Employee motivation is a continuing challenge at work.

Particularly in work environments that dont emphasize employee satisfactionas part of an embraced and supported overall business strategy, supervisors and managers walk a tough road.

On the one hand, they recognize their power in drawing forth the best employees have to offer; on the other, they feel unsupported, rewarded or recognized themselves for their work to develop motivated, contributing employees.

My word to managers? Get over it. No work environment will ever perfectly support your efforts to help employees choose motivated behaviors at work. Even the most supportive workplaces provide daily challenges and often appear to operate at cross purposes with your goals and efforts to encourage employee motivation.

The worst workplaces for employees? Lets not even go there. They struggle to engage a fraction of their employees motivation and desire to contribute. They never obtain their employees discretionary energy.

No matter what climate your organization provides to support employee motivation, you can, within the perimeters of your areas of responsibility, and even beyond, if you choose to extend your reach, create an environment that fosters and calls forth employee motivation.

Seven Opportunities to Influence Employee Motivation

You can, daily, take actions that will increase employee satisfaction. Recommended are actions that employees say, in a recent Society for Human Resources Management (SHRM) survey, are important to their job satisfaction. Management actions in these areas will create a work environment conducive to employee motivation. Additionally, in determining the areas in which to provide employee motivation tips, here are key ideas from readers about how to increase employee motivation and employee job satisfaction. Four of the five most important considerations in employee motivation: job security, benefits(especially health care) with the importance of retirement benefits rising with age of the employee, compensation/pay, and safety in the work environment are discussed in an article that addresses issues that are company-wide and rarely in the hands of an individual manager or supervisor.

Specific Actions to Increase Employee Motivation

These are seven consequential ways in which a manager or supervisor can create a work environment that will foster and influence increases in employee motivation - quickly.

Communicate

responsibly

and

effectively

any

information

employees need to perform their jobs most effectively. Employees want to be members of the in-crowd, people who know what is happening at work as soon as other employees know. They want the information necessary to do their jobs. They need enough information so that they make good decisions about their work.

Meet with employees following management staff meetings to update them about any company information that may impact their work. Changing due dates, customer feedback, product improvements, training opportunities, and updates on new departmental reporting or interaction structures are all important to employees. Communicate more than you think is necessary.

Stop by the work area of employees who are particularly affected by a change to communicate more. Make sure the employee is clear about what the change means for their job, goals, time allocation, and decisions.

Communicate daily with every employee who reports to you. Even a pleasant good morning enables the employee to engage with you.

Hold a weekly one-on-one meeting with each employee who reports to you. They like to know that they will have this time every week. Encourage employees to come prepared with questions, requests for support, troubleshooting ideas for their work, and information that will keep you from being blindsided or disappointed by a failure to produce on schedule or as committed.

Employees find interaction and communication with and attention from senior and executive managers motivational. In a recent study by Towers Perrin (now Towers Watson), the Global Workforce Study which included nearly 90,000 workers from 18 countries, the role of senior managers in attracting employee discretionary effort exceeded that of immediate supervisors.

Communicate openly, honestly and frequently. Hold whole staff meetings periodically, attend department meetings regularly, and communicate by wandering around work areas engaging staff and demonstrating interest in their work.

Implement an open door policy for staff members to talk, share ideas, and discuss concerns. Make sure that managers understand the

problems that they can and should solve will be directed back to them, but it is the executives job to listen.

Congratulate staff on life events such as new babies, inquire about vacation trips, and ask about how both personal and company events turned out. Care enough to stay tuned into these kinds of employee life events and activities.

Provide the opportunity for employees to develop their skills and abilities. Employees want to continue to develop their knowledge and skills. Employees do not want jobs that they perceive as no-brain drudge work.

Allow staff members to attend important meetings, meetings that cross functional areas, and that the supervisor normally attends.

Bring staff to interesting, unusual events, activities, and meetings. Its quite a learning experience for a staff person to attend an executive meeting with you or represent the department in your absence.

Make sure the employee has several goals that he or she wants to pursue as part of every quarters performance development plan (PDP). Personal development goals belong in the same plan.

Reassign responsibilities that the employee does not like or that are routine. Newer staff, interns, and contract employees may find the work challenging and rewarding. Or, at least, all employees have their turn.

Provide the opportunity for the employee to cross-train in other roles and responsibilities. Assign backup responsibilities for tasks,

functions, and projects.

Employees gain a lot of motivation from the nature of and the work itself. Employees seek autonomy and independence in decision making and in how they approach accomplishing their work and job.

Provide more authority for the employee to self-manage and make decisions. Within the clear framework of the PDP and ongoing effective communication, delegate decision making after defining limits, boundaries, and critical points at which you want to receive feedback.

Expand the job to include new, higher level responsibilities. Assign responsibilities to the employee that will help him or her grow their skills and knowledge. Stretching assignments develop staff

capabilities and increase their ability to contribute at work. (Remove some of the time-consuming, less desirable job components at the same time, so the employee does not feel that what was delegated was more work.)

Provide the employee a voice in higher level meetings; provide more access to important and desirable meetings and projects.

Provide more information by including the employee on specific mailing lists, in company briefings, and in your confidence.

Provide more opportunity for the employee to impact department or company goals, priorities, and measurements.

Assign the employee to head up projects or teams. Assign reporting staff members to his or her leadership on projects or teams or under his or her direct supervision.

Enable the employee to spend more time with his or her boss. Most employees find this attention rewarding.

Elicit and address employee concerns and complaints before they make an employee or workplace dysfunctional. Listening to employee complaints and keeping the employee informed about how you are addressing the complaint are critical to producing a motivating work environment. (These are employee complaints that readers identify as regularly occurring in their workplaces.)

Even if the complaint cannot be resolved to the employees satisfaction, the fact that you addressed the complaint and provided feedback about the consideration of and resolution of the complaint to the employee is appreciated. The importance of the feedback loop in addressing employee concerns cannot be overemphasized.

Keep your door open and encourage employees to come to you with legitimate concerns and questions.

Always address and provide feedback to the employee about the status of their expressed concern. The concern or complaint cannot disappear into a dark hole forever. Nothing causes more consternation for an employee than feeling that their legitimate concern went unaddressed.

Recognition of employee performance is high on the list of employee needs for motivation.Many supervisors equate reward and recognition with monetary gifts. While employees appreciate money, they also appreciate praise, a verbal or written thank you, out-of-the-ordinary job content opportunities, and attention from their supervisor.

Write a thank you note that praises and thanks an employee for a specific contribution in as much detail as possible to reinforce and communicate to the employee the behaviors you want to continue to see.

Verbally praise and recognize an employee for a contribution. Visit the employee in his or her work space.

Give the employee a small token of your gratitude. A card, their favorite candy bar, a cutting from a plant in your office, fruit for the 9

whole office, and more, based on the traditions and interaction in your office, will make an employees day.

Employees appreciate a responsive and involved relationship with their immediate supervisor.

Avoid cancelling regular meetings, and if you must, stop by the employees work area to apologize, offer the reason, and immediately reschedule. Regularly missing an employee meeting send a powerful message of disrespect.

Talk daily with each employee who reports to you. The daily interaction builds the relationship and will stand for a lot when times are troubled, disappointments occur, or you need to address employee performance improvement.

The interaction of an employee with his or her immediate supervisor is the most significant factor in an employee's satisfaction with work. Practice just listening. Encourage the employee who brings you an idea or improvement. Even if you think the idea won't work, that the idea has been unsuccessfully tried in the past, or you believe your executive leadership won't support it, this is not what the 10

employee

wants

to

hear

from

the

supervisor.

And, it's not in your best interests for employee motivation to put the kibosh on employee contributions and ideas. You'll tick them off, deflate them, and make their thoughts insignificant.

Think creatively about how you can explore the idea, support the employee in his or her quest to try out the innovation, provide time for experimentation, and more. Encouragement brings payback in positive employee motivation.

Remember that your nonverbal communication communicates more expressively than the words you use to convey your honest response to employee thoughts, concerns, and suggestions. Pay attention, ask questions to further elicit information, and focus on understanding the employee's communication. Lose your reactions: shrugged

shoulders, rolling eyes, or partial attention are insulting and degrading.

The supervisor's relationship to reporting staff is the single most important factor in employee retention. Stay on top of what your staff 11

needs and wants to provide a work environment for employee motivation.

Employee motivation is a common interest from supervisors and managers who are responsible to oversee the work of other employees. You can increase your efforts to improve employee motivation. The big seven actions and behaviors that you can make happen every day for employee motivation are covered in this article. I'm willing to make a serious bet that, if you pay constant attention to these significant factors in employee motivation, you'll win with motivated, excited, contributing employees. Can work get any better than that for a manager or supervisor?

(For review

The relationship between employee motivation and job satisfaction of African-American human service employees
by Grenway, Bernard, Ph.D., Walden University, 2008, 166 pages; AAT 3291476

Abstract (Summary)
Research suggests that there is a lack of information concerning AfricanAmerican human service employees. This study examined the work-lives of African-American human service employees with respect to the relationship between job satisfaction and employee motivation. In addition to addressing the aforementioned problem, this study developed the contextual foundations of a motivation and satisfaction model created to assist in the retention and social enhancement of African-American employees. The model addressed the workrelated needs of employees by promoting social and cultural change within human service organizations. This study employed a concurrent mixed-methods research approach. Participants consisted of 28 African-American human service employees working at assisted living and mental health programs in Maryland. Participants completed the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionnaire to determine 12

job satisfaction levels. To determine employee motivation levels, participants took part in a qualitative series of face-to-face interviews with questions based primarily on Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs model and Socio-technical theory. Analysis of Variance, independent samples t-test, and multiple regressions were used as statistical analysis tools. Collective interview responses were recorded and formulated into a single qualitative narrative. The qualitative narrative was analyzed and segmented into 35 theme-based categories. The theme-based categories were further analyzed in relation to data provided by the Minnesota Satisfaction Questionarre. Analysis of Variance and multiple regression suggested that there is a minimal to moderate relationship between satisfaction and motivation for the aforementioned population. The most evident statistical relationship focused on the effect of technology in relation to employee needs and job satisfaction.

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Motivating Employees
(Paperback)
by Anne Bruce , Roger A. Formisano , James S. Peitone
Publisher: Mcgraw-hill (Oct 1998)

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Cash on Delivery Book Summary of Motivating Employees

Become a motivating manager...and see bottom-line results!. . In a fast-paced, engaging style, "Motivating Employees" reveals how Southwest Airlines (with its unprecedented 25 straight years of profitability), Disney, Ben And Jerry's, and other legendary companies have turned themselves into "motivating organizations"Andshy;Andshy;workplaces that inspire employees to do excellent work because they want to! Entertaining case histories and examples show how you can create an environment in which employees feel passionate about their jobs and put the best of themselves into everything they do.. . Easy to understand and applicable to numerous industries and environments, "Motivating Employees "will reveal: . . How to motivate people with responsibility and authorityAndshy;Andshy;without losing your own influence and respect . Tried-and-true tips for winning employee cooperation in virtually any situation . 10 tips for promoting workteam synergyAndshy;Andshy;and preparing your teams for success . In a fast-paced, engaging style, Motivating Employees reveals how Southwest, Disney, and other legendary companies have turned themselves into "motivating organizations, workplaces that inspire employees to do excellent work because they want to Entertaining case histories and examples show how you can create an environment in which employees feel passionate about their jobs and put the best of themselves into everything they do. Tips, tools, and techniques in Motivating Employees will show you how to reawaken the pioneer spirit in your organization, and teach your employees to tap their own motivational energy for extraordinary creativity, desire, and work output.

The following is taken from: The relationship between employee

motivation and job satisfaction of African ...

By Bernard Grenway, Walden University. Applied Management and Decision Sciences

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How to Motivate Every Employee: 24 Proven Tactics to Spark Productivity in ...

By Anne Bruce

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Understanding Employee Motivation [Copyright by Extension Journal, Inc. ISSN 1077-5315. Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal. Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities. Inclusion of articles in other

publications, electronic sources, or systematic large-scale distribution 38

may be done only with prior electronic or written permission of the Journal Editorial Office, joe-ed@joe.org.] Abstract

The study examined the ranked importance of motivational factors of employees at The Ohio State University's Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center. The hand-delivered descriptive survey addressed ten motivating factors in the context of employee motivation theory. Findings suggest interesting work and good pay are key to higher employee motivation. Carefully designed reward systems that include job enlargement, job enrichment, promotions, internal and external stipends, monetary, and non-monetary compensation should be considered.

James R. Lindner Research and Extension Associate The Ohio State University Piketon Research and Extension Center Piketon, Ohio Internet address: lindner.16@osu.edu

Introduction to Motivation At one time, employees were considered just another input into the production of goods and services. What perhaps changed this way of thinking about employees was research, referred to as the Hawthorne Studies, conducted by Elton Mayo from 1924 to 1932 (Dickson, 1973). This study found employees are not motivated solely by money and employee behavior is linked to their attitudes (Dickson, 1973). The Hawthorne Studies began
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the human relations approach to management, whereby the needs and motivation of employees become the primary focus of managers (Bedeian, 1993). Motivation Theories Understanding what motivated employees and how they were motivated was the focus of many researchers following the publication of the Hawthorne Study results (Terpstra, 1979). Five major approaches that have led to our understanding of motivation are Maslow's need-hierarchy theory, Herzberg's twofactor theory, Vroom's expectancy theory, Adams' equity theory, and Skinner's reinforcement theory. According to Maslow, employees have five levels of needs (Maslow, 1943): physiological, safety, social, ego, and selfactualizing. Maslow argued that lower level needs had to be satisfied before the next higher level need would motivate employees. Herzberg's work categorized motivation into two factors: motivators and hygienes (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959). Motivator or intrinsic factors, such as achievement and recognition, produce job satisfaction. Hygiene or extrinsic factors, such as pay and job security, produce job dissatisfaction. Vroom's theory is based on the belief that employee effort will lead to performance and performance will lead to rewards (Vroom, 1964). Rewards may be either positive or negative. The more positive the reward the more likely the employee will be highly motivated. Conversely, the more negative the reward the less likely the employee will be motivated. Adams' theory states that employees strive for equity between themselves and other workers. Equity is achieved when the ratio of employee outcomes over inputs is equal to other employee outcomes over inputs (Adams, 1965).
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Skinner's theory simply states those employees' behaviors that lead to positive outcomes will be repeated and behaviors that lead to negative outcomes will not be repeated (Skinner, 1953). Managers should positively reinforce employee behaviors that lead to positive outcomes. Managers should negatively reinforce employee behavior that leads to negative outcomes. Motivation Defined Many contemporary authors have also defined the concept of motivation. Motivation has been defined as: the psychological process that gives behavior purpose and direction (Kreitner, 1995); a predisposition to behave in a purposive manner to achieve specific, unmet needs (Buford, Bedeian, & Lindner, 1995); an internal drive to satisfy an unsatisfied need (Higgins, 1994); and the will to achieve (Bedeian, 1993). For this paper, motivation is operationally defined as the inner force that drives individuals to accomplish personal and organizational goals. The Role of Motivation Why do we need motivated employees? The answer is survival (Smith, 1994). Motivated employees are needed in our rapidly changing workplaces. Motivated employees help organizations survive. Motivated employees are more productive. To be effective, managers need to understand what motivates employees within the context of the roles they perform. Of all the functions a manager performs, motivating employees is arguably the most complex. This is due, in part, to the fact that what motivates employees changes constantly (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). For example, research suggests that as employees' income increases, money becomes less of a motivator (Kovach, 1987). Also, as employees get older, interesting work becomes more of a motivator. Purpose
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The purpose of this study was to describe the importance of certain factors in motivating employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center. Specifically, the study sought to describe the ranked importance of the following ten motivating factors: (a) job security, (b) sympathetic help with personal problems, (c) personal loyalty to employees, (d) interesting work, (e) good working conditions, (f) tactful discipline, (g) good wages, (h) promotions and growth in the organization, (i) feeling of being in on things, and (j) full appreciation of work done. A secondary purpose of the study was to compare the results of this study with the study results from other populations. Methodology The research design for this study employed a descriptive survey method. The target population of this study included employees at the Piketon Research and Extension Center and Enterprise Center (centers). The sample size included all 25 employees of the target population. Twenty-three of the 25 employees participated in the survey for a participation rate of 92%. The centers are in Piketon, Ohio. The mission of the Enterprise Center is to facilitate individual and community leader awareness and provide assistance in preparing and accessing economic opportunities in southern Ohio. The Enterprise Center has three programs: alternatives in agriculture, small business development, and women's business development. The mission of the Piketon Research and Extension Center is to conduct research and educational programs designed to enhance economic development in southern Ohio. The Piketon Research and Extension Center has five programs: aquaculture, community economic development, horticulture, forestry, and soil and water resources.

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From a review of literature, a survey questionnaire was developed to collect data for the study (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991; Harpaz, 1990; Kovach, 1987). Data was collected through use of a written questionnaire hand-delivered to participants. Questionnaires were filled out by participants and returned to an intra-departmental mailbox. The questionnaire asked participants to rank the importance of ten factors that motivated them in doing their work: 1=most important . . . 10=least important. Face and content validity for the instrument were established using two administrative and professional employees at The Ohio State University. The instrument was pilot tested with three similarly situated employees within the university. As a result of the pilot test, minor changes in word selection and instructions were made to the questionnaire. Results and Discussion The ranked order of motivating factors were: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, (c) full appreciation of work done, (d) job security, (e) good working conditions, (f) promotions and growth in the organization, (g) feeling of being in on things, (h) personal loyalty to employees, (i) tactful discipline, and (j) sympathetic help with personal problems. A comparison of these results to Maslow's need-hierarchy theory provides some interesting insight into employee motivation. The number one ranked motivator, interesting work, is a selfactualizing factor. The number two ranked motivator, good wages, is a physiological factor. The number three ranked motivator, full appreciation of work done, is an esteem factor. The number four ranked motivator, job security, is a safety factor. Therefore, according to Maslow (1943), if managers wish to address the most important motivational factor of Centers' employees, interesting work, physiological, safety, social, and esteem factors must first be satisfied. If managers wished to address the second most important motivational factor of
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centers' employees, good pay, increased pay would suffice. Contrary to what Maslow's theory suggests, the range of motivational factors are mixed in this study. Maslow's conclusions that lower level motivational factors must be met before ascending to the next level were not confirmed by this study. The following example compares the highest ranked motivational factor (interesting work) to Vroom's expectancy theory. Assume that a Centers employee just attended a staff meeting where he/she learned a major emphasis would be placed on seeking additional external program funds. Additionally, employees who are successful in securing funds will be given more opportunities to explore their own research and extension interests (interesting work). Employees who do not secure additional funds will be required to work on research and extension programs identified by the director. The employee realizes that the more research he/she does regarding funding sources and the more proposals he/she writes, the greater the likelihood he/she will receive external funding. Because the state legislature has not increased appropriations to the centers for the next two years (funds for independent research and extension projects will be scaled back), the employee sees a direct relationship between performance (obtaining external funds) and rewards (independent research and Extension projects). Further, the employee went to work for the centers, in part, because of the opportunity to conduct independent research and extension projects. The employee will be motivated if he/she is successful in obtaining external funds and given the opportunity to conduct independent research and extension projects. On the other hand, motivation will be diminished if the employee is successful in obtaining external funds and the director denies the request to conduct independent research and Extension projects.
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The following example compares the third highest ranked motivational factor (full appreciation of work done) to Adams's equity theory. If an employee at the centers feels that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, as being too low relative to another employee, an inequity may exist and the employee will be dis-motivated. Further, if all the employees at the centers feel that there is a lack of appreciation for work done, inequity may exist. Adams (1965) stated employees will attempt to restore equity through various means, some of which may be counterproductive to organizational goals and objectives. For instance, employees who feel their work is not being appreciated may work less or undervalue the work of other employees. This final example compares the two highest motivational factors to Herzberg's two-factor theory. The highest ranked motivator, interesting work, is a motivator factor. The second ranked motivator, good wages is a hygiene factor. Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman (1959) stated that to the degree that motivators are present in a job, motivation will occur. The absence of motivators does not lead to dissatisfaction. Further, they stated that to the degree that hygienes are absent from a job, dissatisfaction will occur. When present, hygienes prevent dissatisfaction, but do not lead to satisfaction. In our example, the lack of interesting work (motivator) for the centers' employees would not lead to dissatisfaction. Paying centers' employees lower wages (hygiene) than what they believe to be fair may lead to job dissatisfaction. Conversely, employees will be motivated when they are doing interesting work and but will not necessarily be motivated by higher pay. The discussion above, about the ranked importance of motivational factors as related to motivational theory, is only part of the picture. The other part is how these rankings compare with related research. A study of industrial employees, conducted by Kovach (1987), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) full appreciation
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of work done, and (c) feeling of being in on things. Another study of employees, conducted by Harpaz (1990), yielded the following ranked order of motivational factors: (a) interesting work, (b) good wages, and (c) job security. In this study and the two cited above, interesting work ranked as the most important motivational factor. Pay was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors by Kovach (1987), but was ranked second in this research and by Harpaz (1990). Full appreciation of work done was not ranked as one of the most important motivational factors by Harpaz (1990), but was ranked second in this research and by Kovach (1987). The discrepancies in these research findings supports the idea that what motivates employees differs given the context in which the employee works. What is clear, however, is that employees rank interesting work as the most important motivational factor. Implications for Centers and Extension The ranked importance of motivational factors of employees at the centers provides useful information for the centers' director and employees. Knowing how to use this information in motivating centers' employees is complex. The strategy for motivating centers' employees depends on which motivation theories are used as a reference point. If Hertzberg's theory is followed, management should begin by focusing on pay and job security (hygiene factors) before focusing on interesting work and full appreciation of work done (motivator factors). If Adams' equity theory is followed, management should begin by focusing on areas where there may be perceived inequities (pay and full appreciation of work done) before focusing on interesting work and job security. If Vroom's theory is followed, management should begin by focusing on rewarding (pay and interesting work) employee effort in achieving organizational goals and objectives.
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Regardless of which theory is followed, interesting work and employee pay appear to be important links to higher motivation of centers' employees. Options such as job enlargement, job enrichment, promotions, internal and external stipends, monetary, and non-monetary compensation should be considered. Job enlargement can be used (by managers) to make work more interesting (for employees) by increasing the number and variety of activities performed. Job enrichment can used to make work more interesting and increase pay by adding higher level responsibilities to a job and providing monetary compensation (raise or stipend) to employees for accepting this responsibility. These are just two examples of an infinite number of methods to increase motivation of employees at the centers. The key to motivating centers' employees is to know what motivates them and designing a motivation program based on those needs. The results presented in this paper also have implications for the entire Cooperative Extension Sysyem. The effectiveness of Extension is dependent upon the motivation of its employees (Chesney, 1992; Buford, 1990; Smith, 1990). Knowing what motivates employees and incorporating this knowledge into the reward system will help Extension identify, recruit, employ, train, and retain a productive workforce. Motivating Extension employees requires both managers and employees working together (Buford, 1993). Extension employees must be willing to let managers know what motivates them, and managers must be willing to design reward systems that motivate employees. Survey results, like those presented here, are useful in helping Extension managers determine what motivates employees (Bowen & Radhakrishna, 1991). If properly designed reward systems are not implemented, however, employees will not be motivated. References
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Adams, J. S. (1965). Inequity in social exchange. In L. Berkowitz (ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology. New York: Academic Press. Bedeian, A. G. (1993). Management (3rd ed.). New York: Dryden Press. Bowen, B. E., & Radhakrishna, R. B. (1991). Job satisfaction of agricultural education faculty: A constant phenomena. Journal of Agricultural Education, 32 (2). 16-22. Buford, J. A., Jr., Bedeian, A. G., & Lindner, J. R. (1995). Management in Extension (3rd ed.). Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Extension. Buford, J. A., Jr. (1990). Extension management in the information age. Journal of Extension, 28 (1). Buford, J. A., Jr. (1993). Be your own boss. Journal of Extension, 31 (1). Chesney, C. E. (1992). Work force 2000: is Extension agriculture ready? Journal of Extension, 30 (2). Dickson, W. J. (1973). Hawthorne experiments. In C. Heyel (ed.), The encyclopedia of management, 2nd ed. (pp. 298-302). New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Harpaz, I. (1990). The importance of work goals: an international perspective. Journal of International Business Studies, 21. 75-93. Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. B. (1959). The motivation to work. New York: John Wiley & Sons. Higgins, J. M. (1994). The management challenge (2nd ed.). New York: Macmillan.
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Kovach, K. A. (1987). What motivates employees? Workers and supervisors give different answers. Business Horizons, 30. 58-65. Kreitner, R. (1995). Management (6th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, July 1943. 370-396. Skinner, B. F. (1953). Science and Human Behavior. New York: Free Press. Smith, G. P. (1994). Motivation. In W. Tracey (ed.), Human resources management and development handbook (2nd ed.). Smith, K. L. (1990). The future of leaders in Extension. Journal of Extension, 28 (1). Terpstra, D. E. (1979). Theories of motivation: borrowing the best. Personnel Journal, 58. 376. Vroom, V. H. (1964). Work and motivation. New York: Wiley.

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