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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
CASCADED SYSTEM
- series of amplifier stages where the output of one stage is the input to the next stage, provided that both stages have the same amplifier configuration but not necessarily identical
CASCADED SYSTEM
The amplifiers frequency response varies due to the effect of frequency on the capacitive reactances in the circuit. BODE PLOT
shows the relative output magnitude, typically measured in decibels, and the phase variation as the frequency changes
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Cut-off Frequency
It is defined at which the ratio of the output over the input has a magnitude of 0.707 or -3 dB, when converted in decibels. At this point, the amount of attenuation due to the filtering components begins to change rapidly.
FREQUENCY RESPONSE
If the two cut-off frequencies are more than a decade apart (f2 > 10f1 ), the half-power point of the amplifier is the higher of the two. If the two frequencies are closer than one decade, then the actual cut-off frequency of the amplifier is somewhat larger than either of the two calculated frequencies.
If the amplifier has a bypass capacitor, then it can also influence the cut-off frequency. NOTE:
-
Typically, emitter bypass capacitors are chosen to be large enough so that their effects are negligible.
The high frequency response of a discrete transistor amplifier is determined by the internal capacitances of the transistor itself.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
EXPERIMENT NO. 3
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
A differential amplifier is a BJT amplifier that produces outputs that are a function of the difference between two input voltages. It has two possible inputs and two possible outputs, but it is not necessary to use both inputs and both outputs.
DIFFERENTIAL AMPLIFIER
voltage is applied to input 1, an inverted amplified signal voltage appears at output 1. signal voltage appears in phase at the emitter of Q1.
Also, a
of Q1 and Q2 are common, the emitter signal becomes an input to Q2, which functions as a common base amplifier. The signal is amplified by Q2 and appears, noninverted, at output 2.
MODE
In this mode,
two opposite-polarity (out-ofphase) signals are applied to the inputs. This causes the differential signal to be as twice as large as any either input alone.
MODE
MODE
When the input
signals are 180 degrees out of phase, the amplitude of the combined output signal is equal to the amplitude of one input signal multiplied by two times the gain of the amplifier.
MODE
of the same phase, frequency, and amplitude are applied to the two inputs. When the two input signals are applied to both inputs, the outputs are superimposed, and they cancel, resulting in a zero voltage. This is known as common-mode rejection.
Rejection
Its importance lies in the situation where an unwanted signal appears commonly on both differential amplifier inputs. Common-mode rejection means that this unwanted signal will not appear on the outputs and distort the desired signal.
Rejection
Common-mode signals (noise) generally are the result of the pick-up of radiated energy on the input lines from adjacent lines, the 60 Hz power line, or other sources.
It is a parameter or a measure of an amplifiers ability to reject common-mode signals. It is computed as the ratio of the single-ended or double-ended gain and the common-mode gain.
PARAMETERS
Single-Ended or Double-Ended Gain
AVc =
RC 26 mV + 2 ( +1) RE
ICQ
OPERATIONAL AMPLIFIER
EXPERIMENT NO. 4
Op-amps are very versatile. The same op-amp can be used in different applications by just changing the external components connected to it.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Negative feedback is one of the most useful concepts in electronics, particularly in opamp applications. It is the process whereby a portion of the output voltage of an amplifier is returned to the input with a phase angle that opposes the input signal.
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
An op-amp can be connected using negative feedback to stabilize the gain and increase frequency response. Gain-Bandwidth Product
An increase in closed-loop gain causes a decrease in the bandwidth and vice versa, such that the product of the gain and bandwidth is a constant. GBP is always equal to the frequency at which the opamps open-loop gain is unity (unity-gain bandwidth, fT)
INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Rf AV = Ri
NON-INVERTING AMPLIFIER
Rf AV = 1 + Ri
SCALING ADDER
A different weight can be assigned to each input of a summing amplifier by simply adjusting the values of the input resistors.
AVERAGING AMPLIFIER
A summing amplifier can be made to produce the mathematical average of the input voltages. This is done by setting the ratio Rf/R equal to the reciprocal of the inputs (n).
LM741/UA741
Industry standard General-purpose
COMPARATOR
A comparator is a specialized op-amp circuit that compares two input voltages and produces an output that is always at either one of two states, indicating the greater or less than relationship between the inputs.
COMPARATOR
Because the output is always in one of two
states, comparators are often used to interface between an analog and digital circuit.
An op-amp comparator may be used as a
COMPARATOR
An op-amp running without negative
ZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
One application of an op-amp used as a
ZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
Notice that that the inverting input is grounded to
produce a zero level and that the input signal voltage is applied to the non-inverting input.
Because of the high open-loop voltage gain, a
very small difference voltage between the two inputs drives the amplifier into saturation, causing the output voltage to go to its limit.
NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
The zero-level detector can be modified to detect
positive and negative voltages by connecting a reference voltage source to one of the inputs.
NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
To compare Vi with Vref, the op-amp would have
an output of +Vcc when Vi is slightly greater than Vref, and an output of VEE when Vi is slightly less than Vref.
Comparators may be non-inverting or inverting. It
is non-inverting if Vi is fed at the non-inverting terminal and the output has the same polarity as the input.
NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
NONZERO-LEVEL DETECTION
WINDOW COMPARATOR
A window comparator is formed if both inverting
and non-inverting comparators are used in a single circuit, each with its own reference voltage.
WINDOW COMPARATOR
The Vref that approaches V+ is called the upper
threshold voltage, while the Vref that approaches V- is the lower threshold voltage.
Diodes D1 and D2 logically combine the outputs
WINDOW COMPARATOR
Window comparator determines whether the
input voltage Vi is between the limits of the upper and lower threshold voltages.
The output voltage is zero if the input voltage is
between the range. If not, the output would be equivalent to the saturation voltage of the opamp.
WINDOW COMPARATOR
WINDOW COMPARATOR
INTEGRATOR
o It is an op-amp circuit that simulates mathematical integration, which is basically a summing process that determines the total area under the curve of a function.
IDEAL INTEGRATOR
o In an ideal op-amp integrator, the feedback element is a capacitor that forms an RC circuit with the input resistor.
OPERATION
OPERATION
OPERATION
OPERATION
o To produce a straight-line voltage rather than exponential, the charging current must be constant. o The key thing about using an op-amp with an RC circuit to form an integrator is that the capacitors charging current is made constant.
OPERATION
OPERATION
o The constant IC charges the capacitor linearly and produces a linear voltage across C. o The voltage on the negative side of the capacitor (op-amp output) decreases linearly from zero as the capacitor charges (negative ramp).
OPERATION
Therefore:
OPERATION
PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
o The ideal integrator uses a capacitor in the feedback path. o But take note that the capacitor is open to dc. o This implies that the gain at dc is the openloop gain of the op-amp.
PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
o In a practical integrator, any dc error voltage due to offset error will cause the output to produce a ramp that moves toward either positive or negative saturation, even when no signal is present. o Practical integrators must have some means of overcoming the effects of offset and bias current.
PRACTICAL INTEGRATOR
o The feedback resistor, Rf, should be large compared to the input resistor Rin, in order to have a negligible effect on the output waveform. o A compensating resistor, Rc, may be added to the non-inverting input to balance the effects of bias current.
DIFFERENTIATOR
o It is an op-amp circuit that simulates mathematical differentiation, which is basically a process of determining the instantaneous rate of change of a function.
IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR
o In an ideal op-amp integrator, the capacitor is now the input element, and the resistor is the feedback element. o A differentiator produces an output that is proportional to the rate of change of the input voltage.
IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR
IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR
IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR
IDEAL DIFFERENTIATOR
PRACTICAL DIFFERENTIATOR
PRACTICAL DIFFERENTIATOR
o Because a capacitor has a very low impedance at high frequencies, the combination of Rf and C form a very high gain amplifier at high frequencies. o This means that a differentiator circuit tends to be noisy because electrical noise mainly consists of high frequencies. o The addition of Rin in series with the capacitor provides a low-pass filter and reduce the gain at high frequencies.
TONE CONTROL
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
TREBLE
It refers to the range of high frequencies, up to 20 KHz.
AT BASS FREQUENCIES
AT BASS FREQUENCIES
AT TREBLE FREQUENCIES
When the Q-point is at the center of the ac load line, a maximum class A signal can be obtained.
A primary advantage of a Class B amplifier over a Class A amplifier is that it is more efficient, hence, you can get more output power for a given amount of input power.
Because of this, there is a time interval between the positive and negative alternations of the input when neither transistor is conducting.