MANUFACTURING PROCESSES

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SHAPING PROCESS

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Sprue

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 Product can be cast as one piece. Very heavy and bulky parts can be manufactured Metals difficult to be shaped by other manufacturing processes may be cast (eg: Cast Iron) Best for mass production Complex shapes can be manufactured
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Casting process is a labour intensive process Not possible for high melting point metals Dimensional accuracy, surface finish and the amount of defects depends on the casting process Allowances required
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 Pattern: An approximate duplicate of final casting Flask/Box: The rigid metal or a wooden frame that holds the moulding material Cope: Top half of the moulding box Drag: Bottom half of the moulding box Core: A sand shape that is inserted into a mould to produce internal features of a casting such as holes Riser: A vertical opening in the mould

Act as a vent for gases Helps to confirm that the mould is completely filled Act as a reservoir of molten metal to feed and compensate for shrinkage during solidification of a casting.
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Gating System: Channels used to deliver the molten metal to the mould cavity Sprue: The vertical passage in the gating system Runner: The horizontal channel of the gating system Gate: Channel which connects runner and mould
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 Pouring Cup Sprue Sprue Base/Well Runner Gate Riser

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 Wood: Inexpensive, Easily available, Light weight, easy to shape, Poor wear resistance, absorb moisture, less strength, not suitable for machine moulding. Metal: Aluminium: No corrosion, good strength, wear resistant, good surface finish, less cost, cannot withstand rough handing, soft metal. Plastic: High surface finish, light weight, moisture resistant, good strength, wear & corrosion resistant, easy to make, not suitable for machine moulding. Plaster: Intricate shapes can be made, good compressive strength, expands while solidifying, less dimensionally accurate. Wax: Good surface finish, high accuracy, no need to remove from the mould, less strength.
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 Single piece pattern Split piece pattern Cope & Drag pattern Gated pattern

Green Sand Dry Sand Core Sand Parting Sand

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The size of the pattern is slightly larger than the finished casting by an amount called ALLOWANCE. Shrinkage Allowance Machining or Finishing allowances Taper or Draft allowance Distortion allowance Shake or Rapping allowance

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The pattern must be made oversize to compensate for contraction of liquid metal on cooling. This addition to the dimension of the pattern is known as shrinkage allowance.

The pattern must be made oversize for machining purposes so that the required dimensions and surface finish can be achieved by removing material from the casting. This extra amount of dimensions provided in the pattern is known as Machining allowance.
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When a pattern is removed from a mould, the tendency to tear away the edges of the mould is greatly reduced if the vertical surfaces of the pattern are tapered inwards. The provision of taper on vertical faces of the pattern is called DRAFT.

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Distortion allowances are applied to casting of irregular shapes that are distorted in cooling because of metal shrinkage

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Due to rapping of the pattern in the mould, the size of mould cavity increases slightly. A shake or rapping allowances shall be given to pattern by making it smaller to compensate for rapping.

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Bench moulding
Floor moulding Pit moulding Machine moulding
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Green Sand Moulding

Dry Sand Moulding Skin-Dried Sand Moulding

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Porosity / Permeability: The property that allows passage of gases through the mould Cohesiveness: Ability of the sand particles to stick together Adhesiveness: Ability of a moulding sand to adhere (stick on) to the surfaces of moulding boxes. Plasticity: Ability of a sand to acquire shape from the pattern that is moulded and retain it during casting.
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Flowability: ability to flow into deeper sections of the pattern and all portions of moulding box
Collapsibility: Property of the sand that permits it to collapse (break) easily during its knockout from the casting Refractoriness: ability of a moulding sand to withstand the heat of molten metal without fusion
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Casting without hole

Casting with hole

Core

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Swelled section

REQUIRED CASTING

DEFECTED CASTING
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Na2 SiO3 + CO2 Na2CO3 + SiO2

Sodium Silicate Sodium Carbonate Silica Gel

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1. Hand Forging
Versatile process Time consuming Not suitable for mass production

2. Drop Forging
The die is made in two halves, which contains the shape of the component to be produced, in the form of a cavity. Force for shaping the component is applied in a series of blow by using drop hammers. Used for mass production
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WORK PIECE

FINISHED PRODUCT

DIE

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3. Press Forging
Force is applied using a hydraulic press. Suitable for mass production

4. Machine Forging
Forging machines are used for appling force. Used when large force is required Used for mass production IMPRESSION DIE FORGING
Drop Forging Press Forging Machine Forging
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HYDRAULIC PRESS AND FORGING MACHINE

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Upsetting (Jumping) Drawing Down (Necking Down) Setting Down Bending Welding Cutting Punching Swaging Drifting
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 Process of increasing the cross sectional area of a bar at any desired portion, at the expense of length of the bar. The portion to be upset is heated and then hammered axially.

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 Process of reducing the cross section of a bar by increasing its length.

Local thinning down operation using a set of hammer.

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 An operation by which bars and rods are bent to form rings, hooks etc. It is carried out by keeping the bar over the round edge of an anvil and hammering.

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 Process of joining two metallic surfaces without using filler materials. The surfaces to be joined are heated to a temperature higher than the ordinary forging temperature and joined together by hammering.

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 Process of removing pieces of metal from a work piece by means of a chisel.

CHISEL

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 Process in which a punch is forced through the work piece to produce a hole. The work piece is heated and supported on a block. The block has a hole in it slightly larger than the hole to be made.

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 Two swage block, top swage and bottom swage are used for swaging operation. The work piece is held between the top and bottom swages and is hammered.

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 Process of increasing the diameter of a punched hole. A drift which has tapered end is made to pass through the punched hole to produce a finished hole of the required size.

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Improves the mechanical properties Forged parts can withstand heavy load conditions. Metals can be easily shaped. Higher reliability for forged products. No material wastage during forging High rate of production Parts can be easily welded by forging

Smooth surface can be obtained.

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High tool cost

All metals cannot be forged. Some metals may develop crack by forging.
Limitation in size and shape.

Temperature range for each material must be exactly maintained.

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Process of forming metals into desired shapes by passing the metal in between a pair of rolls. The rolls squeeze the metal to reduce its cross section while increasing its length. The process of rolling basically consists of passing metal between two rolls rotating in opposite directions at the same speed. HOT ROLLING is the process in which metal is fed to the rolls after being heated above the recrystallization temperature. In COLD ROLLING, metal is fed to the rolls when it is below the recrystallization temperature.
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TWO HIGH MILL

THREE HIGH MILL

FOUR HIGH MILL

CLUSTER HIGH MILL

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 Consists of two heavy rolls placed exactly one over the other. Mostly the lower roll will be fixed in position. Upper roll can be moved to adjust the space between the rolls. Both rolls rotate at the same speed but in opposite direction. Low production rate

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 Consists of three rolls positioned one over the other. The upper and lower rolls rotate in the same direction, while the middle roll rotates in the opposite direction. The work piece is made to pass in one direction between the upper and the middle rolls in the first pass. Then between the middle and the lower rolls in the opposite direction during the second pass. The middle roll is kept fixed and the upper and lower rolls are moved to adjust the roll gap.
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 Consists of four rolls, two are working rolls and the other two are back up rolls. Back up rolls are larger and are used for preventing the deflection of the working rolls. High production rate Suitable for mass production

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 Consists of a pair of working rolls of very small diameter, supported by a number of back up rolls on either side. For rolling very thin sheet or foils.

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 The joint area of the parts are heated to plastic state and forced together by external force. Eg: Forge welding, Resistance welding.

The joint area of the parts are heated to fusion state (molten state), and a joint is formed as a result of solidification. Eg: Arc Welding, Gas welding, Thermit welding.

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PRESSURE WELDING
Requires only heat and pressure. Joint area is heated to plastic state. Requires lower temperature. Composition and structure is not much affected.

FUSION WELDING
Requires only heat. Joint area is heated to molten state. Requires higher temperature. Composition affected. and structure is

Does not requires filler metal.

Generally requires filler metal.

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 In this process, the work piece to be joined are held together and a strong electric current of low voltage (6 to 10 volts) and high amperage (60 to 4000 amperage) is passed through them. When the current passes through the metal, the high resistance at the point of contact raises the temperature at the junction. The mechanical pressure applied at this moment completes the weld
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SPOT WELDING

BUTT WELDING

SEAM WELDING

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 Used for making lap welds in thin sheets Sheets are held between metal electrodes Secondary current from transformer is passed between the electrodes, causing the metal temperature in contact spot to be rapidly raised to welding temperature. The weld at this contact spot is then completed by applying pressure by the electrodes itself. Used for welding ferrous and non-ferrous alloys.

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 Work pieces of the same cross section are held in suitable clamps butting each other. The current is switched on and the contacting surface gets fused and joined by mechanical pressure.
Similar to butt welding The ends of the work pieces to be welded are put together and the required current is passed through the work pieces. Sudden separation of the ends by a short distance produces an arc in the space between the work resulting very high heat. Immediately the current is cut off and work pieces are joined together by pressure
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 Similar to Spot welding The electrodes are disk shaped rollers The electrode roll over the sheet and a continuous weld is obtained. The current passing from wheel to wheel through the work pieces heats the parts to be joined and due to the pressure, the weld is formed. Also known as CONTINOUS SPOT WELD PROCESS. Used for welding sheet metals, radiator, drums etc.
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 Modification of Spot welding The current and pressure are localized at the weld section by the use of some projections on one or both pieces of the work. The flattening out of these projections under pressure results in good welds at all points of contact.

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BUTT WELD

SPOT WELD

SEAM WELD

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The source of heat in Arc welding is an electric arc. The electric arc develops when current flows across the air gap between the end of metal electrode and the work surface. This arc is strong stable electric discharge occurring in the air gap between an electrode and the work. The temperature of this arc is about 3600C which can melt and fuse the metal very quickly to produce joint. The temperature of the arc at the centre is around 6500C. Only 60 to 70% of the heat is utilized in arc welding to heatup and melt the metal. The remaining 40 to 30% is dissipated into surroundings. The principle of arc welding is based upon the formation of an electric arc between a consumable electrode (bare or coated) and the base metal. The heat of the arc is concentrated at the point of welding; as a result, it melts the electrode and base metal. When the weld metal solidifies, the slag gets deposited on its surface as it is lighter than metal and weld metal is allowed to cool gradually and slowly. After cooling (solidification) a sound joint is formed. The slag is removed by chipping hammer.
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Non-Consumable electrodes Consumable electrodes

Bare electrodes Coated electrodes

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Advantages of Arc Welding

Faster than Gas welding Low cost Versatile process Suitable for wide range of ferrous and non ferrous metals and their alloys

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Disadvantages of Arc Welding

Not suitable for thin sections Electrode replacement is necessary for long joints Not suitable for welding large metal pieces Need to remove slag at the end of welding process
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 In Gas welding, the heat necessary for melting base metal and filler rod is obtained by gas flame. The composition of filler rod is same as that of the base metal. In Oxy-Acetylene welding, heat is produced by burning acetylene in the presence of oxygen at the tip of a nozzle which is fitted to a torch body. The temperature of the oxy-acetylene flame is 3250C and is used to melt parent metal to form a weld pool. No flux is used for gas welding and the molten metal is protected by gaseous products of the flame.
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Oxidising Flame Neutral Flame Reducing Flame (Carburising flame)

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Acetylene production: Water to Carbide method (high pressure system) Carbide to Water method (low pressure system)

CaC2 + 2H2O = Ca (OH)2 + C2H2

Calcium Carbide Water Slaked Lime Acetylene Gas

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 High portability Less welding skills required Easy control of filler metal Equipment are low cost Maintenance cost is less Equipment can be used for Gas cutting & Brazing
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Takes longer time to weld Oxygen & Acetylene are costlier Shielding provided by flame is not effective Flame temperature is less than the temperature of the arc Safety problems in handling and storage of gases
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 Fusion welding process Heat required is obtained by an exothermal chemical reaction 8Al + 3Fe3O4 = 9Fe + 4Al2O3
Iron (Thermit)
Aluminium Iron Oxide Aluminium Oxide (Slag)

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Wax joint

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Soldering Iron

Soft Soldering: Tin & Lead, 320C Hard Soldering: Copper & Zinc, 600C Semi-Permanent joint Soldering is the method of joining two or more metal pieces by means of a fusible alloy or metal called solder, applied in a molten state.

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 Alloy of Copper, Zinc & Tin Can withstand temperatures up to 800C ADVANTAGES Dissimilar metals can be joined Quick process Parts having thin sections can be easily joined. Less heat than fusion welding Strength of joint is higher than soldering

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