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Introduction
This chapter is intended to provide basic principles of microwave engineering which is treated in greater detail in the text.
Wavelength limits (cm) Maximum Infinity Minimum 0.1 Remarks VLF/LF/MF/HF/ VHF/UHF/SHF etc. Heat and invisible light Light-red to violet Chemically invisible
Minimum d.c.
Maximum 300
0.1 8 10
5
790 103
5
225 105
8
38 106 12 10 l 10
7
450 108
9
6 1010
10
* Corrara in 1932 first used the term microwaves to designate electromagnetic waves of 30 cm wavelength, which is also the term appeared for the first time in the proceedings of the IRE (Now it is IEEE).
frequency-EHF) according to the recommendations of the International Radio Consultative Committee. The position of microwave bands in entire radio-spectrum is shown in Table 1.2. The region of microwaves has been pushed into wavelengths lower than 1 mm and are known as submillimetre waves (> 300 GHz).
Table 1.2 Position of microwave bands in the entire radio-spectrum
S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Frequency band 0 to 30 kHz 30 to 300 kHz 300 to 3000 kHz 3 to 30 MHz 30 to 300 MHz 0.3 to 3 GHz 3 to 30 GHz 30 to 300 GHz 300 to 3000 GHz Wavelength band Infinity to 104 m 104 to 103 m 103 to 102 m 100 to 10 m 10 to 1 m 1 to 0.1 m 10 to 1 cm 10 to 1 mm 1 to 0.1 mm Designation (I.R.C.C. band) Very low frequency (VLF)/Very long waves Low frequency (LF)/Long waves Medium frequency (MF)/Medium waves High frequency (HF)/Short waves Very high frequency (VHF)/ Very short waves Ultra high frequency (UHF)/ Ultrashort waves Super high frequency (SHF)/ Supershort waves Extreme high frequency (EHF)/ Extreme short-waves Submillimetre Remarks Microwaves Microwaves
Microwaves
The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) recommended microwave bands designations as listed in Table 1.3.
Table 1.3 IEEE microwave frequency bands
Frequency range (GHz) 0.003 to 0.030 0.030 to 0.300 0.300 to 1.000 1.000 to 2.000 2.000 to 4.000 4.000 to 8.000 8.000 to 12.000 12.000 to 18.000 18.000 to 26.000 26.000 to 40.000 40.000 to 300.000 >300.00 Approximate band designation HF VHF UHF L band S band C band X band Ku band K band Ka band Millimetre Submillimetre
The radar band classification, as listed in Table 1.4, came into use during World War II and is still in use today even though the new military band designation, as listed in Table 1.5 has been adopted by the U.S. Department of Defence since 1970.
INTRODUCTION
to 100.000
Table 1.5 U.S. New military microwave bands (New radar bands)
Frequency range in (GHz) 0.100 to 0.250 0.250 to 0.500 0.500 to 1.000 1.000 to 2.000 2.000 to 3.000 3.000 to 4.000 4.000 to 6.000 Designation A band B band C band D band E band F band G band Frequency range in (GHz) 6.000 to 8.000 Designation H band I band J band K band L band M band
8.000 to 10.000 10.000 to 20.000 20.000 to 40.000 40.000 to 60.000 60.000 to 100.000
INTRODUCTION
1.3.4 Industrial Applications During the last one and half decades, the industrial applications of microwaves have expanded greatly. Microwave heating has entered into commercial use in the form of microwave ovens, in which cooking is done quickly and uniformly by waves, inside and outside the food-material simultaneously. To the average consumer, the microwave connotes a microwave oven, which is getting increasingly popular in households for heating food. Microwave drying machines are used in textile and paper industries. Industrial applications are particularly evident in the food processing industry, the rubber industry and foundries. Other industrial applications include the central and on-line measurement of expensive materials during processing procedures in environments hostile to opto-electronic techniques. Recently, microwaves have also been used for non-destructive testing of metals such as thickness measurements, and measurement of moisture content in paper and textile industry and in liquids etc. 1.3.5 Microwaves in Basic and Applied Research Microwaves have provided a very powerful experimental probe for the study of basic properties of matter as various molecular atomic and nuclear resonance occurs at microwave frequencies. Consequently, microwaves are capable of energetically interacting with matter. This feature is widely used in microwave and radio frequency spectroscopy for structural analysis. Microwave absorption spectra provide information about molecular structure and energy levels. Useful molecular resonances exist at microwave frequencies in the diodes of certain crystal materials. The resonant interaction of microwaves with crystals has been used for the generation of microwave power. Impact conjugation avalanche transist time (IMPATT) device, the non-reciprocal ferrite devices and masers are yet another examples of microwave resonances in molecules. The interaction of an electron beam with periodic slow-wave microwave structures has been used to design high power linear accelerators that are indispensable instruments in nuclear research. 1.3.6 Biomedical Applications The potential of microwaves for used in medicine is immense. The exact location of deep cancerous tissue, in particular, can be known by means of microwave radiometers. Microwave diathermy machines are used to remove rheumatic pains by producing heat inside the muscle without affecting the skin. Patients afflicted with uncontrollable pain or random muscle movements can be treated using microwave irradiation which creates thermal blocks in the nerve network. Microwave radiations are being used for cancer therapyhyperthermialocal, regional and whole body. Electromagnetic transmission through a human body has been used for monitoring heartbeat, lung-water detection, etc. Biomedical applications of microwaves are ever increasing. 1.3.7 Potential Application in the Field of Energy Transfer It has a potential application in the field of energy transfer, i.e., electrical energy can be transferred, without use of transmission lines, by converting it into microwave power and radiating through antenna in a narrow beam. At the receiving station it could be converted back to electric energy. Such a system has been proposed in the form of satellite power stations (SPS) as a method of tapping solar energy on a 24 hour-a-day, 365-days-a-year basis for the present century and beyond. Although the field of microwave engineering is already well developed, the scope of its applications in communication, industry and basic research is ever increasing. The extension of microwave techniques into the field of optics is one such example.
However, varied uses of microwaves have increased microwave pollution and the consequent risk to health. This has stimulated the study of the biological effects and safety in several large research projects. Table 1.6 summarises the typical and unique applications of microwaves. The scope of microwave applications in communication industry and basic and applied research is ever increasing. The extension of microwave techniques into the field of development of optical communication system is one such example.
Table 1.6
S. No. 1. 2. Applications Television, satellite communication, surveillance radar, navigational aids, food industry (microwave-ovens) point to point communication. Altimeter, air and ship borne radar, microwave links, common-carrier land mobile communication, satellite communication, navigation, basic research-microwave spectroscopy. Radar, radio-astronomy, radio-meteorology, space research, nuclear physics, nucleonics. Frequency band 0.3 to 3 GHz 3 to 30 GHz
3.
30 to 300 GHz
INTRODUCTION
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Similarly, conventional resonant and anti-resonant circuits are replaced by resonant microwave line sections known as resonant cavities. Often resonant cavities are used as circuit elements with varying properties. When a number of such microwave circuit elements are,connected together, we have a microwave circuit. The analysis of a microwave circuit can be carried out either in terms of equivalent transmission line, voltage and current waves or in terms of amplitudes of the incident and reflected waves. The first approach is called the conventional equivalent impedance description approach while the second is known as the scattering matrix approach. The latter approach being closely related to the wave nature of fields. (iii) Generation and Amplification of Microwaves: The operation of conventional vacuum tubes and solid state devices is limited by transit time effects. However, the frequency range of operation of these devices can be extended to the lower edge of the microwave spectrum at the cost of power output and noise characteristics. Therefore, the development of new devices was essential to exploit this frequency region. Fortunately, number of new principles of operation such as velocity modulation, interaction of space charge waves with electromagnetic fields were proposed. It involves transfer of power from a source of direct voltage to a source of alternating voltage by means of a density-modulated stream of electrons resulting in the development of klystron (in 1939 by R.H. Varian and S.F. Varian [1]), magnetron (in 1921 by Hull and an improved model in 1940 by Boot and Randal [2, 3]) and travelling-wave tube (TWT) (in 1944 by R. Komfner [4]. The interaction of the impact ionization avalanche and the transit time of charge carriers was used to develop Reed diode in 1958 [5], IMPATT by Johnston et al. in 1965 [6], TRAPATT by Prager et al. in 1967 [7]. Quantum mechanical tunneling was used to develop Tunnel Diode by Esaki in 1958 [8]. Transferred electron techniques were used to develop transfer electron devices by Ridley et al. in 1961 [9] and Hilsum in 1962 [10]. Gunn oscillator was developed in 1963 [11] which operate simply by the application of a dc voltage to a bulk. In all solid-state devices the negative resistance characteristics is exploited for microwave generation and amplification.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Explain how microwave engineering is different from low frequency electronic engineering. (JNTU, 2008) Describe in brief basic microwave concepts. List unique characteristics of microwaves. List the typical application of microwave. Explain with an example how microwave has large information carrying capacity. Explain Microwaves are widely used for directive signal transmission and locating and ranging objects in space.
SELECTED TITLES
1. Collin, R.E., Foundations for Microwave Engineering, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, 1966. 2. Gandhi, O.P., Microwave Engineering and Applications, Pergamon Press, New York, 1981. 3. Liao, S.Y., Microwave Devices and Circuits, Prentice-Hall Inc, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., U.S.A., 1995 [Indian reprint]. 4. Soohoo, R.F., Microwave Electronics, Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Reading, Mass., 1971.
INTRODUCTION
5. Reich, H.J., et al., Microwave Principles, D. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1957 (an EastWest Edition). 6. Reich, H.J., et al., Microwave Theory and Techniques, D. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1953. 7. Brownwell, A.B., and R.E. Beam, Theory and Application of Microwaves, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York, 1947. 8. Chatterjee, R., Elements of Microwave Engineering, East-West Press, New Delhi, 1984. 9. Rizzi, P.A., Microwave Engineering: Passive Circuits, Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1988. 10. Sisodia, M.L. and G.S. Raghuvanshi, Microwave Circuits and Passive Devices, John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1987 (Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi, 1987, now New Age, 2003). 11. Sisodia, M.L. Microwave Active Devices, Vacuum and Solid State, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 2003. 12. Sisodia, M.L. and G.S. Raghuvanshi, Basic Microwave Techniques and Laboratory Manual, John Wiley & Sons, 1987. (Wiley Eastern Limited, 2000, New Delhi, now New Age). 13. Sisodia, M.L. and Vijay Laxmi Gupta, Microwaves: Introduction to Circuits, Devices and Antennas, New Age International Publishers, New Delhi, 2003.
REFERENCES
1. Warnecke, R.R., et al., Velocity Modulated Tubes: The Advances in Electronics, Vol. 3, Academic Press, New York, 1951. 2. Hull, A.W., Phys. Rev. 18, 31 (1921). 3. Okress, E., Editor, Crossed Field Microwave Devices, Academic Press, New York, Vols. I and II, 1961. 4. Kompfner, R., The Travelling Wave Tube as Amplifier at Microwaves, Pros. IRE 35, 124-127, February 1947. 5. Read, W.T., A Proposed High Frequency Negative-Resistance Diode, Bell System tech. J., 37, 401-446, 1958. 6. Johnston, R.L., B.C. Deloach, and G.B. Cohen, A Silicon Diode Microwave Oscillator, Bell System Tech., J., 44, 369-372, February 1965. 7. Prager, H.J., et al., High-power, High-efficiency Silicon Avalanche Diodes at Ultra High Frequencies, Proc. IEEE (letters), 55, 586-587, April 1967. 8. Esaki, L., New Phenomenon in Narrow Ge p-n Junctions, Phys. Rev., 109, 603, 1958. 9. Ridley, B.K. and T.B. Watkins, The Possibility of Negative Resistance Effect in Semiconductors, Proc. Phys. Soc., 78, 293-304, August 1961. 10. Hilsum, C., Transferred Electron Amplifiers and Oscillators, Proc. IEEE., 50, 185-189 February 1962. 11. Gunn, J.B., Instabilities of Current in III-V Semiconductors, IBM J. Res. Develop., 8, 141-159, April 1964.