Max Weber's Types of Rationality: Cornerstones for the Analysis of Rationalization Processes in History Author(s): Stephen Kalberg Reviewed

work(s): Source: American Journal of Sociology, Vol. 85, No. 5 (Mar., 1980), pp. 1145-1179 Published by: The University of Chicago Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2778894 . Accessed: 09/10/2012 08:59
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Cornerstones Max Weber'sTypes of Rationality: Processes of forthe Analysis Rationalization in History'

StephenKalberg Universitdt Tiubingen

Rationalityhas been recognizedas perhaps the major theme in who Max Weber's oeuvre.The commentators have addressedthis This character. constricted polymorphous its themehave generally and "rationalizaWeber's usage of "rationality" articleinventories tion" in Economyand Societyand the CollectedEssays in the Soare and ciology Religion.Four typesof rationality identified comof and theoretical, substantive, forpared withone another:practical, methodical introduces rationality" mal. Only "ethical substantive of in ways of life. All fourtypes become manifest a multiplicity at processesorchestrated all levels of societal and rationalization are rationalization processes seen to civilizational Long-term process. of The dominance practhanin interests. be rootedin valuesrather and formalrationalization processesin modern tical, theoretical, for Western societies consequences the typeof perimpliesimmense son likelyto live in thesesocieties. in Although"rationality"and its diversemanifestations historicalraacknowledged a major, as tionalization processeshave been universally and perhapsthemajor,themein Max Weber'scorpus,only a few comthis theme or to relate the mentators have endeavoredto investigate The attempts Schluchter by varioustypesof rationality one another. to 1979, pp. 14-15) and Weiss (1975, pp. 137-38) (Roth and Schluchter are plagued by a commonshortcoming: both note "usages" or "dimentracedback to the fresions" of rationality that cannotbe consistently processes Economy in of and quentdiscussions "rationality" rationalization of and Society(E&S) and the CollectedEssays in the Sociology Religion
1 An earlier version of this article was presentedin September 1977 in Gottlieben, Switzerland, a colloquium entitled"Max Weber und die Dynamik der gesellschaftat lichen Rationalisierung."A German version will appear in Seyfarth and Sprondel (1980). I would also like to express my deep gratitudeto Guy Oakes of Monmouth College; WinfriedBrugger,Winfried Gebhardt, Klaus Koziol, Gerd Schmaltz, and F. H. Tenbruck in Tiubingen; David Herr in New York; Toby Huff in Boston; Donald Levine in Chicago; Richard Munch in DUsseldorf; Karl-Heinz Nusser in Munich; GuentherRoth in Seattle; Wolfgang Schluchterin Heidelberg; and Constans Seyfarthin Frankfurt.

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of American Journal Sociology do withWeber'svarious (CESR). Moreover, their definitions not coincide historical-sociological analyses of the paths followedby rationalization Donald Levine's (1979) recentdiscusprocesses different in civilizations. by avoids these difficulties adsion of Weber's notionof "rationality" yet heringlargelyto Weber's terminology, he does not comprehensively discuss this concept,nor does he touch on the issue of the mannerin whichthe typesof rationality combine struggle or against one another like processes. Furthermore, Ulrike in history separaterationalization as Levine'sdistinction Vogel's (1973) and Ann Swidler's(1973) expositions, is betweenWeber's typesof social action and his types of rationality insufficiently differentiated. of Many explorations Weber's understanding "rationality"have of failedto emphasize multivalent embodiments. This approachis most its in that rationalization processes Weclearlyrepresented the assertion by of ber's corpus amount to nothingmore than a "disenchantment the lack of freedom. Othercomor world,"2 bureaucratization, an increasing only rationalization tantamount to an increasas mentators have discussed (zweckrational) typeof social action ing pervasiveness the means-end of have limited their (Nelson 1973,p. 85; Munch 1980). Stillotherauthors in examinations Weber'snotion "rationality" its manifestations of of and spheres life,such as the of historical rationalization processesto specific religious sphere(Tenbruck1975). is for Weber himself largelyresponsible the lack of claritythat surof and the interplay multifaceted roundshis analyses of "rationality" discusand fragmented historical rationalization processes.His scattered than to illuminate sions of this themeare more likely to mystify (e.g. [1946] 1958f,pp. 293-94 [266]; [1930] 1958a, pp. 26 [11-12], 77-78 [62]; 1968,pp. 30 [15], 85 [44], 424 [259], 809 [468], 333 [195-96]; page 1951,p. 226 [512]; 1952,pp. 425-26, n. 1 [1-2]; see n. 2 regarding he offers suca in numbers brackets)and, despiteits centrality, nowhere also cinctexplanation thistheme. contorted of His styleof writing hampers and all attempts take an inventory his majorusagesof "rationality" to of ''rationalization carelessness:since the processes,"as does his frequent appropriate qualifying adjectiveoftenfails to precede"rational" in his
2 This misinterpretation resultsin part fromthe frequenttranslationof Entzauberung as "disenchantment." Entzauberung-literally,"de-magification"-has a very specific significance for Weber: it is one of the two major axes followed by rationalization processesin the arena of religion(1951, p. 226 [512]; all references Weber's texts to give the English translationfirst,followed in brackets by the page numbers of the originalGerman; bibliographic information about the latterappears in the list of references). It relatesparticularly religiousrationalization to processesin the West, beginning with ancient Judaism,and characterizesespecially the transformation from medieval Catholicismto Calvinism."Disenchantment," far more generaltermthat cona and an earlier, jures up images of the romanticist's yearningfor the Gemeinschaft "simpler"world, has not the slightest relationshipto Weber's usage of Entzauberung.

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Weber'sTypesof Rationality left with a choice between writings, studentof Weber is generally the the concluding that his usage is indeed unilinearand undertaking unof the examining hundreds passages in appealingtask of systematically of which this termappears. Because of the varied translations Ratioas and nalismus, Rationalitit,3 Rationalisierung, well as relatedkey terms the English editionsof Weber's writings, reader who in the numerous situation. a textsconfronts hopeless does nothave accessto theGerman and surveysWeber's usage of "rationality" This articleexhaustively as appearin his majorcomparative-historical"rationalization" theseterms works written after1904: E&S and the CESR.4 The selection sociological or of thesewritings, rather than the methodological politicalessays,has at by been determined anotheraim of this article: to reconstruct, the of level,Weber'svisionof a multiplicity rationalization purelyconceptual conflict coalesce withone anotherat all soand processesthat variously levels.5Because the discretetypesof rationality cietal and civilizational an processes, inventory for constitute cornerstones theserationalization the as of their features interrelationshipstheyappear in Weber's and defining for prerequisite such must serve as the necessary comparative sociology a however, a reconstruction." Beforescrutinizing typesof rationality, the issues shouldbe dealt within orderto avoid unnumber preliminary of necessary confusion.
I. GENERAL FEATURES OF WEBER'S AND RATIONALIZATION TYPES OF RATIONALITY

in The conceptual statusof Weber'sfourtypesof rationality relationto in his fourtypesof social actionwill be clarified this section,as well as
3 This and the preceeding termare used synonymously Weber. They have been genby erally translatedas "rationality,"though occasionally as "rationalism." "Rationality" as well as "irrationality" will be repeatedlyplaced in quotation marksin this articlein order to emphasize the exclusiveconcern here with Weber's distinctiveusage of these terms. 4 This three-volumework includes The Religion of China, The Religion of India, AncientJudaism,and The ProtestantEthic and the Spirit of Capitalismas well as the "Author's Introduction."It also includes three essays printed in Gerth and Mills's From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (see Weber [1946] 1958c, 1958d, and 1958f): "The ProtestantSects and the Spirit of Capitalism," "The Religious Rejections of the World and Their Directions,"and "The Social Psychologyof the World Religions." 5 This article, therefore, does not investigateWeber's distinctionbetween "rational" and "empathic"understanding it relatesto the process of interpretative as understanding. For a discussionof this distinction, Weber 1968, pp. 5-14 [2-7]; Levine 1979, see pp. 10-11; and Weiss 1975, pp. 48-50. 6 Whereas "rationality"and all "types of rationality"always refer, for Weber and in this article, to a condition,"rationalization" or "rationalization process" refersto a development. The "types" (Arten,Formen; see, e.g., [1946] 1958f,p. 293 [266]; [1930] 1958a, pp. 26 [12], 30 [15]) of rationalization are all based on the typesof rationality.

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of American Journal Sociology of and two generalcharacteristics the typesof rationality of rationalizaand specificity. tionprocesses:their universality their"sphere-of-life" The Types of Social Actionand theTypes of Rationality traditional, Weber'sfourfold of valuetypology social action-affectual, capacitiesof rationalaction-refersto universal rational, and means-end on for Homo sapiens. Instead of depending theirexistence societal,culthesetypesof social action stand "outtural,or historical constellations, side of history" anthropological traitsof man. as French anthropology, Weberarguedthatman did Against19th-century and withthe Enlightenment thatindividuals not acquirehis "rationality" in all previous epochswerenot incapableof rationalaction.On the conman could be subjectively trary, even everydayactions of "primitive" ritualswere means-end rational,as, for example,when specificreligious of receiving favorsfrom god. In Weber'seyes, a performed withthe aim in and as thispureexchange relationship it existed sacrifice prayer(1968, to p. 424 [258-59]; [1922] 1973,pp. 432-38) was identicalin form the means to acquire modern businessman's calculationof the most efficient societiesdiverged profit. Likewise,the fact that the values in premodern widelyfrom modern values did not,forWeber,call intoquestionthebasic on his capacityof man to orient actions rationally the basis of values. On the otherhand, traditional action were not uprooted and affectual and sweptaway to thedegreethatmodernization advanced. movements Howeveruniversal fourtypesof social actionmay be, Weberconthe to and delineatedactions. finedthe application this typology specific of As a comparative-historical sociologist, however, wished to examine he regularities patand actionorientations; "more"thansimplyfragmented ternsof actionwereof fargreater interest him. Patternscould occur to in from at a plurality levels of sociocultural of thosemanifest processes, the dominant to by paths followed entirecivilizations othersthat charsocietal moveacterizedlong-term historical or developments short-term organias ments.Regularities actionsurfaced well withininstitutions, of of zations,strata,classes, and groupsin all societies.The typology the a that must be siftedout of Weber's typesof rationality, classification is writings, one of manyconceptualschemeshe utilizesto analyze such "formal," and "sub"Practical,""theoretical," regularities patterns. and stantive"rationality constitute this typology. The consciousregularities of action that all of thesetypesof rationality serve to master introduce and realities. (bekerrscken) fragmented disconnected in rationaland Since thesetypesof rationality anchored means-end are 1148

Weber'sTypes of Rationality the of value-rational and societalprocesses action,7 patterns civilizational theyidentify involvesimplyconsciousregularities action orientations of on thepartof individuals8 and,in some cases,"waysof life" (Lebensfuehrungen).9Like sociocultural processes,ways of life-or consistent "attitudes"thatpenetrate entireorganization life-divergewidelyin the of the extent whichtheyinvolve to methodical action([1946] 1958f,p. 293 [266]). Theirbroad rangeof diversity dependsultimately, Weber,on for a multitude interacting of ideas, values,interests, economic, and political, sociological, and historicalfactors.Rationalization processesof historic in significance societiesand in entirecivilizations have oftenoriginated whena constellation factors raof crystallized that rewarded methodical tionalways of life.As will be notedbelow,Weber argues that precisely thesewaysof lifewerebased on valuesrather thanon interests. The Universality the Types of Rationality of and of Rationalization Processes The typesof rationality thevariousrationalization and processes often are discussedby Weberin reference Western to civilization's distinctive modernization path. This predominant orientation most clearlyevidentin is the "Author'sIntroduction" the CESR. In this essay, as well as in to the CESR as a whole,Weber intends, above all, to addressthe issue of whytheChinese, Indian,and ancient Near East civilizations notadopt did those typesof rationalization processesthat characterize Europeanthe American civilization. Although Weberoriented theseinvestigations the questionwhy "rato tionalized and societies"arose onlyin the West, the typesof rationality
7 Theoreticalrationality, which is rooted in cognitiveprocesses rather than in action, is the only typeof rationality not based on eithermeans-endrational or value-rational action. It can, however,influence action indirectly, is explained below. The relation as between the types of rationalityand the types of social action is discussed further in Section III below. 8 That individual action is, for Weber, the fundamental"atom" in all societal and civilizationalprocessesmust be kept in mind throughoutthis article. Even collective concepts are understood by Weber to be specifiablecommon action orientationsof individualsin groups (1968, pp. 4 [11, 8 [3], 19 [8-9]; [19221 1973, pp. 429, 439). Such social phenomena as a business corporation,a neighborhood, family,or feudalism a are constituted from the common subjective "meanings" given to them by groupings of individuals,as is even a bureaucraticstructureof domination and a compulsory institution(Anstalt) such as the modern state. Collective entitiesare not themselves capable of "acting"; on the contrary,they exist simply as a consequence "ultimately of a certainkind of developmentof actual or possible social actions of individual persons" (1968, p. 14 [6-7]; emphasis in original,translationslightlyaltered). 9 It is impossibleto trace Weber's usage of Lebensfuehrung the translations. often in It appears, particularly The ProtestantEthic and the Spirit of Capitalism, as "conin duct," thoughalso as "style of life," "type of attitude,"or simply "life."

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American Journal Sociology of universalrationalization processes take shape,in greater lesserdegrees, or ly. The "Author's Introduction" itselfprovides mostunequivocalevithe dence of this universality. referring In thereto the particulartypesof civilizarationality rationalization and processes thatappearedin Western kind, tion,Weberimpliesthat rationalization, albeit oftenof a different takesplace in non-Western civilizations well ([1930] 1958a, pp. 25-26 as frequently notes, example, "rationalism" for the [11], 30 [15] ). He further ofancient Judaism (1968, pp. 610 [367], 618-19 [372]) and of Confucianism (1951, pp. 226-49 [512-36], 164 [452]; 1968,pp. 538-39 [326-27]) and the rationalization mystical of contemplation ([1930] 1958a, p. 26 [11]). In an analysisof religious rationalization, H. Tenbruck(1975) has F. come to the same conclusion. After examining original1905 edition the of Weber'sThe Protestant Ethic and the Spiritof Capitalism(PE) and of his later "Author'sIntroduction," "The Social Psychology the World argues Religions," the "ReligiousRejections theWorld," and of Tenbruck a thatthemostsignificant thematic development involves broadening here of Weber's understanding "rationality" processes of and rationalization in (1975, pp. 669, 677-79). In thefirst edition thePE, Weber'sinterest, of keepingwiththe prevalent intellectual currents his time,focusedexof on in clusively rationalization the West. By the timehe wrotethe later to essays,however, had enlarged notion rationalization universalhe his of in historicaldimensionsthat included civilizationaldevelopments the Orientas well (Nelson 1969,p. 6; 1974, p. 272; Parsons 1937, pp. 567, 752; 1963, pp. xxxii-iii; Bendix 1965, pp. 11-12; Munch 1980; Levine 1979,pp. 8-9). of The Sphere-of-Life Specificity "Rationality"and "Rationalization" Processes of and Weberdoes notemploy concepts "rationality" "rationalization" the in a globalmanner refer of to merely a generalunfolding civilizations. to Instead, qualitatively different rationalization processesthat potentially rates take place at varioussociocultural own indigenous advanceat their to levelsand in different life-spheres, in thoserelating the "external both of economics, organization theworld,"suchas the realmsof law, politics, and in the "internal"spheres domination and knowledge, (Herrschaft), of religion ethics.Rationalization and processes may be foundalso in the and eroticarenas.10 aesthetic thatrationalization occursin diversespheres life of Weber'sconviction
are used here synonymously and "spheres" 10"Arenas," "realms," (Lebensbereiche, of to suchas those are referred by conLebenssphaere). Spheres life, justnoted, often as orders." temporary sociologists "institutional 1150

Weber'sTypes of Rationality compelled him to examinethe degreeto whicha singlerealm could be designated the"carrier," as behind which otherrationalization all processes fellin line to a greater lesserdegree.In posingthisquestion, wished or he primarily scrutinize Marxianemphasison the economicsphereas to the the substructure all others.In thisregard, for Weber foundthe Marxian stresswanting:forhim,rationalization processes can take place in each arena independently from othersand at their the own rates.A "rational" form lawmaking, example, not originate thosecountries in of for did that first introduced modern forms capitalism. of Instead,it arose and attained a highlyrationalized formin ancient Rome. It was taken over in the Catholiccountries southern of Europe long before onsetof industrialthe izationin thatarea rather thanby England,theearliest country industo trialize. Likewise,purely this-worldly "rational" philosophiesemerged earliestin France with the Enlightenment ratherthan in England or Holland where economic"rationalism" had reached its higheststages. Moreover, aftercomparing intensecapitalisticactivityin 14th-and the 15th-century Florencewith the economicbackwardness 18th-century of Pennsylvania, Weber concludedthat moderncapitalismalone could not have givenbirthto an "economicethic" ([1930] 1958a, pp. 74-77 [60thatunderstood 62], 25 [11]). Thus,he came to doubtall thosetheories the advanceof "rationality" a unilinear as evolutionary processoccurring withequal intensity all societalspheres.He thenbegan to investigate in themanner whichactionwas rationalized particular in in arenas. These preliminary remarks thegeneralfeatures Weber'stypesof on of rationality and rationalization processeshave aimed only to provide a looseframework within whichtheseconcepts can be defined examined and fortheirinterrelationships. in Weberhimself, particularly his later writof ings,repeatedly admonished readersto attendto the multivocality his his usage of "rationality" and "rationalization" ([1946] 1958f,p. 293 [266]; 1968,p. 998 [576]; [1930] 1958a, pp. 26 [11-12], 77-78 [62]).
II. MAX WEBER'S TYPES OF RATIONALITY: PRACTICAL, THEORETICAL, SUBSTANTIVE,AND FORMAL

In surveying typesof rationality, sectionaims above all to demthe this onstrate polymorphous the character "rationality" Weber's oeuvre. of in The Weberianaxiom that verydifferent patterns actionand ways of of lifemaybe "rational"will be repeatedly underlined. PracticalRationality Weberdesignates every way of lifethatviewsand judgesworldly activity in relationto the individual's purelypragmatic and egoisticinterests as practicalrational ([1930] 1958a, p. 77 [62]). Instead of implying pat1151

American Journal Sociology of ternsof actionthat,forexample,activelymanipulate givenroutines the of dailylifein behalfof an absolutevalue system, practicalrational a way of life acceptsgivenrealities and calculatesthemostexpedient means of dealingwith the difficulties theypresent.Pragmaticaction in termsof everyday interests ascendant, is and givenpracticalends are attainedby careful weighing increasingly and precisecalculation the mostadequate of means([1946] 1958f, 293 [266]). Thus, thistypeof rationality p. exists as a manifestation man'scapacityformeans-end of rational action. Wherever bondsof primitive the magichave been severed, "capabilthe ity and disposition" personsfor practicalrationalpatternsof action of in appears,whether ages deeply imprinted ethical salvationreligions by or in fully in secularepochs ([1930] 1958a,p. 26 [12]). Variations pracin tical rationalregularities action arise, forWeber,fromdifferences of therelative sophistication themeansavailableto master of dailyproblems ([1946] 1958f, 284 [256]; 1968,p. 30 [15]) and in theextent which p. to ethicalreligious doctrines intensify specific practical patterns actionby of placing"psychological premiums" them(1951, p. 247 [533]; 1968,p. on 551 [334]; see below,Sec. III). As a resultof theirtypicalactivities, all "civic" strata, in particular-merchants, artisans,traders-show a definite tendency ordertheirways of life in a self-interested, to practical rationalmanner([1946] 1958f,pp. 279 [251], 284 [256]). This way of life particularly characterizes the daily action of "the people of the Liberumarbitrium, suchas the Italiansand the French" ([1930] 1958a, p. 77 [62]). The pragmatic and this-worldly predisposition practicalrationalpatof ternsof action impliesa subordination individualsto givenrealities of and a concomitant inclination opposeall orientations to based on transcendence of daily routine. not Such personsoftenmistrust only all striving or aftertheimpractical values of "the beyond,"whether religious secular of utopian,but also the abstracttheoretical rationality all intellectual strata. Theoretical Rationality of This typeof rationality involvesa consciousmastery realitythrough the construction increasingly of precise abstract conceptsrather than action.Sincea cognitive confrontation one's experience with through preand induction, the vails here,such thought as processes logical deduction of of attribution causality,and the formation symbolic"meanings"are in all typical.More generally, abstractcognitive processes, all theirexdenotetheoretical pansiveactiveforms, rationality ([1946] 1958f,p. 293
[265-66]) 11 to as 11Weber also refers thistypeof rationality "intellectual rationality." 1152

Weber'sTypes of Rationality Weberdiscovered greatvariety systematic a of thinkers who practiced this type of rationality. the earlieststages of history, In sorcerers and ritualistic priestssoughtabstract meansof tamingnatureand the supernatural. Withthe appearanceof ethicalsalvationreligions, ethicalpriests, monks,and theologians rationalized values implicit doctrines the in into internally consistent constellations values,or worldviews (Weltbilder), of thatoffered comprehensive explanations the perpetuation suffering. for of and have Philosophers all shadeshave also pondered of natureand society repeatedly refined conceptualschemesthat "explained" theirworkings. Theoretical rationalization processesmay also be carriedout by judges or who interpret incipient the worldview foundin politicalconstitutions by the disciplesof a revolutionary theorist, such as thosethat have conhave often tinually arisento refine Marxiandoctrine. Systematic thinkers been scientists dedicatedto thetheoretical rationalization thescientific of worldview in thedecades since Weber'sdeath that have been devoid of eitherrevolutionary hopes or religious fervor. Since it always seeks in"holistic" terrelationships theconstruction comprehensive and of explanato of tions,theoretical thought stands in a relationship antagonism the fragmented character magicin particular. of for Unlike the means-end rationalactionthat providesthe foundation purelyadaptivepracticalrationality, theoretical rationalization processes are undergirded giventheir and momentum, Weberargues, the natural by "metaphysical need" and "irrepressible quest" of thinkers systematizand ers to transcend sheergivenroutine and to supplythe randomeventsof everyday witha coherent life "meaning"([1946] 1958f, 279-81 [251pp. ulti54]; 1968,pp. 505-6 [307-8]). These personshave been motivated matelyby theirsearch for an answerto the questionthat has stood at thebase of all metaphysics: theworldas a wholeand lifein particular "If wereto have a meaning, whatmight be, and howwouldtheworldhave it to look in orderto correspond it?" (1968, p. 451 [275]). This conunto drum,whether dealt within its religious its philosophical or forms, has, Weberbelieves, role of playedan immeasurably significant in the efforts intellectuals break through to dailyrealities and to understand world the as a "meaningful" cosmos.In the 20th-century theoretical rationalization processes, question this has been visiblein onlyits mostconstricted forms. Weber is convincedthat a theoretical confrontation with realitycan reactback on the thinker's actionand introduce new regularities action, of of thoughthis does not always occur. The modernscientist's alteration a mathematical equation, example, for generally leaves scarcely imprint an on hisroutine action.On theotherhand,thesorcerer's rationaldeduction, from common experience, that evil, metaphysical powersresidewithinor lurk behindtrees,rocks,and othernaturalobjects requirednew modes of interacting withthe transcendent realmforhimself and-given a con1153

American Journal Sociology of figuration purelysociological of factorsthat facilitated dispersion the of the sorcerer's thought-for entiresociety (1968, pp. 399-403 [245his 48]). For example,after the idea of the soul arose, burial procedures sought provide dead withamenities their to the in graves(1968, pp. 404-5 [248]). When mighty gods arose as functionally specializedentitiesable to protect men againstevils,yet failed to do so, logical thought was again engaged confront quandary:abstract to this thinking to theconclusion led thatthesegods wereegoistic beingsand thattheirangercould be calmed only by entreaties and supplications (1968, pp. 432 [264], 424 [258]). These purely"rational"conclusions themselves influenced social actionin a number ways. Perhaps most important, necessity appeasing of the of thegods provided impetus the crystallization a new stratum the for of of religious practitioners conduct to worship services:priests. Priests, turn, in further theoretically rationalized conceptions the metaphysical of realm. In the process,the diversemethods supplication of and entreaty became ordered intoa variety regular of worship forms, including prayer, tributes, penance,and abstinence. Priestsalso delineated "good behavior"as conduct agreeableto the gods,and worshipers learnedhow to attain favor by actingin accordwitha divinity's expectations. Given a constellation of facilitating sociologicalforces,these modes of interacting with the a epiphenomenal spherebecame dominantthroughout society (1968, p. 423 [258]). In a later stage of the religiousrationalization process,world views of arose as a resultof the theoretical rationalization conceptions the of supernatural realm.These comprehensive viewsof the universe and man's place within purported offer it to exhaustive explanations man's plight of raand his repeatedexperiencing injustice. further In of purelycognitive and to tionalization thinkers processes, religious continually sought reorder in the valuesimplicit theworldviewintoincreasingly systematize religious in of internally consistent doctrines the hope of deducing patterns action thatwouldinsurea state of grace forbelievers. to According Weber,reof ligiousdoctrines themselves-such the Indian doctrine Kharma,the as and Calvinistbeliefin predestination, the Lutheran justification through influence faith-could,undercertaincircumstances, significantly practical thesedocways of life.This occurred simplybecause of the plausibility for lasting suffering trinesacquired fromtheir consistent explanations ([1946] 1958f, 286 [258-59]; [1946] 1958d,p. 324 [537]; 1968, p. p. 424 [259]; Tenbruck 1975,pp. 683-85). Thus, even though theoreticalrationalitymasters reality through of it a to thought, contains potential indirectly introduce patterns action. assertsthat the abstractrationalization Indeed, Weber processescarried role in the de-magification out by systematic thinkers played a decisive 1154

Weber'sTypes of Rationality from processes thatcharacterized transformation medievalCatholicism the to Calvinism([1946] 1958d,pp. 350-51 [567], 357 [571]; [1930] 1958a, p. 102 [92]). Substantive Rationality Like practical rationality though substantive unliketheoretical rationality, rationality directly not ordersactioninto patterns. does so, however, It on the basis of a purelymeans-end calculationof solutionsto routine problems in relation a past,present, potential but to or "value postulate" (1968, pp. 85-86 [44-45]). Not simplya singlevalue, such as positive evaluationof wealthor of the fulfillment duty,a value postulateimof plies entireclustersof values that vary in comprehensiveness, internal consistency, content. and Thus, thistypeof rationality existsas a manifestation man'sinherent of capacityforvalue-rational action. A substantive rationality may be circumscribed, organizing only a delimitedarea of life and leaving all others untouched.Friendship, for it comexample, whenever involvesadherence such values as loyalty, to passion,and mutualassistance, constitutes substantive a rationality. Communism, feudalism, hedonism, egalitarianism, BudCalvinism,socialism, dhism, Hinduism, theRenaissance and viewoflife, less thanall aesthetic no notionsof "the beautiful," also examplesof substantive are rationalities, however theymay diverge their far in capacityto organizeactionas well as in their value content (1968, pp. 44-45 [85]). In all cases, the substantive rationality consideredto be a "valid is canon"; thatis, a unique "standard"againstwhichreality'sflowof unendingempirical eventsmay be selected,measured, and judged ([19461 p. represented value postulates by 1958f, 294 [266]). Sincethestandpoints can be, in principle, infinite, action may be orderedinto patterns and, indeed, intoentire waysoflifein an endlessnumber ways.Smallgroups, of organizations, institutions, politicalentities, cultures, and civilizations are, in everyera,ordered terms specifiable in of value postulates, even though thesemay be not readilyidentifiable theirparticipants by and can be so fundamentally foreign the values of the social researcher to that he can in scarcely imagine situations whichtheyacquirevalidity. The infinity possiblevalue postulatespointsto a criticalfeature of of Weber'snotionof substantive rationality: radical perspectivism. its For him, substantiverationality and rationalization processes based on it alwaysexistin reference ultimate to points view,or "directions" of ([1930] 1958a, p. 26 [11-12]): each point of view impliesan identifiable conof figuration values thatdetermines direction a potentially the of ensuing rationalization process. Thus, no absolutearrayof "rational"values exists as a set of perennial "standards"for"the rational"and for rationaliza1155

American Journal Sociology of prevailsin whichthe existionprocesses. Instead,a radicalperspectivism impliedor tence of a rationalization processdependson an individual's preference certainultimatevalues for stated,unconscious conscious, or to and the systematization his or her action to conform thesevalues. of merely from their statusas consistent These values acquire"rationality" value postulates. the is Similarly, "irrational" not fixedand intrinsically of the incompatibility one ulti"irrational" results but from ideal-typical mateconstellation valueswithanother: of is so but becomes whenexSomething not of itself "irrational," rather person is "rational" standpoint. Everyreligious amined from specific a views person, every and hedonist likewise "irrational" every for irreligious of even in every ascetic wayoflifeas "irrational," if,measured terms its ultimate a has place.This essay,if it can values, "rationalization" taken nature a of makeanycontributionall,aimsto expose multifaceted the at one. [(1930) onlyappears be a simple to concept-the "rational"-that emphasis original]12 in 1958a, 53, n. 9 (35, n. 1); mytranslation, p. At least one identifiable exists pointof view rootedin a value postulate in every realm of life. The "rationality"and potentialrationalization Lifeback to thesevalue postulates. processes within givenarena refer a in spheres, a sense,defendtheirown value postulatesas "rational"and "irrational." From the point of viewof label thoseof otherlife-spheres in all realm,forexample, status efficiency productivity the economic and are the of monopolies, sincetheyrestrict expansion thefreemarket, "irrational,"as is capitalism fromtheperspective the values of of considered in feudalism, which status monopolieswere most pronounced([1946] 1958f,p. 301 [275]). The calculationof the capitalistand the power of from standpoint the interests the politician likewise"irrational" of are is all salvation of and religions brotherhood, theconverse also true( [ 1946] to 1958d,pp. 348-49 [561-62], 331-40 [544-54]). Similarly, the modern the intellectual knowledge, religious who trusts onlyscienceand empirical man's relianceon faith remainswithinthe realm of the "irrational" p. ([1946] 1958d,p.353 [566]; [1946] 1958f, 281 [253]). withina single rationalpoints of view may also differ Substantively a of for Withinthe realmof religion, example, plenitude ultimate sphere. each proclaiming one and value-standpoints worldviewsconfront another, incomprehensiits "rationality." The Hindu organicsocial ethicsremains ble as a way of life to the mysticBuddhistwho has chosen to pursue a as Nirvana through life of contemplation, does the ascetic's action in theworld ([1946] 1958d,p. 338 [551-52]). To the ascetic,on the other remainwholly hand, the paths to salvationin these Orientalreligions senseless([1946] 1958d,pp. 352-56 [565-70]), as does the Confucian
12

of This footnotewas added in Weber's 1920 rewriting the PE.

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality gentleman's study of classical literature(1951, pp. 226-49 [512-36]). Similarly, withinthe arena of ethics, the proponent the ethicof conof viction(Gesinnungsethik) alwaysclaimsthatthe adherent the ethicof of responsibility ultimately advocatesan "irrational" position. The advocate of universal values makesthe same claim about the supporter particuof laristic values.The converse also holdsin each of thesecases. Largelyas a consequence the secondary of literature's generalorientation to the PE ratherthan to the later "Religious Rejectionsof the World,"whereWeber's radical value perspectivism most apparent,13 is interpreters the typesof rationality of have nearlytotallyneglected this significant aspect. This neglecthas resulted also, on the one hand, from thecommon tendency reducethe multidimensionalityrationalization to of processes a singledimension to (e.g., bureaucratization) on the other and, hand,from failure distinguish, Weberdoes, between researchthe to as a er's personalvalues and his attempt definescientifically historical to the of foundations, sociological preconditions, significant and consequences a social phenomenon. example,HerbertMarcuse (1972, pp. 133-51), For in particular, arguesthatWeberidentified capitalism's formal rationality withrationality such and supported in his scias this economicsystem entific as with the absolutevalue of Reason writings one in conformity in the Hegelian sense. On the contrary, Weber's investigation "raof tionality" and rationalization processes impliesnothing about a desireon his part to advocateeithertheirexpansion constriction. or Weber'sradicalperspectivism, notionof substantive his and rationality, his verstehende sociologyas a whole all pivot on the conviction that valuesare notdemonstrable themethods science([1946] 1958e,pp. by of 150-51 [607]; 1949, pp. 52-55 [149-52], 58 [154-55], 60 [157]) but remain thecontemporary theonlydomainin whichthe autonomous in era individual confronts "own demons."That even themostprecise"techhis nicallycorrect" rationalization within, example,the economic for sphere, cannotbe said to be legitimate and "valid" as "progress" the level of at values remainsa constantassumptionthroughout Weber's sociological analyses.Nor can science,on the otherhand, prove the values of the Buddhistmonkor thoseof the Sermonon the Mount to be "superior" to any other value configuration (1949, p. 38 [530]; [1946] 1958e,p. 148 [604]). Formalrationalities have stoodin the mostdirectantagonism many to substantive rationalities. recurrent The conflict thesetypes rationality of of has played a particularly fateful role in the unfolding rationalization of in processes the West.
13 Thisessayconfronts reader the withan overwhelming cascadeof examples which in in Weber of putshimself theposition an ideal-typically constructed and ex"subject" amines cosmosfrom perspective thatsubject. the the of

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American Journal Sociology of FormalRationality Unliketheintercivilizational epoch-transcending and character thepracof tical, theoretical, substantive and typesof rationality, formalrationality generally14relatesto spheresof life and a structure domination of that acquired specificand delineatedboundariesonly with industrialization: most significantly, economic,legal, and scientific the spheres,and the bureaucratic formof domination. Whereas practical rationality always indicatesa diffuse tendency calculate and to solve routineproblems to by means-end rationalpatterns action in reference pragmatic of to selfinterests, formalrationality ultimately legitimates similar means-end a rationalcalculation reference by back to universally applied rules,laws, or regulations. To the degreethat sheercalculationin termsof abstractrules reigns, of decisionsare arrivedat "withoutregardto persons."An orientation actionto formal rulesand laws is tantamount a rejection all arbitrarito of ness: universalism and calculationin reference enacted regulations to standherestrictly opposedto decision making reference thepersonal in to charismatic qualitiesof individuals concerned. Distinctpersonalities-even in ones-no less than differences regardto status are subjectedto the of dictates formally rational procedures. personal The graceor favorgiven by the lord of a manor,forexample,is totallyalien to the "spirit" of bureaucracy (1968, pp. 979 [565], 244 [141], 225 [129]). rationalbecause to domination formally as Weber refers bureaucratic actionoriented intellectually to analyzablegeneralrulesand statutes predominates here,as well as the selection the most adequate means for of continued adherence them.From a technical to point of view, the most in thebureaucracy because "rational"typeof domination found is simply it aims to do nothing morethan calculate the mostpreciseand efficient means forthe resolution problems ordering of by themunderuniversal and abstract regulations (1968, pp. 975 [562], 226 [130]; [1946] 1958f, p. 295 [267]).15 trainedjuristscarryout Legal formal rationality existswhen formally suchthat". . . only laws thatapplyto all citizens thestatein a manner of
14 The major exceptionis noted below in the discussion of formalrationalityin the religiousrealm. Roman law is also an exception. 15 Weber naturallydoes not deny the fact that "red tape" can significantly diminish the efficiency a bureaucracy.His discussionof this formof domination'sideal-typical of featuresis nearly exclusivelyorientedtoward a comparison with patriarchal,feudal, and patrimonialformsof domination,none of which can even approach the bureauWeber cracy'sefficiency, dependability, Moreover,in spite of its unevenfunctioning, etc. or believes that industrialsocieties cannot dispense with this form of administration substitute different a form.Any high hopes that this can occur are, to him, sheer illusion (1968, pp. 223 [128], 988 [570]).

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality unambiguous generalcharacteristics the case are takeninto accountin of of terms purelyprocessualand legal factors"(1968, pp. 656-57 [396]; translation altered). This mode of juridicalprocedure opposeslegal subto stantiverationality, wheredecisionsare arrivedat in strictreference a postulateof ultimate justice.Similarly, the economic in sphere,formal rationality increases the extent to thatall technically possiblecalculations within "laws of the market"are universally of the carriedout, regardless either theireffect individual on persons the degreeto whichtheymay or violateethicalsubstantive rationalities (1968, p. 85 [44-45]). As opposed to the formulation hypotheses, of which belongs to the domainof theoretical rationality, experimental scientific procedures are also judged,by Weber,to be fullyformally rational.Calculation proceeds in this case in relationto the commonrules of experimentation. These thanrules are verylikelyto be carried in a moresophisticated out manner in the bureaucratic formof domination in the economicand legal or spheres:strict empirical observation, quantification, systematic and measurement attain here a peak of methodicalcontrol,especiallyin the laboratory. Just as in the otherlife-spheres, executionof all techthe nicallypossiblemeans-end rationalcalculations takes place "withoutreback gardto persons."Rule-oriented, calculation pure thatreactsdirectly on actionoccursalso in therealmof religion, though onlyin a fewspecial in cases. Formalrationality religion described Weberas action"oris by such dered according plan" (Planmdssigkeit): to methodical techniques, as contemplation yoga, are executedhere in accord with fixedproceor dures ([1946] 1958f, 293-94 [266]). pp.
III. COMPARING AND CONTRASTINGTHE TYPES OF RATIONALITY

A comparison contrast formal, and of substantive, theoretical, practical and typesof rationality mustbe turnedto now. This can take place most withinthe context an examination the aspects commonto of feasibly of the fourtypesof rationality, relation the between fourtypesof social the actionand thetypesof rationality, the manner whichthedifferent and in typesof rationality introduce regularities patterns action as well and of as, in some cases, ways of life. Once these themeshave been discussed, all the preliminary stepswill have been taken foran analyticdiscussion of themultiple rationalization processes charted Weber. by to AspectsCommon the Four Types of Rationality However much they may vary in content, mental processesthat consciously strive master to reality common all thetypesof rationality. are to Regardlessof whether they are characterized sheer means-end by cal1159

of American Journal Sociology of realities values,or abstract to thought culation, subordination diffuse the to theytake place in reference inalso of whether processes;regardless problems-all rulesand laws, values,or purelytheoretical terests, formal endfor of theseprocesses systematically confront, Weber,social reality's unconnected events,and punctuated occurrences, less streamof concrete reality,theircommonaim is to banish parhappenings. mastering In and theminto comprehensible "meanby ticularized perceptions ordering ingful" regularities.16 in to Mental processesare of interest Weber primarily regardto the into patterns social action.In of extentto whichtheycan be translated of regularities action followso some cases, such as practicalrationality, that the mental closely on the calculationin relationto self-interests on hand, rationality, theother visible.Theoretical process itself scarcely is illustrates the oppositeextreme:here cognitiveprocessesoftendo not In theymaydo so indirectly. general, of introduce patterns action,though and actionoriented the process a quitedirect linkage exists between mental to formal rationalities (see table 1). and substantive of for determine, WeConstellations historical and sociological factors in typeof rationality factfoundclearexpression ber,whether particular a of as a mentalprocessalone or also as regularities action that became orat whether the level of groups, processes, established sociocultural as potential as or civilizations a whole.This common ganizations, societies, existsas a cornerof thetypesof rationality master to reality consciously proof stonein Weber'sanalysisof the unfolding diverserationalization cessesin variouscivilizations. Orders and the The Types of Action, Types of Rationality, Legitimate of practical As consciousregularities action that aim to masterreality, on and formal are typesof rationality based typically man's capacityfor from derivestypically rationality rationalaction; substantive means-end on action. Even thoughtheoretical rationality, the other value-rational processesinsteadof action,rational hand,is rootedin abstractcognitive from action-and even patterns rationalaction-may followindirectly of rationalthinking (see table 2). theoretical do and typesof rationality not,in Weformal, theoretical Substantive, of sociocultural regularities action. simply amorphous ber'sscheme, remain facof and historical sociological Instead,givenconfigurations facilitating of regularities action withas tors,theyare institutionalized normative
16 Though a conscious,systematic masteryof realityis not, of course, the only means arise (see 1968, pp. 33-38 [17-20]). by which,accordingto Weber, regularities

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality in "legitimate orders" organizations,18 :17 traditional(patriarchal, patrimonial,feudal) and rational-legal (bureaucratic)formsof domination, typesof economicstructures, ethical doctrines, classes, and strata. The diffuse, problem-solving character practicalrationality of generally confines to thedomainof routine, it everyday, pragmatic difficulties. TABLE 1
CONSCIOUS MASTERY OF FRAGMENTED REALITIES THROUGH REGULARITIES OF ACTION Relation to Action Reference for Mental Processes

Type of Rationality

Mental Processes

Theoretical ........ Practical.......... Formal.Means-end Substantive ........

Various abstract processes Means-end calculation calculation Subordination realities of to values TABLE 2

Indirect Direct Direct Direct

Values or purely theoretical problems Interests Rules, laws, regulations Values

ANTHROPOLOGICAL CONSCIOUS

CHARACTERISTICS PATTERNS

OF INDIVIDUALS ACTION

AND

OF RATIONAL

CONSCIOUS

ANTHROPOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALS Types of Social Action Mental Processes TYPES OP RATIONALITY

PATTERNS OF RATIONAL ACTION

Nonrational:

Affectual ............ Rational: Value rational.... Means-endrational...

*..................

Traditional ..........

Nonrational of Subordination realitiesto values Means-endcalculation Various abstract processes

Nonrational

... Substantive Formal, practical Theoretical

...

No No Yes Yes Yes Yes

* Rational action can be produced indirectly. 17 Weber's interest here is not, of course,to argue that certainorders possess absolute legitimacywhile others do not but, rather,to note the various possible reasons indito viduals may have forascribinglegitimacy an orderor for guaranteeing legitimacy its (1968, p. 33, n. 20). His use of "order" (Ordnung) and "legitimateorder" (legitime Ordnung) are particularlydifficult trace in Economy and Society because these to termsare variously translatedas "order" and "norm."

18 "Organization" (Verband) is Weber's generaltermfor,e.g., the enterprise (Betrieb) and the voluntaryassociation (Verein) as well as for the compulsorypolitical and religiousinstitution (Anstalt) (1968, pp. 48-56 [26-30]). It must be kept in mind that forWeber theseorganizations well as all legitimate as ordersresultfromnothingmore than the common action orientationsto them of individuals in delineated groups.

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Journal Sociology of American legitimate certain (Howe 1978) existbetween Clear "electiveaffinities" are rationalities typesof action.When substantive ordersand particular into ethical salvationdocpriests,and theologians by formed prophets, sect,or whether church, a in and institutionalized an organization, trines the hierocracy, devout typicallyfeel obligated to uphold this "ethical this reasons.^However, need not for rationality" value-rational substantive occur. Many persons,for example,do not possess,accordingto Weber, in theiractionsconsistently behalf to the"religious qualifications" pattern Thus, theybelievein thesevalues not as absolute of a value constellation. for ethicalprinciples but as mereguidelines action that can be upheld demands.In this case, the ethical to or discardedaccording momentary rational is substantive rationality oftenupheld simplyin a means-end of not theseare definitely representative Otherpersons-though manner. ethicalsubstantive viewan institutionalized sector church members-may more.This possiand nothing in of rationality terms theirown interests of rationalmotives the businessmen by bilityis illustrated the means-end for in who joined Calvinistsects simply orderto acquire reputations imsecure the trade of sect and other compeccable honestyand thereby members ([1946] 1958c,pp. 305-8 [210-13]). In thiscase, submunity of stantiverationalpatterns action are not believedin value rationally. a rationalmeans towardrunning Instead theyexist as meremeans-end successful business(1968, pp. 26 [13], 85-86 [45]). ordersthat instituIn othercases, electiveaffinities between legitimate and types of social action clearly exist tionalizea type of rationality in to onlywhentheseordersare examined reference an epoch's peculiar ordercharacterized The bureaucracy a legitimate as value constellation. for of may be maintained a number difabstractregulations by formal their of Prussiancivilservants the 19thcentury performed ferent reasons. at and tasksefficiently began theirworkdays punctually eightbecause of to ethic," according the "bureaucratic beliefin a value constellation: their discipline, efficiency, punctuality, precision, duty requireddependability, subIn and case, an impersonal19 stability, reliability. thisextraordinary for itselfbecamea meansappropriate the fulfillment stantive rationality of of formal rational patterns action (1968, pp. 26 [13], 85-86 [45]). In of execution tasks in othersocietiesand othereras, the same systematic adheres simply rulestakesplace because the official to reference universal to custom(traditional action) or because he is aware that failureto do
19Here I am distinguishing values.Both types and between "personal" "impersonal" rationalities. This distinction, substantive thus may occuras constellations, forming is never Weber to discusses, one thatI have extracted explicitly which, myknowledge, to ethic," suchas thosespecific the"bureaucratic from oeuvre. his values, Impersonal intoaccount do, e.g.,thevaluesof compassion, as love, brotherly failto takepersons or forgiveness. 1162

Weber'sTypes of Rationality rationalaction) (1968, p. 31 so wouldmean loss of his job (means-end [16]). economic ordercan be maintained Similarly, as capitalism a legitimate of capitalism fora variety reasons. of Weberarguesthattheorigin modern orientareference thevalue-rational to cannotbe fully understood without tions of the Puritansto an ethical substantive rationality: the believer methodical workand the accumureligiously inspired value disciplined, to to a component lation and reinvestment moneybrought systematic of orieneconomic thantheutilitarian activity thatprovedfarmoreeffective tationsof the "adventure the capitalist"in bursting bonds of economic traditionalism ([1930] 1958a, pp. 47-78 [30-62]). In this unusual and rationalmeans significant case, the Puritan'sselectionof the means-end secure his (a constellation impersonal of values) to fulfill goal of resting in the certainty salvation(a goal that could be realizedonly by the of providedone impetusfor the formal acquisitionof wealth) eventually enterprises (1968, pp. 26 [13], 85-86 rationalorganization economic of [45]). The modern capitalist, the otherhand, may adhereto the abstract on or rationalreasons, even or laws of the market traditional means-end for in themas "correct." as a result a value-rational of belief Indeed,he may believein an impersonal subeven,as did the Calvinist, value-rationally in of work,efficiency the performance stantiverationality-methodical his tasks,dependability, etc.-as the mostadequate means to fulfill goal in of succeeding business.20 can, as well,constantly changehis motivaHe to occur. tionforacting,though according Weberthis does not typically All this does not alter the fact that formalrationalpatternsof action in are necessary orderto insure successof a business the enterprise (1975, p. 193 [133]; 1930,pp. 70-73 [54-59], 55-56 [37]; 1968,pp. 585 [353], 1186 [709]). It does, however, explicitly call into questionthose views of history as of advance thatsee modern societies theproduct a unilinear of either action (1930, pp. 74-78 [60-62]). means-end value-rational or orderthat institutionalized particular a Thus, forWeber,a legitimate formal substantive or can varioustypesof typeof rationality call forth Dozens of examples social action and even further typesof rationality. such as thoseabove can be extracted from Weber'ssociological writings. Theoretical of it rationality, well,regardless whether is institutionalized as
20 Preciselysuch a beliefin the "spirit" of capitalismhas died out in our time,Weber believes. Its demise has not, however,led to a weakening of capitalism's "economic rationalism": its presentexistenceas an all-encompassing "cosmos" effectively coerces individuals to conformto its demands. In Weber's words: "The Puritan wanted to work in a calling; we are forced to do so" (1930, p. 181 [203]; emphasisin original). Or, ". . . the idea of 'duty in one's calling' prowls about in our lives like the ghost of dead religiousbeliefs" (1930, p. 182 [204]).

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American Journal Sociology of in organizations that pursue scientific, religious, secular-ethical or endeavors, can lead indirectly a variety actionorientations. to of The Capacitiesof Different Types of Rationality Introduce to Methodical Ways of Life Despite theircommon capacity to masterrealityconsciously, types the of rationality confront heterogeneous realities distinctly in different ways and introduce regularities actionwithvarying of degreesof effectiveness. raWays of life are called into beingonly by practicaland substantive in tionalities. These waysof lifediverge widelyfrom another methodione calnessand continuity: onlyvalues,forWeber,and particularly unified a configuration values,are analytically of capable of introducing methodical rational waysof life.21 The practicalrational way of life,according Weber,lacks a methodto ical character. Based on subjective interests, way of life continually this reactsto changing situations insteadof ordering them, example, for under an ethicalpostulateor an abstractrule. Nonetheless, much the however individual merely deals withthedisparate difficulties presented external by in factors the mostfeasiblemeans-end rationalway, an element conof sistency remains:self-interests regularly guide actionhere and introduce a way of lifegrounded them. in The variouscognitive processes characteristic theoretical of rationality themabstractly. activelyconfront givenrealities and seek to manipulate They do so by searching interrelationships for amongdiscrete, seemingly a unconnected arenas. Yet theirpower to introduce way of life or to constricted. The modern suppress practicalrationality remains definitely action scientist's formulation hypotheses of onlyrarely directs practical his orientations and either insideor outsidethelaboratory, the ratiocinations the by sorcerers, priests, monks, theologians or regarding sourcesforevil and suffering react back on theirdaily action only when the "empty" of is qualityof theoretical processes banishedby an association themwith values. is Formal rationality only slightlymore successfulin subduingthe As practicalrational way of lifethanis theoretical rationality. long as the executethe the and the scientist civil servant, lawyer,the businessman, their to taskstypical their of professions, orientations givenabstractrules and laws insulatethemfromthe randomflowof fragmented eventsas well as from with These practicalrationalconfrontations daily problems. the rationalpatternsgenerallyfail, however,to characterize formally in actionof thesepersonsin theirpersonalrelationships, theircapacities
Following Weber, I am employingthe expressions"methodical ways of life" and "methodical rational ways of life" synonymously.
21

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality as parents, theirleisurehours,or in theirchoiceof hobbies.Thus, the in and imprint formal of rationality remains circumscribed, the bureaucrat, as forexample, may well act in a practicalrationalor any othermanner attitudethat comprehensively soon as he leaves his office. consistent No here. characterizes actionand introduces way of lifecan be found a has the potentialto rationality Only action orientedto substantive introduce methodical ways of life that subjugate the practicalrational to way of life based on interests, formalrationalorientation rules, the occurs and reality'sstreamof disjointedoccurrences. This development rationality of most effectively after the values of a given substantive through theoretical rationaldelimited magnitude have been rationalized, izationprocesses, value constellations comprethat into internally tunified of hensively addressand orderall aspectsof life.The value content these the of substantive rationalities, whichdetermine direction such value-raspectionalization processes,22varies across a wide secularand religious of rational trum. Most important Weberin theintroduction methodical for rationalities place "psychoways of lifeis the fact thatonly substantive logicalpremiums" ethicalactionin theworld. on Weberdefines "ethical" standardas ". . . a specific an typeof valueof rationalbeliefamongindividuals which,as a consequence this belief, imposesa normative element upon humanaction that claims the quality of the 'morally good' in thesame way thatactionwhichclaimsthe status of the 'beautiful'is measuredagainstaestheticstandards"(1968, p. 36 in [19]; translation altered, emphasis original). This purelyformal definition be givena concrete reference an by can infinite numberof value-rational beliefs,some of which-those which involvean orientation value postulates-elevateethical standardsto to the statusof an ethicalsubstantive rationality. When believedin value and rationally, ethicsof solely this-worldly secular value postulates, the such as Communism, designated Weber as ethicallyrational23 no are by religions, regardless of less than the ethicsof all but the mostprimitive whether monotheistic or pantheistic a God gods punishand reward(1968, pp. 429 [262], 518 [314], 325 [191]). Ethical rationality does not involvesimplythe memorization rules of forproper conductthatputatively containthe cumulative wisdom past of an for generations. Instead,ethicalaction implies,first, imperative cQnto binding obligatory or formity a moralgood thatis feltto be internally
22 In this case, since values exist as the reference points for theoreticalrationalization with "theoretical processes,"value-rationalization process" can be used synonymously rationalizationprocess."

Since ethical rationalityis itselfa type-and only one type-of substantive ratioTo nality,it is properlyreferred as "ethical substantiverationality." avoid this awkto ward phraseology, expression"ethical rationality." however,I will oftenuse the briefer
23

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American Journal Sociology of a valid canon that claims and, second,a disjunction between normatively givenflowof fragmented realities. Acethicalstatusand the empirically by cordingto Weber, daily action can be decidedlyinfluenced ethical for rationalities even if "external" guarantees themare lackingand even, at times,in spite of opposingsocial forces.When an ethical rationality to action penetrates practicalrationalaction,Weber refers the resulting as "practical-ethical" (1968, pp. 36 [19], 528 [321]; [1946] 1958f,pp. 286 [258-59], 293-94 [266], 280 [252]; [1946] 1958d,p. 324 [537-38]). Of greatest for regularities action are of significance all practical-ethical ethical rationality. Yet these the values constituting corresponding the values varynot only in relation content to but also in theircomprehensiveness and degreeof inner unity. rationalization Value rationalization refers, Weber,to the theoretical for of substantive ethicalor not: theircomprehensiverationalities, whether ness (the extent whichtheyclaim to orderall action) and theirinner to according the degreeto to unityare enhanced. Innerunityis rationalized whichthe values within givensubstantive rationality, however comprea and systematized. rationalizaAs hensive limited maybe, are ordered or it tionproceeds, not of thesevalues come to stand in a relation consistency under an ultimatevalue. In only to one anotherbut also hierarchically value rationalization impliesthe breakthe religious sphere, example, for unconnected ing downof the discrete values of isolatedritualpractices, of sacrimagicalceremonies, a pantheon gods,each of whichdemands and ficesand loyalty,and the moldingof these amorphous values into inworldviews.24 Whenever theyappear creasingly comprehensive unified and as substantively doctrines, fully unified worldviewsoffer rational religious in coherent explanations all injusticeand suffering termsof principles of of right and wrong thatare acceptedon faithas "truth." To the extent thatvalue-rationalization processesexpanda substantive into a secular or rationality's comprehensiveness innerconsistency and and to the degree religious worldview thatexistsas an ethicalstandard, thatsocial actionis value rationally oriented towardthisvalue constellation,the dispersed of daily life,the practicalrationalway of happenings life oriented interests, of to and formalrationalpatterns action are all replacedby ethicalclaims.Thus, forWeber,the chance that action will to becomesubstantively rationalized conform a given salvationethic to or otherethicalsubstantive rationality dependsnot only on the strength of antagonistic interests also on the motivations believers but of and the
This is only one axis of the extremely intriguing course of religiousrationalization (see, e.g., 1951,p. 226 [512]; 1952,pp. 425-26, n. 1 [1-2]). This rationalization process, which has been only partly dealt with by Schluchter(Roth and Schluchter1979, pp. 11-64) and Tenbruck (1975), cannot be discussed here. I have recentlycommented extensively these articlesin a review essay (1979). on
24

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality of relative value rationalization the ethic: the morean ethic approaches and the point of absolutecomprehensiveness innerunityand the more becomethepsychological the value-rational actionprevails, morepowerful directedtowardethicalgoals. premiums placed on action systematically orientshis action to an To Weber,the individualwho value rationally acts rationality ethical substantive internally unified and comprehensive and in (Gesinnungsethik) methodically reference an ethicof conviction to to conform its rationalizes action "fromwithin"in all spheresof life to internally bindingvalues (1968, pp. 424 [259], 450-51 [275], 578-79 [349-50]; 1951,p. 244 [530]; [1946] 1958b,pp. 120-27 [551-59]). As thedeterminant the direction a potential for value-rationalization of rationality's values has, according process, content the substantive the of to Weber,the effect guiding of actioninto specific channelsand directing it away fromothers.This occurswhen the value-rationalization process whenan ethicof failsto reachits end pointof development, though also p. conviction arises ([1946] 1958f, 287 [259]). imIn the religious was particularly arena, forexample,this content of portantin regardto the potentialinfluence a belief systemon the action of its followers ([1946] 1958f,p. 289 [261]). When pragmatic actionto a worldview,such as that imbelievers oriented theirreligious doctrine theeightfold of path to salvation, pliedby theclassicalBuddhist "in practicalrationalas well as all otheraction orientations the world" were radically Many as suppressed. denigrated "senseless"and generally typesof "practicalethics" ([1946], 1958f,p. 294 [266]), on the other and lay Lutheranism, hand,such as Catholicism's ethic,ancientJudaism, of on Hinduism, placed ethicalpremiums practicalrationalregularities and comprehensive action,thoughthey failed to do so in a consistent and were consistently, for all manner. Practicalrationalaction patterns premiums Calvinism by and Catholicism's believers, awarded psychological on premiums disciplined virtuoso dogmaformonks.In placingenormous workand methodical subcomprehensively ways of life,these doctrines or in limatedpracticalrationalaction,whether the monastery "in the practical action.Insteadof beingsuppressed, world,"intopractical-ethical penetrated an ethical dimension, by rationality now became consistently in intensity (1968, p. 551 [334]; 1951, acquiring theprocessa heightened p. 247 [553-54]). These typesof practicalrationalways of life,which Weberemphasized containing mostfateful as for the consequences modern in man (1930, p. 26 [11-12]), were not to be rediscovered the value contentof any otherethical salvationreligionof historical significance (1968,p. 556 [337]; [1946] 1958f,p.290 [263]). in in Substantive rationalities theseculararenaalso varyinfinitely value and content, degree of comprehensiveness, internalunity. For Weber, to rationalizedto conform a fragmented occurrences are theoretically 1167

American Journal Sociology of secular value postulatewhen,for example,personselevate an ideal of friendship the level of an ethical standardand considerthemselves to internally bound to upholdall the standards brotherhood. of When they are value-rationalized, secular ethical rationalities may exhibita more generalapplicability that influences social action morecomprehensively. The Renaissance rejection traditional of bondsand its faithin the power of the naturalisratio ([1946] 1958f,p. 293 [266]) permeated diverse spheresof life,as did the Enlightenment's faithin Reason and classical liberalism's credoof the Rightsof Man and freedom conscience of (1968, p. 1209 [725-26]). Similarly, upholding egalitarianism the of may affect not onlyits adherents' purelypoliticaland legal activities but also their social and even theireconomic endeavors.25 Such ethicalrationalities, whenever their valuesare further theoretically rationalized, becomecomponents within morecomprehensive internally and unified ethicalrationalities. This occursif, for example,the orientation of actiontowardsocial justice as an ethicalideal is value-rationalized to of such an extentthat a closed worldview implying explanation all an and future human miseryarises. Secular political,social, past, present, and philosophical of movements this total degreeof comprehensiveness and innerconsistency blossomedin 19th-century prototypically Europe. In Marxiansocialism, example, ideals of brotherhood, for the egalitarianor ism, and social justice no longerremained isolated ethicalprinciples worldview that exunified vague hopes but fusedinto a systematically if plainedman'spast and present plight. also promised, the tenetslaid It hardabolition all earthly of downwerecorrectly the implemented, future beliefsystemthat claimed absolute truth,Marxism, ship. As a unified when believed in value-rationally, ethicallyorderedall spheresof life For Weber,thepowerof sucha secularethicof conviction "from within." all to centrally rationalize social actionin behalfof its values is no less ethicof conviction. criticalimportance Of thatof a religious than strong in bothcases is an acceptanceof the ethicon faithand a beliefin it as an absolutebeyondall compromise.26
25 In certainperiods and in certain cultures, as a resultmainly of economic and political factors,the belief in egalitarianismmay extend into spheres of social action rightsand sexual preferbarred,such as minority fromwhichit has been traditionally ences. That the claims for equality of nearly all minoritymovementsin the United in women's,and gay movements the 1960s to States,fromabolitionism the civil rights, and fromthe Enlightenment classical and 1970s,have been rootedin ethicalrationalities such as the "natural rightsof man" and "equality of all" as embodiedin the liberalism, support for Weber's emphasis on the and Bill of Rights,constitutes U.S. Constitution of potentialinfluence ethical rationalities. 26 That Weber considered Marxism a beliefsystembased on faithratherthan a science is clear (1968, pp. 515-16 [313-14].). He is, however,reluctantto referto Marxism to He directly a religion. prefers stressthat this closed world view exhibitsa number as such as its natureas an "economiassociated with religions, generally of characteristics

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality that rationality the only type of rationality is In sum, substantive rational waysof methodical potential introduce to possessestheanalytical are typesof rationality also capable and theoretical formal life.Although conneither introduces of mastery reality, and of indirect directconscious towardlife. Even thoughendowedwith the capacityto sistentattitudes do so, practicalrationalpatternsof action remainsimplyreactionsto realities.Thus, the practical rationalway of life, charheterogeneous lacks the merationalcalculationof interests, by acterized a means-end thosebelievedin as whenvalues,particularly thodical element called forth raethical standards, regulateaction "fromwithin."Only substantive possesses the analyticalpotentialto master-or rationalizetionality orand methodically It realitycomprehensively. does so by consciously that are consistent withexplicitvalue conganizingactioninto patterns (see table 3). stellations
IV. RATIONALIZATION RATIONALIZATION PROCESSES IN GENERAL AND IN MODERN SOCIETIES

above suchas theone immediately For Weber, purely a analytic discussion to typesof rationality introduce of the regarding potential the different to methodical rationalways of life has little relationship the question whetherthis potentialwas actually realized in societies. In history's and values and against interests, have struggled interests battleground, or of "ideas," regardless the clarityof theirformulation theirintrinsic have died a sudden death unless anchoredsecurelywithin plausibility, of irrespective whether social and economic By matrices. the same token, typesof formal, substantive or theoretical, theywerebased on practical, as processes have been set in motion significant rationalization rationality, rooted social strata have sociocultural only when firmly developments appearedas their"carriers."
TABLE 3
TYPES OF RATIONALITY IN RELATION TO WAYS OF LIFE
CONSCIOUS MASTERY OF REALITY

Lack of a Way ofLife

Way ofLife

REGULARITIES

OF ACTION

Theoreticalrationality Formal rationality ...

Practical rationality ... Substantiverationality

Nonmethodical Nonmethodical Methodical

to cally eschatologicalfaith." The beliefs of its followersare referred as "quasi-religious" or "equivalent to a religiousfaith" (see further, 1968, pp. 486 [296], 873-74 [501]); GuentherRoth (1976, p. 262) makes the same point.

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of American Journal Sociology and Values Processes:Interests Rationalization and is for rationality most responsible both the diffuseness Substantive theme.This type of natureof Weber's rationalization the perspectival rationality to withthe notionof ethicalsubstantive rationality combines constitute pivotal conceptsin his analysis.Only ethical rationalities the of practicalrationalregularities suppressing are capable of permanently them them by transforming intensifying action or, just as important, posinto practicalethical action. In addition,only ethical rationalities processesfully. rationalization vigorto subdue formal sess the analytical providea value contentfor theoretiFinally,only ethical rationalities cal rationalization processes,set them in motionin specificdirections inas value-rationalization processes,and give rise to comprehensive, even These value constellations, value configurations. ternallyunified of largelymanifestations "irrathoughfor Weber they are themselves and economic, political,domination, even geographical tional" historical, consistent world forces rationally p. ([19461 1958f, 281 [253]), constitute viewsto whichindividuals may orienttheiractionin all spheresof life. Whenever theseworldviews acquire the social and economicanchorage theylay down the a throughout civilization, necessary theirdiffusion for altercations "tracks"(Gleise)-or boundaries-within whichtheeveryday interests takeplace.27 political, and other amongeconomic, All of these achievements ethical rationality of derive froma single sociologyand methodological Weber'shistorical postulatethat underlies no view anthropological of man: action writings less thanhis fundamental whether to as an cannot understood simply adjustment "given"realities, be in theoretical, or as statutes, manifest practical, dailyroutine bureaucratic Nor can a residualstatus be assigned to the and formalrationalities. component humanaction that falls outsideroutineand adaptive beof by to havior.Instead,according Weber,actionmotivated values and remolding interests by sistantto and counterpoised againstenvironmental consequence.28 historical has been of thegreatest commonsense of an For Weber,the worldlywisdomand utilitarian nor could the Alberticould not have givenbirthto moderncapitalism, that promovements or initialimpulseforsocial, philosophical, religious from fessedto altergivenrealities ([1930] practicalrationality crystallize 1958a,pp. 76-78 [61-62]; 56, n. 12 [38, n. 1]; 158, n. 16 [168, n. 3]). have planted the seeds for its own Even less could formalrationality of actionalone everbeen Nor germination. have theseregularities rational
27

must be underWeber's memorablestatementon the relationof ideas and interests stood in this context(see [1946] 1958f,p. 280 [252]).

28 As well as of pivotal interest to a verstehende sociology. An overridingaim of Weber's sociologyis to make individualssensitiveto values.

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Weber'sTypes of Rationality of birthto ethicalsubstantive capable,Weberasserts, giving rationalities, worldviews,or a unified value-rationalization processes, way of life: no of ethicalactionmonitored an internalized by standard, regardless whether it involvesa circumscribed ethical rationality such as friendship an or ethicof conviction, result can solelyfrom rational means-end action. for Neitherthe means-end rational actionthatprovided foundation the practicaland formal rationality value postulates nor devoidof an ethical aspect could transcend and orderdaily routineto a degreesufficient to set a comprehensive continuous into and rationalization givenrealities of motion. Such a development could emerge only aftervalue-rationalization processes rootedin an ethicalrationality led to the formation at had of least an incipient worldview in reference which,irrespective its to of particular value content, everyday routines couldbe qualitatively assessed, rafoundwanting, and rejected.Weber's notionof ethical substantive tionality and his emphasis the divergent on directions followed ratioby nalization processes rootedin values accountsforhis opposition all exto planations the advance of rationalization a manifestation either of as of to or adaptation givenrealities the conflict sheerinterests.29 of Precisely thisWeberian assertion to explainshis unwillingness side with Marx in endowing even economic interests witha generalized significance, he though refused underestimate to theirstrength. Only ethical rational for action,not simply thrust interests, the of possessed, example,the potentialeffectively rupture to traditional ways of life and attitudes.For a Weber,specific typesof ways of life have oftendemonstrated greater with affinity certaintypesof economic actionbecause of ethicalrational influences ratherthan because of intensive economicpressures([1930] 1958a,pp. 26-27 [12]), in spiteof thefactthattheveryorigins ethical of rationalities themselves mustbe in turnunderstood largelythe result as of economicfactors.Such distinctions the levels of "meaning"and at for motivation action have been of enormous significance an underfor standingof the meandering routes rationalization followedin different civilizations. Interests the Basis forRationalization as Processes:Affinities, Antagonisms, Sociological and Anchorings The centrality ethicalsubstantive of rationality and rationalization processesbased on thistypeof rationality Weber'sschememustbe viewed in as an analytical centrality. conceptual Its significance, whichderivesfrom
29 This interpretation Weber's fundamental and social changeis fully view of history of to supportedby Tenbruck: "His entireoeuvre testifies his convictionthat a comprehensiveand continuousrationalizationof realitycannot arise out of interests"(1975, p. 689).

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American Journal Sociology of its uniquecapacityto call forth methodical rationalways of life,tellsus nothing whatsoever about the roleit has playedin history. from Far ends in themselves, typesof rationality the were,forWeber,merely basic the heuristic toolshe employed scrutinize historical to the fatesof rationalizationas sociocultural processes. doingso, he wishedto ascertain In which rationalization processor processes typically penetrated into the different spheres lifeand to assess the strength theseprocesses examining of of by thestability their of sociological roots. Havingutilizedhis ideal-typical concepts-the typesof rationality-as means of orientation that guided him to criticalhistoricalwatersheds, Weberas historical sociologist, whether investigating multidimensionthe alityof rationalization any othertheme, or directly confronted history's raw "irrationality." Insteadof beingsubjectto a transcendental meaning, theinexorable dialectical advanceof "Reason," evolutionary laws,or even the centrality the economic of sphereas a generalrule,history was understood Weber as a realmcharacterized the immutable by by clash of "irrational" interests regulated onlyat their extremes established by world views.Even theseworldviewswereoriginally determined the victory by of certaininterests, power,historical chance,and otherrandomfactors. For Weber,all questionsof historical development and change,of the circumscription somemovements the struggle positions hegeof and to of monyby others, inevitably run up against the purely"irrational" drift and flowof interests and interest constellations. fromsimplyan inFar " ternally consistent concept, 'rationalism' a historical is conceptthatcontainsa worldof contradictions within itself"([1930] 1958a, p. 78 [62]; [1946] 1958f, 281 [253]). p. interests At times, of owingto a sheeraccidental juxtaposition factors, to This stratum crystallized forma cohesivestratum. could, if another randomconfiguration historicalforcescongealed,"carry" a specific of rationalcarried formal rationalization process. Civilservants, example, for in izationprocesses a consequence theirtypicaldaily activities oras of ganizations. Otherstrata,as oftenas not,carriedrationalization processes to antagonistic those upheld by bureaucrats, for example,when reas, rationalization ligiousintellectuals propounded substantive processes.As becameinstitutionfurther carriers stillotherrationalization of processes a of alized in legitimate orders a within society, labyrinth such processes while evolved. Some of them fused in elective affinity relationships, othersclashed.Still otherssplit apart and thenlater converged, merging into,struggling with,and overlapping myriadotherrationalization processesall alongtheir and expanding contracting paths. Ratherthan capable of beingarranged along a line of linear development,such as the "disenchantment the world,"multifaceted of rationalization processesrecurrently surfacedand then faded away amidst a 1172

Weber'sTypesof Rationality tapestry shifting of balances and kaleidoscopicinterweavings. Paradox and irony aboundin Weber'scharting thispolychromatic The bestof net. knowninstanceoccurred when the "irrationality"-when viewedfroma purely eudaemonistic perspective ([1930] 1958a,pp. 78 [62], 70 [54]) of the Calvinistworkethiccontributed patterns action and entire to of ways of life thought exemplify highestpeaks of civilization, to the yet ones that came to enslave individualsin the 20th centurywithinan impersonal "iron cage" saturatedby formal,theoretical, and practical rationalization processes([1946] 1958f, 281 [253]; [1930] 1958a, pp. p. 181-82 [203-4]; Loewith 1970, pp. 114-15). Time and again, Weber notesthe manner whichgroupsof individuals in createrealmsof freedom by responding, throughrational regularities action, to fragmented of the same realities.In carrying these regularities extremes, to however, groupsmay construct veritable networks bondage. of for Nearlyall rationalization processes of shortduration Weberas are a historical sociologist castinghis glance down through ages. Only a the that form rationalities veryfew-those based on the ethicalsubstantive fortheunfolding civilizations-reach the tracks Even of acrossmillennia. raonce entrenched acceptedworldviews,these substantive though, as tionalities and the "ideas" that legitimate themacquire an autonomous (eigengesetzliche)30 powerto focusthe beliefand action orientations of entirepopulations(Tenbruck 1975), their perpetuation guaranteed, is accordingto Weber, only when they become institutionalized within legitimate ordersand carriedby established social strata.The vast majority of rationalization processes are rooted in interestsand fail to legitimate themselves adequatelyat the level of values. Thus, they are insuppressed whenever more powerful a constellation antagonistic of terests on thehorizon. appears ModernRationalization Processesin theWest: The "Type of Person" Practical,theoretical, formal and rationalization processes strongly dominate substantive rationalization processesin modernWesternsocieties. The Judeo-Christian worldview,whichprovidedthe point of reference formajorgroupings substantive ethicalrationalities well as for of and as the theoretical rationalization theirvalues, has been largelyreplaced of by the scientific worldview.With thisaxial shiftand withthe definition of science-mainlyby Weberhimself-as a modeof knowledge analytically distinct from values,values couldbe no longer defined thelegitimate as of subjectmatter the 20thcentury's majortheoretical rationalization pro30 Unfortunately, Weber's notion of Eigengesetzlichkeit, which has been dealt with by Tenbruck (1975) in only one of its multipleincarnations, cannot be explored here.

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Journal Sociology of American worldview as a whole cesses.This holds trueeven thoughthe scientific formalrationalization is itselfa substantive rationality. Simultaneously, and the legal processes the scientific in arena as well as in the economic coalescedto givebirth spheres and in thebureaucratic form domination of to a network patterns action,all of whichpointedin thesame direcof of tion: suppression value-oriented of lost action.Thus, ethicalrationalities in the constellation interests of that enabled them to stand effectively of directopposition the impersonal to character all formalrationalities themunder and to circumscribe influence the latterby subsuming the of an ethicalpostulate([1946] 1958d,p. 331 [544]; 1968,pp. 1186 [709], 585 [353], 600 [361]; 1927,p. 357 [305]). Withtheeclipseof substantive rationality's powerto ordercomprehenof sivelyall aspectsof lifein behalfof values,a resurgence the practical rational way of lifecould take place ([1946] 1958f,p. 281 [253]). This subduedonly to the degree way of life,in turn, whichformal rationality that action took place withinenterprises (Betriebe) and bureaucracies, began to competefreely with formalrationalpatternsof action. Conactionswithin bureaucracies, such as comitantly, wherever value-rational wereweakened a consequence as thosetypical thePrussian of civilservant, of the generaluprooting substantive of rationalities, purelymeans-end moreeasily.Howevermuch rational actionpenetrated theseorganizations some individuals and groupsmay desirea reinstatement the "bureauof firmly entrenched interests craticethic,"attempts reinstate confront to it orders.In such cases, Weber renow institutionalized withinlegitimate of or peatedlyemphasizes that the plausibility "reasonableness" a desire forchangecan provideonly a stimulant. This prerequisite acquiressigfactors anchored interests in nificance onlyif a constellation facilitating of crystallizes. and experiencing For Weber,the rise of scienceas a mode of knowing if foreboded fateful particularly consequences, only because it threatened to pull even values out of the arena of "belief" and place themin the realmof calculation:with the adventof the scientific worldview,even meavalues could becomesubjectto empirical mathematical observation, and surement, testing([1946] 1958e,p. 139 [594]; 1922, pp. 473-74). opposition This development, emphasized, he stoodin the mostprincipled the to all religious world as asserted "meanpostulates, viewswhich, ethical ingfulness" worldly and certainactionssimplyas a resultof their of life values existed valuationfor particular salvationpaths. In all religions, and theworldexistedas a cosmosordered as eternally "valid" absolutes, in a final manner gods and doctrines ([1946] 1958d,pp. 350-53 [564by the rationalization that had, in ages processes 66]). Precisely theoretical the into valuesof "primitive" religions internally past,molded fragmentary unified of explainedthe perconfigurations values that comprehensively 1174

Weber'sTypes of Rationality petuationof this-worldly suffering became emancipated now fromtheir within domainof science to the subjugation values. Once clearlyfocused in the 20th century, theseprocessescame to exist as "empty"abstract thought processesthat labeled religionas a realm characterized a by "sacrifice theintellect" the"irrational" of and ([1946] 1958d,pp. 351-52 [564-66]; [1946] 1958f, 281 [253]) (see fig.1). p. When it combinedwith formal, practical,and other theoretical rarationalization processesunbridled values, this shiftof theoretical by tionalization fromreligionto science became of paramountsignificance forthe destiny methodical of rationalways of life. In the past, both the direction such ways of life and theirmethodical of aspect had originated from rationalization reference values.Wherever a in to ethicalrationalizationprocesseshad been set in motion, theirvalues were-as a rule and oftendecisively-religious values ([1946] 1958f, p. 287 [259]). The banishment thesevalues led Weber to ask a specific of question: "What type of person [Menschentyp] will-or could-survive in the modern cosmos?" (1949, p. 27 [517]; [1930] 1958a,pp. 180-82 [203-5]). He wantedto know, wouldbe thecarrier above all, whattypeof person of Western in civilization an age whenthe life-sphere had previously that unitedthe personality in to into a forcecapable of standing opposition the "streamof material constellations" lost its sociological had anchorage. Wouldthistypeofperson little be morethana pale reflection theformal of rationality characterizing merely his adaptiveactionin thelegal,economic, and scientific spheres well as thebureaucratic as and form domination, of of thepracticalrationalorientations requiredto handle life's daily tasks and difficulties? typeof person The capable of systematically rationalizing action"from within"-in relation a unified to of value constellation-and thereby lendinghis or her entireexistencean unambiguous "direction" and "meaning"was viewedby Weber as a historical subject bound to historically sociologically and uniquetraditions, cultural values,and social"Primitive" Societies Theoretical Rationalization Processes World View Present (Substantive Rationality) Modern Societies World View Lacking --"Primitive" (Belief) Ethical (eif (Belief) r.that Religions: Values fragmented Religions: arranged constellation

Salvation

Ethical values into a unified

comprehensively explains suffering and the "meaning" of existence

Science: (Calculation)

Values excluded from theoretical rationalization

in principle processes

FIG. 1

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American Journal Sociology of the the economic structures. Castinghis glancedown through ages from perspective the dawning the 20th century, saw the fadingaway of of he of thedistinct configuration sociological of factors thatcarriedthehistorihighest ideals: cal subjectwhich, him,embodied to Western civilization's the autonomous and freeindividual whoseactionswere givencontinuity by their reference ultimate to values. Weber saw no social stratumfirmly anchoredin Westernindustrial as societies capable of replacing ethicalsalvation religions an institutionalprocesses. The ized carrier ethicalrationality value-rationalization of and by crystallization such a stratum of was rendered the moreunlikely all the unfolding the major life-spheres of along theirparticularand "autonomous"routesof rationalization: devoid of the personaldimension, therealms theeconomy, of law, and knowledge, well as all bureaucratic as structures domination, of now developedsolely in relationto abstract These arenas thus rerules,laws, regulations, and externalnecessities. mainedoutsideof and unrestrained all ethicalclaims (1968, p. 585 by [353]; [1946] 1958d,p. 331 [544]; 1927, pp. 357-58 [305]). Without in of all the cultivation a conscience the normalsocialization children, of fallon deaf ears. The ethicaldemands themas adultsweredestined of to master his typeof personto whomethicalclaimsare alien could scarcely Instead, such persons realityconsciously and directaction consistently. "irrational"-flow remained subjectto the random-or,in Weber'sterms, in strength sociologiof of interests theirenviroment. overwhelming The unable in principle generate to value-rationalizacally entrenched spheres tionprocesses condemned unified the personality exist"at the edges" to of modern in ([1946] 1958e,p. 155 society small and intimate groupings to [612]). Moreover, the extentthat the values of the politicalspherein such as thoseincorporated the Bill of Rights-are sweptaway by the of rationalization processes, onslaught formal, practical,and theoretical characterized a by politicallyorientedaction will become increasingly If meremeans-end rationalcalculation self-interests. this trendis not of reversed, the rule of authoritarian forcewill, accordingto Weber, inall evitably spreadand suppress politicalfreedoms. Far fromtreating Weber's overall view of historicalrationalization in this processes any comprehensive manner, articlehas onlytakena first as the typesof rationality concepts step towarddoing so by discussing in The comparative-hisand theirmanifestation rationalization processes. toricalsociology that is laid out in E&S-so oftenbetweenthe linesof and "applied"in theseparatestudieson thereligions China,India, and Near East tookWeberfarbeyondthelevelof analysislimited theancient to to analytic intoa realmvastlymorecongenial himpersonally. concepts In his comparative-historical he sociology, searchedfor typicalpatterns 1176

Weber'sTypes of Rationality thatmight provideclues to the generalcircumstances underwhichstrata that carriedspecific rationalization processes or were constricted allowed to spreadand establish durabletraditions. Such investigations utilizedthe conceptuallevel simplyas a means of orientation locate significant to historical junctures. Instead of being an end in itself,as many commentators Weber's on methodological writings seem to believe,the formation clear concepts of was simplythe unavoidable first step in undertaking sociological a analysis. For Weber,it was not the concept, however clearlyand even aesthetically shaped,thatwas of primary interest but, rather, questionhow the historical processesadvanced sociologically withingiven civilizations. If one wishesto follow Weber'smethodological procedures, purelyconthe ceptualinventory the multiple of Weberiantypesof rationality their and manifestation a multiplicity rationalization in of processes undertaken here can serveas the logicalprerequisite an exploration the vicissitudes for of of rationalization in processes history all levelsof sociocultural at process.
REFERENCES Bendix, Reinhard. 1965. "Max Weber's Sociology Today." InternationalSocial Science Journal 17 (January): 9-22. Howe, Richard Herbert. 1978. "Max Weber's Elective Affinities: Sociology within the Bounds of Pure Reason." AmericanJournal of Sociology 84 (September): 366-85. Kalberg, Stephen. 1979. "The Search for Thematic Orientations in a Fragmented Oeuvre: The Discussion of Max Weber in Recent German Sociological Literature." Sociology 13 (January): 127-39. Levine, Donald. 1979. "Rationality and Freedom: Weber and Beyond." Revised version of paper presentedat the Max Weber Symposium,Universityof WisconsinMilwaukee, May 5, 1977. Loewith, Karl. 1970. "Weber's Interpretations the Bourgeois-Capitalistic of World in Terms of the Guiding Principle of 'Rationalization.'" Pp. 101-22 in Max Weber, edited by Dennis Wrong. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall. Marcuse, Herbert.1972. "Industrialization and Capitalism." Pp. 133-51 in Max Weber and Sociology Today, edited by Otto Stammer.New York: Harper & Row. Munch, Richard. 1980. "Zur Anatomie des okzidentalenRationalismus." Forthcoming in Seyfarth and Sprondel. Stuttgart:Enke. Nelson, Benjamin. 1969. "Conscience and the Making of Early Modern Cultures: The ProtestantEthic beyond Max Weber." Social Research 36 (Spring): 4-21. . 1973. "Civilizational Complexes and Intercivilizational Encounters."Sociological Analysis34 (Winter): 79-105. . 1974. "Max Weber's 'Author's Introduction' (1920): A Master Clue to His Main Aims." Sociological Inquiry 44 (December): 270-77. Parsons, Talcott. 1937. The Structureof Social Action II. New York: Free Press. . 1963. "Introduction."Pp. xix-lxviiin Max Weber, The Sociology of Religion, translatedby Ephraim Fischoff. New York: Free Press. Roth, Guenther,and Wolfgang Schluchter. 1979. Max Weber's Vision of History: Ethics and Method. Berkeley: Universityof CaliforniaPress. Seyfarth, Constans,and Walter M. Sprondel,eds. 1980. Max Weber und die Dynamik der gesellschaftlichen Rationalisierung. Stuttgart: Enke. Swidler,Ann. 1973. "The Concept of Rationalityin the Work of Max Weber." Sociological Inquiry 43 (January): 35-42.

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