttings were taken at intervals of 5 m. Fluorite mineralization was intersected between 620 and 650 m (recognized in waste cuttings, rather than in the samples collected at 5 m intervals). Minor quartz pyrite veinlets were encountered at 655.5 m, associated with sticky white clay (presumably kaolinite). White quartz veins were encountered at 690 m and 720721 m. Deeper, three ne-grained quartz veins with pyrite and hematite were encountered (740 742 m, 888.5 m, 912913.5 m). Comparing the depths at which different marker horizons have been encountered in other boreholes and at outcrop, it appears that the pre-Carboniferous surface was very at (8 m or so relief over the 10 km distance between Rookhope and Eastgate). This suggests that future boreholes can be planned with greater condence using existing deep borehole data. In summary, typical North Pennine Oreeld mineralization was found down to about 720 m, with more complex mineralization beneath that depth. These observations suggest that the borehole followed the Slitt Vein structure down to 720 m. Below this depth the Slitt Vein may have died out, or more probably deviated too far from the borehole azimuth to be recognized. In addition to the lithological description, phytoclast reectance (individual macerals were not distinguished because of the

high maturity) was determined on cuttings from the sedimentary sequence and compared with those obtained for material from the Rookhope core (Table 1). Reectance data are similar for both boreholes, and clearly show the contact metamorphic effects of the Great Whin Sill, with a regular prole above the sill (Fig. 3; cf. Creaney 1980), perturbed by the Little Whin Sill in the
Table 1. Phytoclast and vitrinite reectance data for sediments from the Eastgate and Rookhope boreholes Eastgate Borehole Depth (m) 19 23 27 30 38 52 62 75 164 167 172 179 190 203 215 223 236 239 251 256 264 268 271 Phytoclast reectance (%) 4.56 4.50 4.77 4.85 5.48 5.80 5.56 7.36 9.31 8.05 5.79 4.84 5.07 5.25 5.13 4.75 4.35 3.76 4.42 4.47 4.50 3.52 3.37 Rookhope Borehole Depth (m) 26 63 94 112 122 146 159 183 195 284 293 337 373 381 Vitrinite reectance (%) 2.56 3.10 3.75 3.06 2.94 3.46 4.69 6.70 7.91 6.04 6.76 4.53 3.73 3.54

Fig. 3. Phytoclast reectance proles for Carboniferous sediments from the Eastgate and Rookhope boreholes.

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Rookhope Borehole (the Eastgate Borehole started lower in the succession than this). Below the Great Whin Sill, Figure 3 shows considerable scatter in the prole of reectance measurements. This may be due to caving from higher in the borehole prior to the installation of casing. Immediately above and below the Whin Sill, reectance values reach 9% or more, consistent with contact temperatures in excess of 400 8C (Karweil 1955). Furthest below the Great Whin Sill, reectance values for the lowest two samples are remarkably similar: 3.52% and 3.37% for Eastgate and 3.73% and 3.54% for Rookhope. The similarity between these values and the proles shown in Figure 3 suggests that the heat ow from the granite to the overlying sediments was very similar for the two locations, which, although separated by 10 km, have identical intervals between the base of the Great Whin Sill and the top of the Weardale Granite (114 m). Although it is difcult to recast vitrinite reectance data into palaeotemperatures, it can be assumed that the very high reectance values reported here (not less than 3.3%) correspond to maximum temperatures of the order of 130 8C close to the contact between the overlying sediments and the granite. These temperatures may have been reached prior to intrusion of the Great Whin Sill (305 Ma; Fitch & Miller 1967; recalculated by Cann & Banks 2001), which, according to the sill emplacement model of Goulty (2005), was into sediments with an approximate depth of 1.4 km (total sediment thickness on top of the granite of 1.5 km). This is consistent with the conclusion of Dunham (1987) that the Weardale area had exceptionally high geothermal gradients prior to the emplacement of the Whin Sills.

Geochemistry of the Weardale Granite: implications for heat production

Limited geochemical analyses of selected samples from the granite were made to evaluate its heat production potential, and to provide additional geological information and indicate the degree of uniformity of the rock. Sixteen samples of cuttings were selected at c. 50 m intervals, and analysed for major and trace elements using XRF (Table 2). Originating from a borehole drilled in conditions that were aggressive towards the drilling equipment, the cuttings were contaminated with tungsten, molybdenum and chromium (metals associated with hardened tools), as well as iron. Despite this contamination, compositional data are similar to those reported by Brown et al. (1987) for core samples of the Weardale Granite from the Rookhope Borehole. Downhole homogeneity is readily assessed from data for Na2 O, K2O and CaO (Fig. 4). For both the Rookhope and Eastgate samples, the top 200 m of the granite show considerable variation. Below this depth, these oxides are relatively constant. Similarly, the trace elements Rb and Sr, and the naturally radioactive elements Th and U show variable behaviour above, and greatest values below, 200 m depth within the granite, in both boreholes (Figs 5 and 6). Variation within the top 200 m of the granite may partly be due to the presence of uorite mineralization (consistent with observed F contents; Table 2) as well as weathering prior to the deposition of the overlying sediments. Similarly Dunham et al. (1965) showed considerable enrichment in Al2 O3 (and K2O) within the upper 25 m of the granite, consistent with the development of an illitic or micaceous palaeosol. The heat production capacity of the granite can be calculated from the chemical analysis (Downing & Gray 1986), using the equation (P. C. Webb, pers. comm.) A 0:1326r(0:718U 0:193Th 0:262K)

where A is heat production in W m3 , r is density in g cm3 , U is uranium content in mg kg1 , Th is thorium content in mg kg1 and K is potassium content in element percent. For the purpose of calculation, the specic gravity of the granite was assumed to be 2.63 (Dunham et al. 1965); estimation of specic gravity for each sample by measuring the displacement of 100 ml of water by 100 g of cuttings to obtain their volume, agitating ultrasonically to remove occluded air, gave a value of 2.58. Figure 7 shows downhole variations in the calculated heat production capability of the granite at Eastgate, compared with recalculated values for the Rookhope Borehole using geochemical data from Brown et al. (1987). For the Eastgate samples in general, heat production values rise from 3 W m3 to an average value of 4.1 W m3 below 200 m depth from the granite surface. Observed reductions in heat production values at depths .400 m within the granite may be due to quartz veining, and have been excluded in the calculation of the average heat production value. Overall, the geochemical data from the granite yield the following results (Table 3). (1) The heat production value for unaltered granite is estimated to be 4.1W m3 , excluding samples at borehole depths of 400 m and shallower, and excluding the 740 and 950 m samples, which contain quartz vein material. This value exceeds that reported by Downing & Gray (1986) for the Weardale Granite (3.7 W m3 ). (2) Heat production appears to increase with depth, overall, with local perturbations related to the occurrence of veins of quartz and other discontinuities that are unlikely to affect the bulk heat production capacity. No attempt has been made to measure the thermal conductivity of the granite from the Eastgate Borehole. Heat ow has been estimated on a preliminary basis with the following assumptions. For the entire vertical interval, a mean value for thermal conductivity of 2.99 W m1 K1 has been estimated using values from Downing & Gray (1986) for different rock types (Weardale granite from the Rookhope core and Carboniferous lithologies), weighted according to thickness. Heat production within the granite has been neglected, and a ground surface temperature of 8 8C has been used. With these assumptions, the heat ow at Eastgate is estimated to be 115 mW m2 , well in excess of values reported by Downing and Gray (1986) for Rookhope.

Water strikes and hydrogeological conditions

Signicant water strikes were encountered during drilling, with unusually high rates of groundwater ingress from the Carboniferous sequence (requiring a tri-cone roller bit instead of using hammer drilling). At times, the water yield from the Carboniferous strata of this one borehole exceeded the entire former dewatering rates of a number of local mines. These high water yields reect the high permeability of fractures associated with the Slitt Vein structure. Installation of casing isolated shallow-sourced groundwaters from the borehole. The rst casing sealed the hole off from water associated with limestones above the Whin Sill, on the assumption that the Sill itself is rarely a prolic aquifer. However, two major water feeders were encountered within the Whin Sill, bringing the borehole water yield back to levels found in the overlying sedimentary strata (c. 60 m3 h1 ). Once the borehole had penetrated 130 m into the granite, the installation of the second casing was intended to eliminate all shallow feeders. Given the generally low permeability of granite,

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Table 2. Chemical composition of the Weardale Granite, Eastgate Borehole

Sample depth (m) 280 wt% SiO2 TiO2 Al2 O3 Fe2 O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2 O K2 O P2 O5 SO3 LOI Total mg kg-1 As Ba Bi Ce Co Cr Cs Cu Ga Ge Hf La Mo Nb Nd Ni Pb Rb Sc Sn Sr Ta Th U V W Y Zn Zr Cl F S Heat production (W m-3 ) 300 350 400 450 505 550 600 650 700 740 745 750 800 850 900 910 915 920 950 995

78.89 0.13 9.76 0.83 0.04 0.74 1.21 1.22 4.09 0.13 0.33 1.95 99.30 19.9 395.6 3.1 23.1 ,1 198.5 31.1 23.9 13.7 ,1 3.2 19.1 2.7 8.5 11.8 ,1 20.7 270.3 2.5 14.5 46.1 ,1 8.6 6.2 15.9 ,1 3.8 5.3 72.0 141.6 1147.6 1172.8 2.57

76.66 0.14 12.82 0.67 0.02 0.61 0.89 1.63 5.04 0.14 0.12 1.44 100.18 24.3 303.8 ,1 40.9 ,1 214.2 32.9 15.6 15.6 ,1 4.1 25.6 2.3 9.4 17.6 2.2 160.3 295.0 3.4 9.4 70.9 ,1 13.2 4.9 21.6 1.6 4.3 7.0 93.2 86.1 2251.7 129.0 2.67

70.14 0.22 12.07 2.50 0.08 0.94 2.87 2.12 4.55 0.22 0.29 3.49 99.48 23.4 271.2 2.1 36.8 3.5 171.5 38.8 23.7 17.3 ,1 4.2 25.1 3.4 11.5 17.4 4.7 146.1 365.6 4.4 8.9 99.5 6.3 15.0 7.1 29.1 ,1 6.5 30.5 86.0 171.2 1591.7 588.7 3.29

79.46 0.07 9.68 0.62 0.02 0.32 2.13 1.55 4.35 0.18 0.09 1.21 99.68 18.2 256.8 ,1 30.4 ,1 205.8 26.8 7.5 15.3 ,1 2.8 17.5 2.7 10.6 15.3 ,1 16.8 361.3 3.1 13.7 37.6 4.8 11.1 5.3 10.3 ,1 3.5 14.2 47.2 106.8 11581.0 133.6 2.55

70.56 0.10 15.45 0.80 0.03 0.28 0.92 3.60 6.06 0.27 0.06 1.09 99.21 9.9 245.5 3.3 37.5 ,1 152.6 29.7 19.9 22.5 ,1 3.7 21.7 ,1 9.6 19.3 1.3 27.3 483.7 2.7 16.2 76.8 ,1 12.4 9.5 10.8 ,1 1.2 30.3 72.0 168.4 1464.8 192.4 3.87

74.15 0.10 13.19 0.79 0.02 0.30 0.82 2.66 5.84 0.22 0.18 0.97 99.23 31.8 299.3 3.4 31.3 ,1 173.3 23.6 1.8 17.5 ,1 2.2 23.0 1.3 11.5 16.6 ,1 18.9 444.8 ,1 15.1 54.5 ,1 12.3 8.9 15.2 ,1 ,1 164.9 67.6 174.4 2128.5 251.9 3.69

75.87 0.09 12.91 1.02 0.01 0.29 0.56 2.41 5.68 0.21 0.15 0.71 99.90 14.3 371.2 1.4 22.1 ,1 225.3 31.1 2.3 18.4 ,1 2.5 18.2 7.1 10.2 14.1 1.3 21.4 471.2 ,1 11.7 49.7 ,1 13.1 11.2 11.5 2.5 ,1 15.2 52.1 89.7 2826.3 699.6 4.31

74.29 0.12 14.57 0.85 0.03 0.33 0.67 3.34 5.15 0.26 0.02 0.85 100.47 13.9 223.7 1.7 30.6 ,1 149.4 33.8 1.2 20.4 ,1 3.5 20.0 ,1 12.4 15.1 ,1 20.2 444.3 ,1 17.0 58.9 2.7 10.0 8.9 12.4 1.9 2.8 28.3 71.7 43.8 1717.1 357.0 3.48

69.99 0.10 12.97 5.66 0.06 0.31 0.51 2.55 5.52 0.24 0.10 1.29 99.28 21.5 342.7 1.9 25.3 15.3 584.7 45.8 27.8 21.6 ,1 1.9 20.2 68.3 10.7 13.0 26.5 20.1 485.6 ,1 23.8 64.9 ,1 10.5 8.2 14.7 46.2 ,1 23.2 1.8 541.9 2029.4 100.8 3.36

73.62 0.15 14.24 0.95 0.03 0.28 0.53 3.30 5.28 0.28 0.02 0.81 99.50 4.8 190.0 ,1 32.5 ,1 147.3 33.5 ,1 22.5 ,1 3.8 23.7 1.9 15.2 19.4 ,1 14.1 462.0 1.5 18.5 53.4 ,1 12.2 9.4 11.6 1.9 ,1 27.4 90.8 65.5 2182.5 338.0 3.76

89.79 0.08 5.50 0.56 0.01 0.22 0.41 0.83 1.89 0.12 0.05 0.63 100.09 ,2 83.5 30.7 22.6 ,2 157.8 31.1 ,2 10.0 ,2 2.4 12.5 3.3 9.0 12.0 ,2 9.5 259.8 2.8 8.5 21.7 3.6 15.4 4.4 9.2 34.4 ,2 8.4 36.6 178.3 1083.4 26.2 2.35

75.44 0.09 13.33 1.01 0.04 0.25 0.63 3.32 4.42 0.24 0.05 1.04 99.84 ,2 186.5 2.7 34.3 ,2 113.2 37.3 ,2 21.7 ,2 2.5 18.6 2.6 12.1 13.3 ,2 38.1 439.8 4.1 15.3 63.7 2.7 19.6 8.4 11.7 4.6 ,2 28.3 68.3 168.5 1966.8 34.5 3.91

74.39 0.14 14.21 1.03 0.03 0.29 0.60 3.35 5.00 0.26 0.03 0.87 100.19 2.1 200.0 1.3 37.2 ,1 171.5 37.6 ,1 20.7 ,1 3.4 20.2 2.8 13.7 18.4 ,1 47.7 445.9 3.6 20.1 56.9 1.4 14.4 10.1 14.6 3.7 1.2 29.0 76.8 67.4 2366.7 229.6 4.04

72.74 0.14 14.44 1.26 0.04 0.33 0.81 3.43 4.98 0.26 0.02 0.92 99.37 5.1 186.0 ,1 32.8 ,1 171.0 31.4 3.7 21.6 ,1 2.3 20.8 2.7 13.0 13.8 ,1 35.9 433.2 3.1 12.2 69.5 6.3 15.2 13.4 12.4 2.7 2.0 66.9 73.1 57.2 2784.4 382.8 4.94

71.11 0.14 15.70 1.11 0.04 0.30 0.77 3.96 5.37 0.29 0.01 0.87 99.66 6.6 196.6 1.3 34.7 ,1 197.5 37.8 1.4 22.3 ,1 2.6 20.7 1.5 15.5 17.3 ,1 30.0 459.9 ,1 18.7 76.5 6.4 14.7 10.7 14.3 1.1 3.6 35.9 79.5 52.3 2453.7 360.8 4.26

72.66 0.15 14.76 1.20 0.04 0.38 0.65 3.49 5.44 0.29 0.01 0.93 99.99 1.0 194.0 2.0 34.4 ,1 145.2 44.6 2.5 23.7 ,1 4.2 20.6 1.5 16.0 18.1 ,1 23.6 469.9 3.1 20.6 66.6 ,1 16.5 11.5 11.4 ,1 ,1 39.9 80.6 142.5 2720.6 111.8 4.59

74.23 0.12 14.15 1.00 0.03 0.27 0.52 3.54 5.11 0.25 0.03 0.95 100.19 3.9 173.5 ,2 32.8 ,2 117.3 43.0 ,2 23.2 ,2 3.3 17.9 ,2 14.6 15.6 ,2 31.7 474.6 4.3 19.4 63.3 4.3 17.3 9.4 9.9 2.7 ,2 37.8 71.3 138.4 2091.3 49.5 4.09

72.47 0.10 14.40 1.11 0.04 0.28 0.59 3.76 4.89 0.27 0.01 1.01 98.93 2.2 172.3 2.1 40.4 ,2 137.9 38.9 ,2 23.0 ,2 3.4 20.7 2.0 15.8 17.7 ,2 25.8 486.7 ,2 20.6 65.8 4.7 19.9 6.8 9.9 5.4 ,2 39.2 84.3 173.4 2198.8 67.2 3.58

71.81 0.16 15.14 1.24 0.05 0.33 0.66 3.88 5.25 0.32 0.02 0.99 99.84 4.5 186.9 3.0 37.6 ,2 121.3 40.9 ,2 24.3 ,2 4.4 21.8 ,2 17.3 15.5 ,2 18.8 504.3 ,2 24.6 65.5 4.6 21.3 11.2 13.7 3.3 ,2 42.0 83.9 123.0 1706.3 71.0 4.80

76.08 0.12 12.62 1.15 0.04 0.49 0.52 1.82 5.37 0.24 0.07 1.14 99.66 9.9 174.3 2.3 30.3 ,1 217.2 61.9 5.6 20.0 ,1 2.3 22.5 3.5 14.2 15.8 ,1 20.3 501.6 ,1 16.2 54.6 5.3 12.6 3.9 12.9 1.5 1.6 39.5 70.3 89.7 1862.2 288.8 2.41

72.33 0.14 13.83 1.18 0.04 0.37 0.65 3.49 5.54 0.26 0.01 0.91 98.75

D. A . C . M A N N I N G E T A L .

3.1 176.0 1.4 35.4 ,1 153.8 54.2 ,1 23.1 ,1 2.9 23.2 2.3 16.4 18.1 ,1 14.8 456.8 2.2 21.3 66.3 3.2 15.6 10.5 15.3 2.3 ,1 35.9 80.3 67.0 2147.9 252.2 4.29

LOI, loss on ignition.

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377

Fig. 4. Distribution with depth of CaO, Na2 O and K2O within the Weardale Granite for the Eastgate Borehole (this study) and the Rookhope Borehole (Brown et al. 1987).

Fig. 6. Distribution with depth of Th, U and K within the Weardale Granite for the Eastgate Borehole (this study) and the Rookhope Borehole (Brown et al. 1987).

Fig. 5. Distribution with depth of Rb and Sr within the Weardale Granite for the Eastgate Borehole (this study) and the Rookhope Borehole (Brown et al. 1987).

subsequent feeders would be expected to be minimal unless there was unusually intense fracturing. As expected, after the second casing had been grouted into the borehole, water yield dropped to zero, and this continued for a further 7 m. However, at around 410 m below ground, the drill stem pressure gauge jumped to 23 bar, and the drill bit suddenly dropped by 0.5 m. At this point the pressure gauge went off-scale (.30 bar), and water surged into the hole, rapidly rising to within 10 m of the ground surface. It is clear that a major open ssure had been encountered at this point. The electrical conductivity of this water greatly exceeded that of the waters previously encountered in the Carboniferous, and it was also warm to the touch (around 26 8C). Air-lifting at rates of up to 60 m3 h1 (maximum capacity of the equipment) failed to lower the water level by more than 1 m, indicating a transmissivity in excess of 2000 darcy m. This is believed to be an unequalled value for granites worldwide (E. Sudicky, pers. comm.), although it clearly reects the inuence of the Slitt Vein, rather than the permeability of more typical extensional joints and faults typical of most plutons. Other fractures were intersected at depths of 436, 464, 492496, 654, 720721, 739.5 and 813814.5 m. These fracture intersections were not accompanied by dramatic events such as occurred at 410 m, and the quantities of water that they introduced to the borehole were difcult to discern given that the 410 m feeder had already exceeded the air-lift capacity of the rig. A gradual increase in the temperature of the water arriving at the well head (.27 8C towards the end of drilling) indicated that a signicant amount of warmer deeper water was mixing with the 410 m feeder water. After the end of drilling geophysical logs for uid temperature, conductivity and ow rate (by impeller) were run twice: rst through the static water column, and then with a 100 mm electric submersible pump stimulating the borehole water column by pumping from just below the water surface at a rate of around 1.4 m3 h1 . Comparison of the two suites of logs indicates

378

D. A . C . M A N N I N G E T A L .

Fig. 7. Variation with depth of calculated heat production for the Weardale Granite from the Eastgate and Rookhope boreholes.

Table 3. Summary of thermal properties for granite from the Eastgate Borehole Average heat production Thermal conductivity Surface heat ow at Eastgate 4.07 W m3 2.99 W m1 K 1 115 mW m2

signicant water feeders associated with fractures at c. 730 and 756 m depth. (Other feeders were also indicated by the geophysical logs at 420, 434, 447, 485, 497, 527, 540, 557, 670 and 686 m.) Although none of these were as prolic as the 410 m feeder, they demonstrate the occurrence of permeable fractures at depths approaching those that could be considered for a longterm production borehole.

Groundwater quality
The electrical conductivity and temperature of water from the borehole were measured continuously at the cuttings separator. Water samples were taken initially every 1020 m, and every 50 m for depths .300 m. Cations were determined using induc-

tively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy, alkalinity by titration, ammonium inductively coupled plasma atomic emission Kjeldahl digestion and anions by ion chromatography. Water samples up to and including 86.5 m were acidied before ltration; this meant that dissolved suspended solids were reported in the chemical analysis, giving misleading results that overestimated dissolved cations (high positive charge balances). From 135 to 995 m samples were ltered prior to acidication, with charge balances predominantly less than 5%. Analyses are given in full in Table 4. With depth, conductivity and temperature rise until c. 400 m (Fig. 8), at which point there is a sharp increase in both. This corresponds to the point at which the hole intersected the large open fracture at 410 m. Individual chemical species show contrasting behaviour with depth. The major cations (Na, K, Mg, Ca), lithium, strontium and chloride increase in the same way as conductivity, with a sudden increase once the 410 m feeder had been intercepted (Fig. 9). Observed pH decreases, from 7.68.1 to 5.86.0, probably reecting the absence of bicarbonate buffering at depth: alkalinity (expressed as mg l1 CaCO3 ) decreases with depth to very low values, as does dissolved sulphate. The constancy of the chemical composition of the water below 400 m reects a combination of two possible causes: the water column within the hole is well mixed as a consequence of the drilling operation and/or the contribution of water from the ssure at 410 m is sufciently strong to dominate water chemistry during drilling. There is no evidence from the water chemistry of any substantial ow of water that is more saline (i.e. deeper sourced) or less saline (i.e. derived from nearer the surface) into the hole at depths greater than 410 m. The deep brine encountered by the borehole has as dominant solutes 27 700 mg l1 chloride, 10 030 mg l1 sodium and 5320 mg l1 calcium. Comparing its composition with water recovered from Cambokeels mine (Manning & Strutt 1990; Table 5), there is little doubt that the Eastgate Borehole has intersected the same water system (over 15 years after the brine was sampled in the mine) where it is deeper, more saline and warmer. Importantly, the Eastgate Borehole water is about 25% more saline than seawater, but less than half (36%) the salinity of the water currently produced at the Southampton geothermal plant. It is more than twice the salinity of thermal waters reported from South Crofty Mine (Edmunds et al. 1984). As in South Crofty, molar Cl/Br ratios for the Eastgate water are below that typical of seawater (650), which could be attributed to loss of Cl via precipitation of halite through evaporation; in contrast, the high value for Southampton suggests halite dissolution. Molar Na/Li ratios are very low for the Eastgate and South Crofty waters, indicating substantial interaction with basement rocks, and their molar Na/Br ratios are again consistent with waterrock interaction (whereas the Southampton waters high Na/Li and Na/Br ratios are consistent with halite dissolution). The Eastgate water is close in composition to that identied by Cann & Banks (2001) as being associated with uorite zone mineralization. Although unlikely to be a mineralizing uid in its own right (although silica minerals are likely to have precipitated) the Eastgate water seems to have shared a common uidrock interaction history with the waters responsible for uorite mineralization. Psyrillos et al. (2003) discussed the role of water from adjacent basins as part of the kaolinization process in the SW England granites. As the South Crofty and Eastgate waters are so similar in their major solute proportions, it is likely that analogous processes led to their formation, and the Eastgate waters may be derived ultimately from adjacent deep aquifers. Using the chemical data given in Table 5, temperatures at

Table 4. Water compositional data (in mg l1 ) for samples taken from the Eastgate Borehole (135 m and deeper) Sample: Date (2004): Depth (m): Temperature (8C): Cond. (eld) (S cm1 ): pH: Cond. (lab) (S cm1 ): Alkalinity: Nitrate Chloride Sulphate Bromide Ammonium Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Lead Lithium Silicon Strontium Barium Charge balance (%) Sample: Date (2004): Depth (m): Temperature (8C): Cond. (eld) (S cm1 ): pH: Cond. (lab) (S cm1 ): Alkalinity: Nitrate Chloride Sulphate Bromide Ammonium Calcium Magnesium Sodium Potassium Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Lead Lithium Silicon Strontium Barium Charge balance (%) E9 11/9 135 14 3750 7.6 3600 256 ,5 559 466 222 9.5 484 40.1 ,0.1 0.5 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 3.4 6 8.1 6.2 E21 8/10 335 19.2 26010 6.9 23210 130 ,5 9486 255 1595 28.6 3333 201 ,0.1 4 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 30.7 5 103 7.0 E10 11/9 144 14.1 3870 7.8 3794 246 ,5 648 444 228 8.5 510 42.9 ,0.1 0.7 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 3.7 6 8.5 5.4 E22 19/10 411.5 26 181000 6.2 65400 60 ,5 28750 48.5 140 11 5285 72.4 9630 631 0.4 20.3 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 90.6 6 343 12.9 5.6 E11 11/9 152 14.1 3900 7.8 3867 240 ,5 826 399 231 8.4 521 44.1 ,0.1 0.6 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 3.8 6 8.7 0.5 E23 27/10 485 24.5 181200 6.4 65700 56 ,5 25840 52.2 140 5256 71.9 9580 642 ,0.1 19.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 91.7 4 344 13.6 0.5 E12 12/9 166 14.3 4390 7.8 4215 246 ,5 761 412 244 8.6 552 42.3 ,0.1 0.8 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 4.3 6 10.0 5.3 E24 28/10 561 26 188900 6.4 66200 56 ,5 26970 44.7 150 5424 72.8 9940 646 0.1 18.3 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 93.2 4 352 12 1.0 E13 15/9 181 14.6 5150 7.9 5204 250 ,5 1037 389 293 8.1 676 51.2 ,0.1 0.8 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 5.5 6 12.5 5.4 E25 29/10 590 25.5 190100 6.3 66500 58 ,5 25660 46.9 160 5345 72.1 10000 667 ,0.1 19.8 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 93 3 350 13 1.5 E14 15/9 192 15 5780 8.1 5502 256 ,5 1123 392 316 9.6 705 52.4 ,0.1 0.8 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 5.9 6 13.7 5.1 E26 2/11 674 26.2 279600 6.4 66800 54 ,5 28560 47.8 140 5250 73.1 9790 656 ,0.1 17.6 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 93.5 3 353 13.3 4.8 E15 16/9 214.5 14.9 5680 8.1 5802 246 ,5 1231 378 339 8.2 730 52.5 ,0.1 1.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 6.2 6 14.3 4.5 E27 6/11 725 26.6 210903 6.4 63200 56 ,5 25730 68 140 5410 68.9 9930 782 ,0.1 21.5 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 92.8 6 304 12.5 1.4 E16 16/9 234 16.4 11820 7.7 13290 202 ,5 3895 290 807 16.8 1984 103 ,0.1 1.7 0.2 ,0.1 ,0.2 16.1 6 39.6 5.5 E28 9/11 770 26.5 221014 6.4 64000 50 ,5 25700 69 130 5620 69.1 9940 551 ,0.1 22 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 94.8 4 313 14.7 1.8 E17 16/9 236.5 17 14940 7.8 14560 206 ,5 4262 289 969 16.2 2248 111 ,0.1 2 0.2 ,0.1 ,0.2 17.4 6 45.65 8.3 E29 25/11 847 26.6 212000 5.8 65800 54 ,5 28400 41.2 160 11 5312 79.2 10100 689 ,0.1 19 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 94.3 5 311 13.8 3.4 E18 6/10 266.5 17.2 27390 6.4 18740 110 ,5 7449 269 1170 25 2697 159 ,0.1 2.2 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 25.1 5 76.8 7.5 E29A 30/11 910 26 215000 5.9 66500 58 ,5 30000 44.3 150 12 5375 79.2 10300 708 ,0.1 18.7 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 91.3 4 315 12.3 5.3 E19 6/10 275 17.9 27130 6.8 16100 142 ,5 5810 291 976 22.4 2205 138 ,0.1 1.5 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 20.1 5 60.5 5.6 E30 1/12 951 27 239000 6 66200 47 ,5 31200 43.4 150 11 5264 78.2 11000 646 ,0.1 19.4 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 91.3 5 313 12.2 5.8 E20 7/10 300 18.9 26150 6.9 16030 126 ,5 5906 290 1066 20.4 2243 140 0.4 1.6 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 20.5 4 61.8 4.3 E31 2/12 995 6 65200 56 ,5 27800 45.3 140 11 5009 75.3 10100 638 ,0.1 19 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 89.5 6 305 11.5 3.5

G E OT H E R M A L E X P L O R AT I O N W E L L , W E A R DA L E , U K 379

Alkalinity is measured as mg l1 as CaCO3 .

380

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Fig. 8. Variation of (a) water temperature and (b) electrical conductivity with depth in samples taken for analysis.

which the water may have equilibrated can be estimated (Truesdell 1984; Table 6). The quartz geothermometer gives a temperature of 38 8C (less than the observed bottom-hole temperature of 46 8C), whereas the alkali geothermometers give temperatures between 146 and 191 8C, similar to those calculated by Manning & Strutt (1990). It is likely that the water has lost silica by precipitation of quartz close to the surface and possibly in the recent geological past (quartz precipitation is abundant within fractures in the Slitt Vein). The alkali geothermometers suggest that the water achieved equilibrium with respect to Na, K and Ca at depths of 34 km (assuming a geothermal gradient of 40 8C km1 ). This suggests that the water in the borehole forms part of a deep circulation system, which appears still to be active given the similarity of the water to that encountered at Cambokeels between 15 and 20 years ago.

Geothermal potential
Geophysical logging of the settled water column in the borehole, 3 days after the end of drilling, indicated the magnitude of the geothermal resource potentially developable in this vicinity. The bottom-hole temperature at 995 m was 46.2 8C, which yields a mean geothermal gradient estimate for this borehole of 38 8C km1 . This compares very favourably with the UK average (c. 21 8C km1 ; Downing & Gray 1986), from which a bottomhole temperature of only 3035 8C would be predicted at this depth. As the geothermal gradient is likely to continue on the same linear trend as logged from 411 m to 995 m, the implication of the measured bottom-hole temperature at 995 m is that a borehole sunk to a typical production depth of about 1800 m would be expected to return a bottom-hole temperature in the range 7580 8C. Given that the heat production capacity of the Weardale Granite at Eastgate is similar to that previously calculated by Downing & Gray (1986), the key issues relate to the availability of natural groundwater to act as a transmission uid for heat produced in the granite at various distances from the borehole. The extraordinary transmissivity of the major fracture at around 410 m depth provides unequivocal evidence of the association of

Fig. 9. Variations with depth in (a) pH, (b) alkalinity (mg l1 CaCO3 ) and sulphate, (c) calcium, sodium and chloride and (d) lithium and strontium.

highly permeable fractures with the Slitt Vein structure. Although the deeper fractures were not quite so permeable, geophysical logging indicates that they are still signicant water-bearing structures. The occurrence of permeable fractures associated with the Slitt Vein at depth means that there is no need to articially introduce water to the geological environment, in contrast to the usual assumption that similar UK granites are (at best) HDR prospects (Downing & Gray 1986; Barker et al. 2000). Instead of an HDR prospect, therefore, the Eastgate resource may be classied as a low-enthalpy hydrogeothermal resource hosted in vein-bearing granites. This is the rst time that this category of geothermal resource has been described (see Downing & Gray 1986; R. A. Downing, pers. comm.). Similar veins occur within the nearby (also radiothermal) granites of the Lake District and Wensleydale. Elsewhere, the Lecht Mine has a similar structure in the radiothermal granite of the Eastern Highlands, and the SW England Batholith hosts many analogous lodes, some known to

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Table 5. Water compositions (in mg l1 ) for samples taken from the Eastgate Borehole (mean of 10 samples below 400 m), compared with analyses reported for water from Cambokeels Mine (Manning & Strutt 1990), from the Southampton geothermal project (Downing & Gray 1986), and for seawater Eastgate deep brine Temperature (8C): Electrical conductivity (S cm1 ): Discharge (m3 day1 ): pH: Alkalinity (mg l1 as CaCO3 ): Sodium Potassium Magnesium Calcium Ammonium Iron Manganese Zinc Copper Lead Lithium Strontium Barium Silica (SiO2 ) Chloride Sulphate Nitrate Bromide TDS Molar Cl/Br Molar Na/Li Molar Na/Br 26.1 65591 1600 6.2 55 10028 660 73.8 5323 11.2 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.1 ,0.2 92.4 328 12.9 9.6 27692 50.1 ,5 146 44482 427 32.7 239 Cambokeels mine water 1988 16 South Crofty 380 level 41.5 300 6.50 111 7345 340 121 5236 4300 180 73 2470 4.75 4.50 0.023 70.5 125 34.2 11500 145 ,0.2 43 19002 602 10.4 348 31 134 0.52 32.1 75900 1230 91 124440 1877 402 1577 0.18 7.9 19350 2712 67 35000 650 18060 558 Southampton geothermal water 76 1700 6 62 41300 705 752 4240 36 4.1 1.26 10770 380 1294 412 Seawater

24600

37713

Table 6. Temperatures derived from borehole water compositions using chemical geothermometers (Truesdell 1984) Geothermometer Quartz NaK (Fournier) NaK (Truesdell) NaKCa Eastgate 38 184 146 191 Cambokeels 43 169 129 159

have transmitted brines similar to that found at Eastgate (Edmunds et al. 1984). It may be that further exploration in geological settings similar to that at Eastgate would lead to the identication of other geothermal resources of signicant magnitude. Table 7 compares aspects of the Eastgate Exploration Borehole with the existing Southampton Borehole. Given that the amount of water that may be produced from Eastgate is very similar to that yielded by the Southampton Borehole, the latter is an appropriate model for possible future development at Eastgate. The Eastgate water has the advantage that it is much less saline

than the Southampton water (44 500 mg l1 total dissolved solids (TDS) compared with 124 440 mg l1 TDS at Southampton). Given the ndings from the Eastgate exploration borehole, it is reasonable to predict that a further borehole sunk to 1800 m could provide a resource similar in magnitude to that at Southampton. However, because the Southampton borehole was drilled to intersect a more or less horizontal aquifer unit, a production borehole at Eastgate would need to intersect fractures associated with the Slitt Vein at the target depth. From the experience of drilling this exploration borehole, it is unlikely that a depth of 1800 m could be reached without intersecting a number of shallower fractures carrying cooler water. Further casing close to the total depth would therefore be needed, so that shallower feeders could be sealed off before drilling on in pursuit of sufcient large fractures at depth to yield a viable low-enthalpy resource. Alternatively, a new production borehole could be deliberately drilled off-centre from the target vein structure, with directional drilling techniques being used to deviate the lowermost parts of the borehole until they contact the permeable fractures along the vein azimuth. Implementation of either of these options would be both the most signicant engineering

Table 7. Comparison of aspects of the Eastgate Exploration Borehole with the existing production facility at Southampton Eastgate (existing borehole only) Temperature (8C) Depth (km) Yield (m3 day1 ) Salinity (mg l1 ) Power (MW) 27 (bulk, mixed water in late stages of drilling) 46 (bottom-hole temperature) 1 .1600 44500 c. 0.75 Southampton 76 (water) 2 860 (originally 2330 in 1987) 124500 1.4 (originally 2 in 1987)

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Dunham, K.C. 1990. Geology of the Northern Pennine Oreeld. Volume 1Tyne to Stainmore. Economic Memoir of the British Geological Survey, HMSO, London. Dunham, K.C., Dunham, A.C., Hodge, B.L. & Johnson, G.A.L. 1965. Granite beneath Visean sediments with mineralization at Rookhope, northern Pennines. Quarterly Journal of the Geological Society of London, 121, 383417. Edmunds, W.M., Andrews, J.N., Burgess, W.G., Kay, R.L.F. & Lee, D.J. 1984. The evolution of saline and thermal groundwaters in the Carnmenellis granite. Mineralogical Magazine, 48, 407424. Fitch, F.J. & Miller, J.A. 1967. The age of the Whin Sill. Geological Journal, 5, 233250. Fraser, A.J. & Gawthorpe, R.L. 2003. An Atlas of Carboniferous Basin Evolution in Northern England. Geological Society, London, Memoirs, 28. Goulty, N.R. 2005. Emplacement mechanism of the Great Whin and Midland Valley dolerite sills. Journal of the Geological Society, London, 162, 1047 1056. Karweil, J. 1955. Die Metamorphose der Kohlen vom Standpunkt der physikalischen Chemie. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Geologischen Gesellschaft, 107, 132139. Kolditz, O. & Clauser, C. 1998. Numerical simulation of ow and heat transfer in fractured crystalline rocks: application to the Hot Dry Rock site in Rosemanowes (UK). Geothermics, 27, 123. Lund, J.W., Lienau, P.J. & Lunis, B.C. (eds) 1998. Geothermal direct-use engineering and design handbook. Geo-Heat Center, Oregon Institute of Technology, Klamath Falls, OR. Manning, D.A.C. & Strutt, D.W. 1990. Metallogenetic signicance of a North Pennine springwater. Mineralogical Magazine, 54, 629636. Psyrillos, A., Burley, S.D., Manning, D.A.C. & Fallick, A.E. 2003. Coupled mineraluid evolution of a basin and high: kaolinization in the SW England granites in relation to the development of the Plymouth Basin. In: Petford, N. & McCaffrey, K.J.W. (eds) Hydrocarbons in Crystalline Rocks. Geological Society, London, Special Publications, 214, 175195. Richards, H.G., Parker, R.H. & Green, A.S.P. et al. 1994. The performance and characteristics of the experimental hot dry rock geothermal reservoir at Rosemanowes, Cornwall (19851988). Geothermics, 23, 73109. Sanner, B., Karytsas, C., Mendrinos, D. & Rybach, L. 2003. Current status of ground source heat pumps and underground thermal energy storage in Europe. Geothermics, 32, 579588. Truesdell, A.H. 1984. Chemical geothermometers for geothermal exploration. In: Henley, R.W., Truesdell, A.H. & Barton, P.B. (eds) FluidMineral Equilibria in Hydrothermal Systems. Society of Economic Geologists, Reviews in Economic Geology, 1, 3144. Webb, P.C., Lee, M.K. & Brown, G.C. 1987. Heat owheat production relationships in the UK and the vertical distribution of heat production in granite batholiths. Geophysical Research Letters, 14, 279282. Webb, P.C., Tindle, A.G., Barritt, S.D., Brown, G.C. & Miller, J.F. 1985. Radiothermal granites of the United Kingdom: comparison of fractionation patterns and variation of heat produced for selected granites. In: High Heat Production (HHP) Granites, Hydrothermal Circulation and Ore Genesis. Institution of Mining and Metallurgy, 203213. Younger, P.L. 2000. Nature and practical implications of heterogeneities in the geochemistry of zinc-rich, alkaline mine waters in an underground FPb mine in the UK. Applied Geochemistry, 15, 13831397. Younger, P.L. & Adams, R. 1999. Predicting mine water rebound. Environment Agency R&D Technical Report, W179.

challenge and the most signicant risk element in proceeding to full-scale geothermal energy production at Eastgate.
We acknowledge funding by the Weardale Task Force, made up of One NorthEast, Durham County Council, Wear Valley District Council and Lafarge Cement. We are grateful to Rob Westaway for his help in reviewing this paper. This project received funding from One NorthEast through the County Durham Sub Regional Partnership. The project was part-nanced by the European Union, European Regional Development Fund.

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Received 13 February 2006; revised typescript accepted 13 July 2006. Scientic editing by Mike Fowler