Ultra-Low Power Control System For Maximal Energy Harvesting From Short Duration Vibrations-jO7

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, VOL. 18, NO. 2, MARCH 2010
Ultra-Low Power Control System for Maximal Energy Harvesting From Short Duration Vibrations
Krishna Vijayaraghavan and Rajesh Rajamani
AbstractWith the advent of ultra-low power sensor packages, there is renewed interest in harvesting vibration energy to power them, thus creating a self sustaining battery-less sensor system. The optimal algorithms previously developed in literature to harvest vibration energy are complex and hence require controllers that consume a signicant amount of power. The relatively high power requirement combined with the inherent complex design of these algorithms would also limit them to only applications in which sustained vibration energy is available for harvesting. To address these issues, this paper presents new control systems to optimize the amount of energy harvested from short duration vibrations. Only algorithms that can be implemented using simple ultra-low power analog electronic components are considered. The rst algorithm termed xed threshold switching, has been adapted from literature on harvesting energy from sustained vibration. The second and third algorithms are new optimal control algorithms termed maximum voltage switching and switched inductor, respectively. The three algorithms are theoretically evaluated and compared for a short duration vibration application. The nal section of this paper presents experimental results from the implementation of all the three algorithms on a new battery-less wireless trafc sensor. Index TermsBattery-less, energy harvesting, optimal vibration energy harvesting, short duration vibrations, standalone sensors, trafc sensor, ultra-low power control systems, wireless.
Width of the support beam (25 mm) also the width of the piezo. Strain produced per unit applied electric eld m V . Open circuit electric eld produced for an unit Vm N . applied stress
1
Piezo constant dened as the open circuit voltage developed per unit applied strain V. Thickness of the support beam (6.25 mm). Load current through . Current through the Piezo. Length scale associated with the mechanical system. Mass associated with the mechanical system. Displacement of the mechanical system. Magnitude of displacement of the mechanical system at the point where the force is applied. Capacitance of the Piezo. Storage capacitor. Modulus of elasticity of the piezo at constant voltage (constant electric eld) . Elastic modulus of the main beam (200 GPa). Elastic modulus of the support beam (200 GPa). Area moment of inertia main beam mm . Area moment of inertia support beam mm . Value of inductance used in Switched Inductor algorithm (Section III-B3) (10 mH). Effective length of the main beam (1.7125 m). Effective length of the support beam (0.2 m). Total resistance in the circuit due to switches and other components (not including ) (327 ohms). Load resistance (1000 ohms).
NOMENCLATURE Electro-mechanical coupling value. Thickness of piezo (0.191 mm). Strain in the Piezo, from (3). Constant associated with the mechanical . system equaling Constant associated with the mechanical system model arising due to electro-mechanical , coupling, . Open-circuit natural frequency of the mechanical system (38 Hz). Damping ratio associated with the vibrating mechanical system (0.7).
Manuscript received May 17, 2008. Manuscript received in nal form March 11, 2009. First published July 21, 2009; current version published February 24, 2010. Recommended by Associate Editor P. Meckl. This work was supported in part by a research grant from the ITS Institute, University of Minnesota. The authors are with the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN 55455 USA (e-mail: rajamani@me.umn.edu). Digital Object Identier 10.1109/TCST.2009.2018135 1063-6536/$26.00 2009 IEEE
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VIJAYARAGHAVAN AND RAJAMANI: ULTRA-LOW POWER CONTROL SYSTEM FOR MAXIMAL ENERGY HARVESTING
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Diode resistance. Load switch. Piezo switch. Voltage across the storage capacitor Voltage across the piezo capacitor . .
Fig. 1. Energy harvesting circuit.
Maximum voltage across the storage capacitor. Forward voltage drop across each diode (1.1 V for the diode used). On (high) threshold. Off (low) threshold. Voltage measured across the piezo. Voltage open circuit voltage generated due to the strain. Maximum value of corresponding to the maximum value of the strain. Extremum value of corresponding to the th extremum of displacement . I. INTRODUCTION TANDALONE wireless sensor packages have been replacing wired sensors in many applications that require the sensors to be either implanted in-vivo (as in the case of bio-sensors) or embedded in host structures (such as bridges and road structures). These wireless sensor packages have traditionally been powered from electro-chemical batteries. Advances in electronics have achieved ultra-low power integrated circuits and micro-controllers as well as ultra-low power transmitters. Researchers have taken advantage of these advancements to successfully build new sensor packages [30], [31], [44]. Owing to the extremely low power requirement of these sensor packages, there has been renewed interest in vibration energy harvesting (VEH) technologies that would eliminate batteries in wireless sensor, thus creating a self sustaining battery-less sensor system. In addition to extending the useful life of the sensors, VEH would eliminate chemicals from in-vivo environments like the human body. There are several sources of sustained vibration that have been identied as potential power sources for battery-less wireless sensors. Such sustained vibrations sources are found in mechanical structures [22], [33], [35], as well as in the animal and human body [1], [37]. In addition to the sources of sustained vibration that have been examined in literature, there is a whole class of short duration vibration sources that is yet to be completely explored. In fact, there is tremendous potential for harvesting energy from such short duration vibrations. For instance, a trafc sensor embedded in the road experiences short duration vibration with the arrival of each automobile. VEH can be used to power an embedded trafc sensor that would transmit the arrival of every automobile by harvesting energy from these vibrations. Similarly, the short duration vibration in a sensor em-
bedded in an airport runway could be used to harvest sufcient energy to power sensors that would measure friction coefcient on the runway. Yet another application would involve embedding sensors in articial knee implants to harvest energy from the vibration that would result during walking. This energy can then be used to power a sensor that monitors the health of the implant. The paper by Sodano et al. [36] provides a good review of VEH techniques. Some of the earlier work has also focused on developing control algorithms to optimize the amount of energy harvested [21], [28]. Ottoman et al. [28], [29] have proposed an Optimal Pulse Width Modulator Switching algorithm and Lefeuvre et al. [22] have proposed an algorithm termed Synchronized Charge Extraction. Section II briey reviews these algorithms and nds them to be inadequate to power a fully battery less sensor. Section III proposes two new algorithms that can be used to optimally harvest energy from short duration vibrations. The performances of the algorithms are compared to the performance of an existing algorithm from literature. Section IV presents a novel battery-less wireless trafc sensor that utilizes the algorithms developed for energy harvesting. In Section V, the developed algorithms are evaluated experimentally using the new battery-less wireless trafc sensor. II. ENERGY HARVESTING ALGORITHMS In order to replace the battery, the vibration energy needs to be transduced to electrical energy using an electric circuit. One such electric circuit is shown in Fig. 1. The energy harvesting system consists of a piezo-electric substrate (Piezo Crystal) that is used to generate an alternating electrical voltage from the vibrations. By rectifying (using the diode bridge) and storing , energy is harvested this voltage in a storage capacitor to drive load circuits. Since the power available from vibrations is rather low, all researchers have utilized switching algorithms to intermittently drive the load by controlling a load . In Fig. 1, all the components that are powered switch by VEH, including the actual load and additional circuitry such as step-down dc-dc convertors that might be needed, are . Sections II-AII-D represented by an equivalent resistance review three different control algorithms that have been previously proposed in literature to harvest vibration energy. A. Fixed Threshold Switching In this algorithm, the voltage due to the vibration is rectied and stored in the capacitor . The switch is closed when
1The constant e is not available for the piezo material, hence an equivalent constant is used.
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exceeds a xed high threshold. is opened when subsequently falls below a low threshold. Hence this algorithm shall be termed xed threshold switching (FTS). Kymissis et al. [19] have implemented FTS using circuitry that is completely powered from the energy that is harvested. Elvin et al. [9], have proposed using a similar scheme to power sensors that could be embedded in structures. Ottoman et al. [28] have shown that for an ideal circuit (with ideal diodes and no resistive losses in the circuit), maximum is maintained at power is extracted from the piezo when half the peak open circuit voltage of the piezo (i.e., ) during switching. Hence although FTS has been implemented using self-powered circuitry, it is suboptimal in terms of the energy that is harvested. The thresholds would have to change in real-time based on the magnitude of vibration in order to maximize the energy harvested. B. Optimal Pulse Width Modulator Switching Ottoman et al. [28], [29] have proposed an optimal algorithm to charge a 3-V battery from sustained mechanical vibrations. In this algorithm, a pulse width modulator (PWM) circuit is used . In [28], Ottoman et al. have proposed an adapto switch tation law to determine the duty cycle of the PWM required for optimal power extraction. In [29], the researchers have proposed an improvement to the circuit used in [28]. The new circuit contains additional circuitry to integrate the dc-dc converter as well as the controller. The overall power consumed by the control circuitry has also been reduced. From the analysis in the two papers, it is clear that the Optimal Pulse Width Modulator Switching algorithm can improve the amount of energy harvested. However, the authors themselves have pointed out that a large amount of power is needed by the control circuitry. Although this algorithm could be made feasible and self-sustaining by using a large array of piezo harvesters, the overall efciency is expected to be fairly low when the number of piezo harvesters is small. Owing to the adaptive nature of the algorithm, the optimization of the duty cycle can only be achieved for a sustained and periodic vibration. Further, the proposed algorithms cannot be implemented without the use of a storage battery. Hence this algorithm cannot be directly used to power a battery-less wireless sensor. Due to the power requirements and adaptive nature of this algorithm, this algorithm cannot be used to optimally extract energy from short duration vibrations. C. Synchronous Charge Extraction Lefeuvre et al. [22] have proposed an algorithm termed synchronized charge extraction. In this algorithm, energy is extracted from the piezo only when the displacement of the mechanical system reaches an extremum. In other words, the charge extraction is synchronized to the extremum of the mechanical displacement. In their implementation of the circuit shown inFig. 1, the researchers have eliminated the storage capacitor. The output of the rectier is directly connected through the switch to the dc-dc converter. Under ideal conditions (with ideal diodes and no dissipative losses in the circuit), the Synchronized Charge Extraction algorithm has been shown to theoretically harvest 400% more power than
the Pulse Width Modulator Switching algorithm. From the analysis it is clear that this increase in power is a function of the damping effect of the piezo on the mechanical vibrations. This damping arises as a result of the electromechanical coupling. It will be evident from the discussion in Section IV-D2 that the electromechanical coupling is direct function of the size of the piezo in relation to the size of the mechanical system. Hence, the effectiveness of this algorithm would rely on the use of piezos with large thickness. Although the Synchronized Charge Extraction algorithm would signicantly increase the amount of power harvested, the algorithm has several limitations. In order to determine the occurrence of the maximum, the displacement of the vibrating structure is continuously monitored using an inductive pickup or an equivalent sensor. This additional displacement sensor that is needed could consume a signicant amount of power. Due to lack of information on the power requirements of the controller, it can be assumed that the algorithm will be implemented on an external controller, which would also consume additional power. For persistent excitation, it might be possible to harvest sufcient energy from an array of piezos to power the control circuitry. However, the power consumption of the controller would somewhat limit the overall efciency of this algorithm. When the vibrations are not sustained, it may not be viable to continuously power the inductive pickup sensor. Thus, in the case of short duration vibrations, even an array of piezo elements may not sufce. Hence, this algorithm would not be viable to harvest energy from short duration vibrations. D. Motivation for New Algorithms It is evident from the above brief literature review that past algorithms have almost exclusively focused on harvesting energy from sustained vibrations. VEH from short duration vibrations has been largely ignored. Furthermore, these algorithms are either suboptimal or have high power requirements. Hence these controllers would be inefcient for most VEH applications. Due to their relatively large power requirements, the optimal algorithms cannot be implemented to harvest energy from short term vibrations. Hence this paper develops ultra-low power control systems to optimize the amount of energy harvested from short duration vibrations. Only algorithms that can be implemented using low power analog electronics are considered. The algorithms that are developed can also be easily adapted to optimally harvest energy from sustained vibrations. III. PROPOSED CONTROLLERS A. System Model The dynamics of the VEH system will be modeled as consisting of a mechanical sub-system and an electrical sub-system. When the piezo is open (the terminals are unconnected), the mechanical sub-system will be modeled as a second order system with (1) However, when the electrical system is active and the piezo , insources current, the voltage across the capacitor , decreases. Subsequently, the voltage across the piezo,
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. This change in piezo voltage will induce a creases by , on the mechanical system. Hence, (1) force, is modied to become (2) The strain can be represented as (3) From (2) and (3), the mechanical sub-system dynamics can be rewritten in terms of strain as (4) where is amount of static strain produced for a unit applied is amount of static strain produced for a unit force and . change in The most important component of the electrical sub-system is the piezo electric substrate that transduces this strain to an electrical voltage. At low frequencies, the piezo is modeled as a voltage source in series with a capacitance using (5)(7) [7], [26]. A more sophisticated model can be found in Weinbert et al. [43] (5) (6) (7) In order to calculate the overall electrical dynamics, each diode making up the bridge is modeled by a piecewise linear model [34]. The piezo current can then be written as (8) and the dynamics of the capacitor voltage can be given by (9). See equation (8)(9) at the bottom of the page. For the purpose of simulation, we consider the mechanical 38 Hz, and system with parameters . (These parameters were chosen to match the experimental setup. See Section IV-D for details on how the parameters were identied from experimental data.) The input load on the system is modeled as two short duration pulses as shown in Fig. 2 with a magnitude of 3937.5 N.
Fig. 2. Force Input used for simulation.
Algorithms Of the total energy generated in the Piezo, only the fraction is available to drive the transferred to the storage capacitor load. is a measure of this energy. The peak power at the , is also a function of . Hence, load, given by in Sections III-B1III-B8, the available voltage, , is determined for each of three different control algorithms. 1) Fixed Threshold Switching: This algorithm is an adaptation of FTS used for harvesting energy from sustained oscillations. In this algorithm, the load is connected to , by setting the control input to logic high (1) when the crosses a pre. The control is turned off determined high (on) threshold (0), if falls below a low (off) threshold . The control , can be given by the control law state transition signal to diagram shown in Fig. 3. Theorem 1 describes the maximum voltage generated and stored across the storage capacitor when this controller is used. This will be compared later with the maximum voltage generated by the other two new controllers. Theorem 1: If the displacement of the beam has a rst local extremum value (with a corresponding ), and the switch is closed when , then see equation (10) at the bottom of the page. For a sufciently large (11) (The proof of this Theorem is provided in the Appendix.)
if otherwise if if is closed is open
(8)
(9)
if otherwise.
(10)
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Fig. 3. State transition diagram for xed threshold switching.
Fig. 6. Instantaneous Power consumed by 1 K Load with Fixed Threshold Switching algorithm.
Fig. 4.
for xed Threshold Switching algorithm.
Fig. 7. State transition diagram for max voltage switching.
Fig. 5. Load current for 1 K load with Fixed Threshold Switching algorithm.
by the resistor. The peak power is 7.56 mW and the total energy transferred to the load is 30 J. 2) Max Voltage Switching: In this algorithm, the load is connected to the capacitor , when the voltage reaches a maximum value. The control is turned off, if falls below . The control law can be given by the state the off-threshold transition diagram shown in Fig. 7. The occurrence of maximum can be determined using analog electronics. For instance, the max-detector can be realized using a high pass resistancecapacitance (RC) lter given by (12). A maximum is declared when the output of this lter falls below a threshold. The value of this threshold is small and determines how close to zero the derivative must become for the voltage to be recognized as maximum (12)
The xed threshold switching is the simplest algorithm, and would serve as a baseline for evaluating the performance of the other control algorithms. Simulation results obtained using this baseline control law are shown in Figs. 46. The voltage in the 2.75 V and 1.5 V is seen in storage capacitor for Fig. 4. Fig. 5 shows the current through the 1 K (1 Kohm) load resistance and Fig. 6 shows the instantaneous power consumed
Theorem 2 describes the maximum voltage generated and stored across the storage capacitor when the max voltage controller is used. Theorem 2: If the displacement of the beam has the rst local extremum value (with a corresponding ), then is given by (13a) and (13b) at the bottom of the page.
if otherwise if otherwise
(13a) (13b)
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Fig. 10. Load current for 1 K load with modied Max Voltage Switching algorithm.
Fig. 8.
for Max Voltage Switching algorithm.
Fig. 11. Instantaneous power consumed by 1 K Load with modied Max Voltage Switching algorithm. Fig. 9.
for modied Max Voltage Switching algorithm.
Thus, for a sufciently large strain voltage, the difference beand is distributed between and tween in the inverse ratio of their capacitance. (The proof of this Theorem is provided in Appendix.) It is seen from theorem 2 that when (14) is obtained to be 1 V for the rst For the current setup, pulse. This agrees with the simulation results shown in Fig. 8. It should be noted that the rst pulse charges the storage capacitor to 1 V, but there is no discharge to the load because the voltage 1.5 V . is too low Since we have a priori knowledge about the nature of the loading, it is possible to modify the to turn ON only at the end of the second pulse. One way of achieving this would involve checking for a maximum larger than a low threshold. For the particular load acting on the sensor (consisting of two pulses and hence four extremums in the vibration signal), is approximately four times the value of obtained for the is 3.9 V. Fig. 10 shows the current rst pulse. From Fig. 9,
through the 1 K (1 Kohm) load resistance and Fig. 11 shows the instantaneous power consumed by the resistor. Since the storage capacitor is allowed to charge to a higher voltage, this algorithm will deliver a larger peak power in comparison to the Fixed Threshold switching. Hence, this algorithm is always more efcient at harvesting vibration energy than the simple xed threshold algorithm described in the previous section. Indeed, the value of peak power (15.4 mW) and the amount total energy transferred to the load (70 J) is larger than those that were obtained for the Fixed Threshold Switching algorithm. 3) Switched Inductor: This section proposes a third algorithm that would further enhance . This algorithm uses a circuit shown in Fig. 14. The new circuit uses an inductor and a piezo switch in addition to the components shown in Fig. 1. The voltage drop across is given by . is turned on when reaches a maximum and is turned on when reaches a maximum. The switches and are turned off when the respective voltages and drop below an off-threshold . As discussed in the previous section, the occurrence of maximum can be determined using analog electronics. The control law for is given by the state transition diagram shown in Fig. 12 and the control
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It is seen from theorem 3, that when (16) where (17a)

Fig. 12. State transition diagram for SW (Switched Inductor).
(17b) (17c) By comparing (16) with (14), we notice that has increased by a factor of at least , which equals the peak overshoot of the LCR circuit. The Switched Inductor algorithm yields a higher due to the presence of the inductor. In the absence of the diode bridge rectier, the second order dynamics of the LCR circuit will exhibit an oscillatory behavior for a small time period and the dynamics would eventually converge to its steady-state value. The bridge rectier in the circuit to the overshoot peak voltage, rewould however clamp sulting in higher available voltage. Using (this is the estimated total resistance in and . the circuit) in (15), we get Now . Hence, the piezo would and drive the circuit in the reverse direction. . Hence, . The estimated value for is seen to be in close agreement with the simulation result from Fig. 15. As mentioned in the earlier section, owing to the a priori knowledge about the nature of the loading, it is possible to modify the to turn ON only at the end of the second load pulse. For the particular load acting on the sensor (consisting of four extremums in vibration), is approximately four times the for rst extremum (6.04 V). When compared to the modied max voltage switch controller, it is seen from Figs. 9 and 16 that the available voltage has increased by a factor of over 1.5. Subsequently from Fig. 18, the peak power is obtained to be 36.3 mW (an increase of 136%) and the total energy transferred to the load equals 188 J (an increase of 169%). An intuitive explanation of the performance of the switched inductor system can be provided as follows. When the piezo is charged to , and is completely discharged through a load resistance, the total amount of energy passing through the load can be calculated to be . When a storage capacitor is connected to the piezo, the capacitor is charged to a voltage . If the storage
Fig. 13. State transition diagram for SW
(Switched Inductor).
Fig. 14. Energy harvesting with Inductor.
law for is given by the state transition diagram shown in Fig. 13. Theorem 3 describes the maximum voltage generated and stored across the storage capacitor when the Switched Inductor algorithm is used. Theorem 3: If switch is closed at rst local extremum of the displacement of the beam, the voltages across capacitors and at the end of rst half-LC oscillation ( and , respectively) are given by see equation (15a) and (15b) at the bottom of the page. (The proof of this Theorem is provided in the Appendix.) Note: The load switch is closed when the reaches a maximum. This will prevent from increasing much further. However by using a low pass lter it is possible to lter out the due to LC oscillation. This will enable peaks occurring in us to collect energy from multiple LC oscillation.
(15a) (15b)
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Fig. 18. Instantaneous Power consumed by 1 K Load with modied Switched Inductor.
Fig. 15.
for Switched Inductor algorithm.
Fig. 16.
for modied Switched Inductor algorithm.
By adding an inductor in the circuit, some of this lost energy is recovered. This happens because the inductor causes a transient increase in current by creating a second-order under-damped system instead of a rst order system. The voltage transfer to the storage capacitor is made at the transient peak of the voltage by closing the switch at this peak. Thus, the inductor does not replicate impedance matching that has been traditionally used to optimize energy transfer. 4) Comparison of the Three Algorithms: It must be noted that for the Fixed Threshold Switching algorithm to work recannot be arbitrarily large. must necessarily liably, be chosen a volt or two lower than the lowest that can be expected corresponding to the set of all possible . for Fixed Threshold Switching algorithm is Hence, necessarily smaller than for the modied Max Voltage Switching. From (17a) it is clear that . Thus, for Fixed Threshold Switching for modied Max Voltage Switching for modied Switched Inductor. 5) Fraction of Energy Harvested: For the system that has been modeled, the deection of the point of application of force can be written as (18) The total energy supplied to the mechanical system can be estimated using Input Energy (19)
Using this calculation for the load shown in Fig. 2, the input energy is found to be Input Energy
Fig. 17. Load current for 1 K load with modied Switched Inductor algorithm.
17.037 J
(20)
capacitor is discharged through a load, the amount of energy . is Hence, the transfer from the piezo to the storage capacitor results in the loss of energy (through the resistance in the circuit).
The fraction of available energy harvested is shown in Table I. The fraction of energy harvested can be increased by using a larger amount of active piezo material. It must however be noted that the primary objective of this paper is to harvest sufcient energy for powering the sensor electronics by using the minimal amount of piezo material. Hence the use of a larger amount of piezo material has not been explored.
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TABLE I COMPARISON OF THE THREE ALGORITHMS
Fig. 19. Sensor.
IV. TRAFFIC SENSOR A. Introduction Currently, trafc agencies all around the country use inductive loop detectors (ILDs) to monitor trafc. The Minnesota Department of Transportation (MnDOT) for example, monitors the ow rates at over 6000 points in the Minneapolis/St. Paul metro area using such ILDs. An ILD consists of a big loop of metallic coil (usually a square of side 6 ft/1.8 m or larger) buried in the lane. This loop is connected to a station which powers the loop and processes the information obtained from the loop to determine if a vehicle passes over the sensor. It is possible to develop a battery-less wireless trafc sensor that can be embedded in the roadway. When a vehicle would pass over that sensor, short duration oscillations would be induced in the sensor. The proposed sensor would detect these vibrations and wirelessly transmit a pulse announcing the arrival of the vehicle to a station. Such a sensor could be powered by those same mechanical vibrations. By eliminating data cables and power cables, the new smaller trafc sensor would greatly improve the ease of installation and decrease maintenance requirements as well as decrease the installation time and the associated trafc congestion. B. Overview of New Sensor The researchers in this paper have developed a novel battery-less wireless trafc sensor to measure the trafc ow at a point on the highway. The sensor is completely autonomous and can be embedded in the highway lane without the need for control/data cables. In the absence of any automobile, the sensor is completely turned off, consuming no power. Thus, the sensor has ZERO idle power loss and is extremely energy efcient. When an automobile passes over the sensor, the sensor is turned on by the vibrations and a RF pulse is transmitted wirelessly to the station. The sensor requires no external power source as it is powered by harvesting all its energy from vibrations that result when a vehicle passes over it. Further this sensor has smaller dimensions and can be installed with much lower trafc disruptions. This is especially true because the sensor does not need a power source and power lines do not need to be run to the sensor. This new sensor, like the ILD, does not use complex image processing or audio processing techniques and would hence provide the same level of high reliability. Owing to the battery-less and wireless nature of the sensor, low maintenance can also be
expected. Further it is likely that the sensor can measure the number of axles and weight of passing vehicle in addition to the ow rate. It is also possible to congure several sensors to transmit to a single station by using different transmission frequencies. In order to power the sensor, the three algorithms proposed in Section III-B have been implemented using analog electronic components. All the switches used in the algorithms can be realized using MOSFET devices. C. Hardware The proposed sensor consists of a beam structure with a main beam (6 or 1.8 m long) and two support beams ( long or 250 mm) at the ends as shown in Fig. 19. A total of eight Piezo elements (four piezos for each of the support beams) are bonded at the locations shown in Fig. 19 and connected electrically in parallel. Ansys simulations revealed that the average of the strain over the area of all the piezos depended only on the total load acting on the main beam. This piezo conguration would ensure that the effective voltage generated by the piezo would not depend on the location of the load along the beam. It should be noted further that the speed of the passing vehicle can be measured by measuring the time difference in the loading between two consecutive sensors placed a short longitudinal distance apart. D. System Parameters 1) Mechanical Parameters: By considering only the rst vibration mode, the sensor dynamics can be represented using (4). acts on the system (4), the reWhen a static force sulting static strain is given by (21) The same load , acting at the center of the main beam, being transmitted to each results in an average load of support beam. It can be inferred from Ketchum et al. [14] that the resulting moment at the location of the piezo is given by (22) For the support beam, 0.2 m, 0.01875 m, 0.025 m, 0.00625 m and 200 GPa. Hence, mm and (23) Thus (24)
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The force developed by the piezo as a result of this stress is given by (27) The pair of piezo that were considered, bonded to the top and bottom of the support beam, are separated by the height of the support beam . The moment developed by them is (28) This moment acting on the mechanical system would result in a static strain (29) Noting that we get (30) From (4) we can deduce that for a static
Fig. 20. Bode magnitude plot of impulse response of the sensor.
(31) Hence
The natural frequency was obtained by observing the impulse response of the sensor. This impulse response was generated by striking the sensor with a hammer. Fig. 20 shows the rerad s38 Hz. sulting bode plot. From the gure, The impulse response could not be directly used to nd the damping ratio, since the tire passing over the sensor would damp out the mechanical vibrations in the sensor. Instead a value of was found to be appropriate. A nite-element model of the sensor structure was constructed (using , , and for the main beam and , , and for the support beam) structure. From this model, it was determined that when a unit static load is applied at the mid point of the main beam, the mid point deects by . Hence, the transfer function for the deection of the mid point of the main beam can be written as (25) This relation can be used to determine the total energy supplied to the beam structure. 2) Electro-mechanical Coupling Parameters: The VEH system consists of piezo electric elements bonded to the support beams as shown in Fig. 19. The piezos are bonded to the top and bottom surfaces of the support beam. When a vehicle passes over the sensor, the piezo experiences a strain from the loading and thus generates a voltage. When the piezo sources current to the circuit, increases and decreases. Since the piezo is bonded to the mechanical system, this decrease in piezo voltage translates to a static stress (26)
(32) Thus, the coupling coefcient (33) 3) Electrical Parameters: The piezos are A4E sheets 0.191 mm thick and of side 37.5 mm 25 mm. (They were made by cutting T107-A4E-602 sheets that were purchased from Piezo Systems, Inc). The piezo will be subject to strain in the 1 direction of the piezo. Hence, the 31 parameters of the piezo are used in the calculation. For A4E piezo, the modulus of elasticity N m and thickness at constant electric eld is m. Hence, open circuit voltage per unit strain is V (34)
From the measurement of the capacitance of the sensor system, the equivalent capacitance is found to be F. V. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS WITH TRAFFIC SENSOR The three algorithms presented in Section III-B were implemented on a self-contained electronic circuit. The switches and were implemented using MOSFETs. The extremely small amount of power required by the control system was derived entirely from the charge energy stored in the capacitor. Sets of experiments were carried out with each of the three circuits connected to the piezo. Each experiment consisted of driving a compact car over the sensor at 20 Km/h as shown in Fig. 21. This resulted in separate loading from the two axles, rst by the front tires and then by the rear tires.
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Fig. 21. Schematic of test setup (gure not drawn to scale).
Fig. 24. Modied Switched Inductor algorithm. TABLE II FRACTION OF AVAILABLE VIBRATION ENERGY UTILIZED
Fig. 22. Fixed Threshold algorithms with a threshold of 2.75 V.
TABLE III THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL MAXIMUM VOLTAGE
Fig. 23. Modied Max Switching algorithm.
Fig. 22 show the results from the testing of the Fixed Threshold algorithm. The on-threshold for the algorithm was chosen at 2.75 V so that the sensor would detect light vehicle such as motorcycles. The MOSFET used in the switching circuit constrains the off-threshold voltage to 1.75 V. As a result, turns on when the capacitor voltage reaches 2.75 V and turns off when falls below 1.75 V.
The electronic circuits were then modied so that turns on when reaches a maximum. In order to detect a global maximum, and to collect energy from both axles, was does not increase for a period of modied to turn on when 100 ms. The off-threshold was once again chosen to be 1.75 V. Fig. 23 show the results from modied Max Switching algorithm. It is seen that the two axles would generate a combined voltage of 3.95 V. This agrees well with the simulations in Section III-B2. Fig. 24 show the results from the modied Switched Inductor algorithm experiments and the capacitor voltage is found to be 6 V. This agrees well with the simulations in Section III-B3. The theoretical and experimental capacitor voltages are summarized in Tables II and III.
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is controlled as prescribed, the It is apparent that if switched inductor offers signicant improvement over both the xed threshold and the maximum voltage algorithms. VI. CONCLUSION Past research on VEH has almost exclusively focused on harvesting energy from sustained vibrations. When it comes to short-duration vibrations, the optimal control algorithms proposed in literature cannot be implemented due to the relatively large power requirements of associated microprocessors or computers used to implement the controller. Hence, this paper develops ultra-low power control systems to optimize the amount of energy harvested from short duration vibrations. It has been shown via both simulations and experiments that the modied Max Voltage Switching, the rst algorithm that has been proposed in the paper, would outperform the base line FTS algorithm previously developed in literature. It has further been shown that the modied Switched Inductor, the second algorithm that has been proposed in the paper, would outperform both the modied Max Voltage Switching and the FTS algorithms. The developed control algorithms have also been used in the paper to implement a new battery-less wireless trafc sensor. The developed sensor can be embedded in a highway lane and can measure trafc ow at that point. Due to battery-less wireless operation and its small size, the new sensor has signicant advantages over existing inductive loop trafc sensors in terms of easy installation, low cost, low maintenance and zero power consumption. APPENDIX PROOFS OF THEOREM 1, 2 AND 3: Proof of Theorem 1: The proof will proceed by determining for the following cases: is open; (i) when (ii) when is closed; transitions from open to closed when (iii) when . is open, it is clear that Case (i): When (refer Fig. 1). Thus, if , the bridge circuit recties the piezo current and charges the storage , the capacitor. When diodes block the ow of current thus preventing storage capacitor from discharging. If does not change signs , the effective voltage and
driving the current thought the resistive element in the circuit is given by
(35) In modeling overall dynamics, the rst-order nonlinear electrical dynamic (5)(9) are dominated by the much slower dynamics of the mechanical system. The system exhibits a two time scale property and the faster electrical dynamics needs to be modeled by its quasi-steady state or value [15], [18] which corresponds to (36) and are two capacitor connected in series. If does not change signs (37) Thus, see (38) at the bottom of the page. is closed, once again the faster elecCase (ii): When trical dynamics is modeled by its quasi-steady state value corresponding to and . Hence, in addition we have . Since the diodes to only conduct up to , when is closed we have (39) is initially open and is closed at time Case (iii): When , for an extremely small duration of time (corresponding to the time scale of the electrical system), the electrical dynamics is dominant. Since is much smaller than the time scale of the mechanical system, the mechanical system can be considered to be frozen [15], [18]. Since the electrical dynamics is a rst order system, there is no . over shoot in any voltage value. Thus At the end of , the system approaches the quasi-steady state value and the equation is case (ii) can be used. In summary, if , the diodes do not conduct . If , is closed only and . Hence, if when
(40) If is sufciently large, .
(38)
264
APPENDIX: Lemma 1: (stated without proof) and , (10) is modIf ied to (41) and (42) shown at the bottom of the page. (The proof would be a direct extension of the theorem above) see the equation at bottom of page. Proof of Theorem 2: Equation (38) derived in Case (i) of theorem 1, holds as long as does not change signs. Since has only one unique local extremum, cannot change signs and (38) is valid. If , then . If , when . Hence, it is evident that (13) follows. Lemma 2: (stated without proof) If and , (13) is modied to (43a) and (43b), shown at the bottom of the page. (The proof would be a direct extension of the theorem above.) is closed in the LCR Proof of Theorem 3: When circuit shown in Section III-B3 Fig. 14, the effective voltage driving the resistive and inductive components of the circuit is given by
If when
, the diode bridge will begin to conduct is closed (45)
is unidirectional, the electrical dynamics can be When and . Hence written in terms of (46) (47) Now tially not charged . When and are ini-
(48) The piece-wise linear dynamics of the LCR system can be written as
(49) (44) , the overall dynamics is dominated by In the absence of would be given by (13). There the mechanical system and . If is closed at some would be no gain in , it would be result in a step input to the electrical circuit. Now and is unidirectional up to the rst maximum of at the end of the rst half-oscillation. Since (49) is valid when is unidirectional, it can be used to determine this rst maximum . For this second-order system (50)
if otherwise
(41) (42)
if otherwise
if otherwise
(43a)
if otherwise
(43b)
265
(51) (52)
if otherwise
(53a)
if otherwise
(53b)
Hence, (51) and (52) shown at the top of the page. Note: If piezo is charged sufciently in the reverse direction , the system would such that continue to oscillate. When the piezo current ow in the reverse and at the end of the second half oscildirection, and ) can be obtained by replacing lation ( with and calculating the changes in and . Lemma 3: (stated without proof) and (15) gets modiIf ed to (53a) and (53b) shown at the top of the page. (The proof would be a direct extension of the theorem above.) REFERENCES
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[12] P. Horowitz and W. Hill, The Art of Electronics. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1989. [13] S. Kamijo, Y. Matsushita, K. Ikeuchi, and M. Sakauchi, Trafc monitoring and accident detection at intersections, IEEE Trans. Intell. Transportation Syst., vol. 1, no. 2, pp. 108118, 2000. [14] M. S. Ketchum, Structural Engineers Handbook, 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1981. [15] H. K. Khalil, Nonlinear Systems. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PrenticeHall, 2002. [16] S. W. Kim, Y. Eun, H. Kim, J. Ko, W. J. Jung, Y. Choi, Y. G. Cho, and D. Cho, Performance comparison of loop/piezo and ultrasonic sensor-based trafc detection systems for collecting individual vehicle information, in Proc. 6th World Congr. ITS (CD-ROM), 1998. [17] S. W. Kim, K. Kim, J. Lee, and D. D. Cho, Appplication of fuzzy logic to vehicle classication algorithm in loop/piezo-sensor fusion systems, Asian J. Control, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 6468, 2001. [18] P. V. Kokotovic, J. OReilly, and H. K. Khalil, Singular Perturbation Methods in Control: Analysis and Design. Warrendale, PA: SIAM, 1986. [19] J. Kymissis, C. Kendall, J. Paradiso, and N. Gershenfeld, Parasitic power harvesting in shoes, in Dig. Papers 2nd Int. Symp. Wearable Comput., Oct. 1998, pp. 132139. [20] C. Li, K. Ikeuchi, and M. Sakauchi, Acquisition of trafc information using video camera with 2D spatio-temporal image transformation technique, in Proc. IEEJ/JSAI Int. Conf. Intell. Transportation Syst., 1999, pp. 634638. [21] E. Lefeuvre, A. Badel, C. Richard, and D. Guyomar, Piezoelectric energy harvesting device optimization by synchronous electric charge extraction, J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 865876, 2005. [22] E. Lefeuvre, A. Badel, A. Benayad, C. Richard, L. Petit, and D. Guyomar, A comparison between several vibration-powered piezoelectric generators for standalone systems, Sensors Actuators A: Phys., vol. 126, no. 2, pp. 405416, 2006. [23] L. J. Mountain and J. B. Garner, Application of photography to trafc surveys, J. Inst. Highway Eng., vol. 55, no. 11, pp. 1219, Nov. 1980. [24] P. T. Martin, Y. Feng, and X. Wang, Detector technology evaluation, Mountain-Plains Consortium, 2003. [25] P. G. Michalopoulos and C. A. Anderson, Costs and benets of visionbased, wide-area detection in freeway applications, Transp. Res. Rec., pp. 4047, 1995. [26] O. D. Nwokah, Mechanical Systems Design Handbook Modeling Measurement and Control. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 2001. [27] S. Oh, S. G. Ritchie, and C. Oh, Real time trafc measurement from single loop inductive signatures, in Proc. 81st TRB Annu. Meet., Jan. 2002, pp. 98105. [28] G. K. Ottman, H. F. Hofmann, A. C. Bhatt, and G. A. Lesieutre, Adaptive piezoelectric energy harvesting circuit for wireless remote power supply, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 17, no. 5, pp. 669676, Sep. 2002.
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[29] G. K. Ottman, H. F. Hofmann, A. C. Bhatt, and G. A. Lesieutre, Optimized piezoelectric energy harvesting circuit using step-down converter in discontinuous conduction mode, IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 18, no. 2, Mar. 2003. [30] G. B. Perez, M. Malinowski, and J. A. Paradiso, An ultra-low power, optically-interrogated smart tagging and identication system, in Proc. 4th IEEE Workshop Autom. Identication Adv. Technol., 2005, pp. 187192. [31] S. Rhee, D. Seetharam, and S. Liu, Techniques for minimizing power consumption in low data-rate wireless sensor networks, in Proc. IEEE Wirel. Commun. Netw. Conf. (WCNC), 2004, vol. 3, pp. 17271731. [32] J. C. Rojas and J. D. Crisman, Vehicle detection in color images, in Proc. IEEE Intell. Transportation Syst. Conf. (ITSC), 1997, pp. 403408. [33] S. Roundy, On the effectiveness of vibration-based energy harvesting, J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Structures, vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 809823, 2005. [34] K. Santiram, Basic Electronics: Devices, Circuits and IT Fundamentals. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2004. [35] H. A. Sodano, D. J. Inman, and G. Park, Comparison of piezoelectric energy harvesting devices for recharging batteries, J. Intell. Mater. Syst. Struct., vol. 16, no. 10, pp. 799807, 2005. [36] H. A. Sodano, D. J. Inman, and G. Park, A review of power harvesting from vibration using piezoelectric materials, Shock Vibr. Dig., vol. 36, no. 3, pp. 197205, 2004. [37] T. Starner, Human-powered wearable computing, IBM Syst. J., vol. 35, pp. 618629, 1996. [38] C. Sun, S. G. Ritchie, and S. Oh, Inductive classifying articial network for vehicle type categorization, Comput.-Aided Civil Infrastructure Eng., vol. 18, no. 3, pp. 161172, 2003. [39] Urban ITS Center, Polytechnic University, Users manual for cost estimates of intelligent transportation technologies (CEIT), 2007. [40] N. Ushio and T. Shimizu, Loop vs ultrasonic in Chicago: Ultrasonic vehicle detector eld test isolating diffused reection and enduring harsh environment, in Proc. 5th World Congr. Intell. Transport Syst., 1998. [41] M. A. Vicencio, B. Qiu, and M. G. Hartley, Algorithms and architectures for the analysis of road-trafcmovements, in Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. Image Process. Its Appl. , 1989, pp. 182186. [42] K. Vijayaraghavan and R. Rajamani, Active control based energy harvesting for battery-less wireless trafc sensors, in Proc. Amer. Control Conf., 2007, pp. 31063111. [43] M. S. Weinberg, Working equations for piezoelectric actuators and sensors, J. Microelectromechan. Syst., vol. 8, pp. 529533, 1999.
[44] C. Zhu, Z. Gut, L. Shang, R. Dick, and R. Knobel, Towards an ultralow-power architecture using single-electron tunneling transistors, in Proc. 44th Annu. Conf. Des. Autom., 2007, pp. 312317.
Krishna Vijayaraghavan received the M.S. degree from University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, in 2005 and the B.Tech. degree from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India, in 2003. He is currently working towards the Ph.D. degree from the University of Minnesota. His research interests include fault-tolerant control, battery-less wireless sensors, signal processing and real-time software. Mr. Vijayaraghavan was a recipient of many awards, including the ITS MN Graduate Student Award (2008) in recognition of outstanding research contributions to Intelligent Transportation Systems (ITS) technology and the Sivasailam Merit Prize for Best Individual B.Tech. Project in Mechanical Engineering in IIT Madras (2003).
Rajesh Rajamani received the M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of California at Berkeley, in 1991 and 1993, respectively, and the B.Tech. degree from the Indian Institute of Technology, Madras, India, in 1989. He is currently Professor of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Minnesota, Minneapolis. His research interests include sensors and control systems for automotive and biomedical applications. He has authored over a 100 refereed publications and received 4 patents. He is the author of Vehicle Dynamics and Control (Springer Verlag, 2005). Dr. Rajamani was a recipient of several honors, including the CAREER Award from the National Science Foundation, the 2001 Outstanding Paper Award from the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY, and the 2007 O. Hugo Schuck Award from the American Automatic Control Council. He has served as Chair of the IEEE Technical Committee on Automotive Control and on the editorial boards of the IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON CONTROL SYSTEMS TECHNOLOGY and the IEEE/ASME TRANSACTIONS ON MECHATRONICS.

Ultra-Low Power Control System For Maximal Energy Harvesting From Short Duration Vibrations-jO7

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if otherwise if if is closed is open

Fig. 3. State transition diagram for xed threshold switching.

for xed Threshold Switching algorithm.

Fig. 7. State transition diagram for max voltage switching.

for Max Voltage Switching algorithm.

for modied Max Voltage Switching algorithm.

It is seen from theorem 3, that when (16) where (17a)

Fig. 13. State transition diagram for SW

Fig. 14. Energy harvesting with Inductor.

for Switched Inductor algorithm.

for modied Switched Inductor algorithm.

TABLE I COMPARISON OF THE THREE ALGORITHMS

Fig. 19. Sensor.

Fig. 21. Schematic of test setup (gure not drawn to scale).

Fig. 22. Fixed Threshold algorithms with a threshold of 2.75 V.

TABLE III THEORETICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL MAXIMUM VOLTAGE

Fig. 23. Modied Max Switching algorithm.

(40) If is sufciently large, .

, the diode bridge will begin to conduct is closed (45)

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