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Similarly, take the divergence of Eq. (4) and use Eq. (3), In a covariant form, Eq. (17) becomes
we obtain
1 @ 2 J~ A0 = A + @ : (20)
c2 @t2
r 2 J~ = 0 ; (8)
Eq. (15) can be written in a covariant form as
where = (~r; t) and J~ = J~(~r; t). Therefore, both the cur-
rent density and charge density satisfy a wave equation prop- F = @ A @ A : (21)
agating with speed of light. In covariant form, Eqs. (7) and
(8) now read In a covariant form, Maxwell’s equations, Eqs. (11)–(14),
2 J @ @ J = 0 : (9) read
We remark that the GCEs are applicable to any flow @ F = 0 J ; @ F + @ F + @ F = 0 : (22)
whether created by charged particles or neutral ones.
@ of Eq. (12) and apply
Notice however that if we take @t
3 Maxwell’s equations Eqs. (13) and (14), we get
1 @ 2 B~
We have recently shown that quaternion equation (Arbab and
c2 @t2
r2 B~ = 0 r~ J~ : (23)
Satti, 2009 [1])
' ~ Now take the curl of both sides of Eq. (12) and apply
e 2A
e = 0 Je ; Ae = i ;A (10)
c Eqs. (11) and (13), we get
yields the Maxwell’s equations (Arbab and Satti, 2009 [1]) 1 @ 2 E~ 1 ~ 1 @ J~
c2 @t2
r 2 E~ =
"0
r + c2 @t : (24)
r~ E~ = " ; (11)
0 We remark that, according to our GCEs, the electric and
~ magnetic waves propagate with speed of light whether
r~ E~ + @@tB = 0 ; (12) J~ = = 0 or not, as long as Eqs. (4) and (5) are satisfied.
In a covariant form, Eqs. (23) and (24) read
1 @ E~
r~ B~ c2 @t
= 0 J~ ; (13) 2 F = 0 (@ J @ J ) : (25)
and
r~ B~ = 0 : (14)
This can be casted in the form
The electric and magnetic fields are defined by the vector @ 0 1 @ F + g J g J @ C = 0 ; (26)
potential (A) and the scalar potential (') as follows
where
@ A~ C = 0 1 @ F + g J
E~ = r
~' ; B~ = r
~ A~ ; (15) g J ; (27)
@t
where g is the metric tensor. Notice that the current tensor
such that the Lorentz gauge
C is antisymmetric in the indices ; and is a conserved
r~ A~ + c12 @'
@t
= 0; (16)
quantity. Likewise the total momentum and energy of the
electrodynamics system (fields + particles) is conserved, we
found here that the total current of the system, one arising
is satisfied. We know that the electric and magnetic fields are from the electromagnetic fields and the other from the parti-
invariant under the following gauge transformations cles motion, is conserved. The first term in Eq. (27) repre-
@ sents the electromagnetic current, the second term represents
A~ 0 = A~ r~ ; '0 = ' + : (17) the electronic current and the last term represents the vacuum
@t
current (with negative sign) as suggested by Eq. (28).
The invariance of the Lorentz gauge implies that
leaving the generalized continuity equations (GCEs) invari- so that the Eq. (39) is invariant under the local gauge transfor-
ant. In a covariant form, Eq. (28) reads mation of the spinor (Bjorken, 1964 [5]). In terms of this
derivative, one has
J 0 = J + @ : (29)
F = D A D A ; (40)
Applying this transformation in Eq. (6), one finds that
and Maxwell’s equations become
@ (J + @ ) = @ J 0 = 0 ; N 0 = N : (30)
D F = 0 J ; D F + D F + D F = 0 : (41)
It is thus evident that the GCEs are invariant under the
CDTs. Moreover, the application of the current transforma- Upon using Eq. (6), Eq. (41) is invariant under NGTs.
tion in the continuity equation, Eq. (3), yields Applying the NGTs into the above Lagrangian yields
1 @2
r 2 = r~ J~ + @ : (31)
L0 = L + J J : (42)
c2 @t2 @t
The current density is defined by J = ec
. This
We thus that J~ and in the GCEs are not unique and any extra interaction term has already appeared in the Fermi the-
new set of J~ 0 and 0 will lead to the same GCEs provided that ory of beta decay. It is written in the form GpF2 J J , i.e.,
is gauged by Eq. (31). Since the right hand side of Eq. (31) = GpF2 , where GF is the Fermi constant. We anticipate that
vanishes, is a solution of a wave equation traveling with this term is related to the mass of the photon (propagator).
speed of light in vacuum. This equation is similar to Eq. (18). This term term couldn’t be added to the initial Lagrangian
Notice also that Eqs. (23) and (24) are invariant under the fol- because, it breaks the ordinary gauge invariance. However,
lowing CDTs the NGTs could rise to the mass of the photon. It is some-
1 @ ~ 0 ~ ~ thing like Higg’s mechanism that gives the elementary parti-
0 = + 2 ; J = J r ; E~ 0 = E;
~ B~ 0 = B~ : (32) cles their masses. Such a term may be related to an interaction
c @t
of two electrons closed to each other like in Cooper pairs in
In a covariant form, these read superconductivity. The behavior of superconductors suggests
J0 = J + @ ; F 0 = F : (33)
that electron pairs are coupling over a range of hundreds of
nanometers, three orders of magnitude larger than the lattice
Now let us introduce new gauge transformations (NGTs) spacing. These coupled electrons can take the character of a
as follows boson and condense into the ground state.
But since (Arbab and Satti, 2009 [1]) But for Hydrogen-like atoms
~v 1 Ze
B~ = 2
c
E~ (48) E= ; (54)
4"0 r2
the Lorentz force does not affect the magnetic charge whether so that one has
it exists or not. Hence, the magnetic monopole does not man- Zev
B= : (55)
ifest its self via Lorentz force. The magnetic field generated 4"0 r2
by the charged particle is in such a way that it does not influ- In terms of the orbital angular momentum (L) where
ence the magnetic charge. Note also that the magnetic field L = mvr, one has
created by the charged particle does not do work because ~v B ~.
The above symmetrized Maxwell’s equations have the duality Ze ~
transformations, i.e., E~ ! B~ , B~ ! E~ . B~ = L: (56)
4"0 mr3
Using the vector identity r~ (A~ C~ ) = C~ (r
~ A~ )
A (r C ), it is interesting to notice that the divergence
~ ~ ~ However, this is the same equation that is obtained using
of Eq. (48) vanishes, viz., the Biot-Savart law. This is a remarkable result, and suggests
~ = c~v2 E~ is truly fundamental in elec-
that the relation B
r~ B~ = r~ c~v2 E~ = trodynamics. This term gives rise to the spin-orbit interaction
described by
1h i
1 Ze2 ~ ~
= 2 E~ (r ~ ~v ) ~v (r
~ E~ ) = 0; (49) Eint = S L: (57)
c 4"0 m2 c2 r3
e
for a motion with constant velocity, where r ~ ~v = 0 and ~v
A factor of 1=2 correcting the above expression is intro-
is perpendicular to r~ E~ .
duced by Thomas leading to
1 Ze2 ~ ~
6 The Biot-Savart law
Eint = S L: (58)
8"0 m2e c2 r3
We can now apply Eq. (48) to calculate the magnetic field
acted on the electron in Hydrogen-like atoms. This magnetic We now use the Biot-Savart law to demonstrate that r~
field is produced by the moving electron due to the presence B~ = 0. This law is written in the form
of an electric field created by the nucleus at a distance r, as Z
~ 0 J~(~r 0 ) (~r ~r 0 ) 3 0
B=
j~r ~r 0 j3 d r :
seen by the electron. Therefore, (59)
4
~v
B~ = 2
c
E~ ; (50)
Using the vector identity r
~ (A~ C~ ) = C~ (r
~ A~ )
~ is the electric produced by the nucleus at the elec- A~ (r
~ C~ ), one has
where E
Z !
tron site. The magnetic field due to a single moving charged J~(~r 0 ) (~r ~r 0 ) 3 0
particle (q ) is given by the Biot-Savart law as r~ j~r ~r 0 j3 dr =
(60)
q ~v ~r Z
(~r ~r 0 ) ~ ~ 3 0
Z 0
~ (~r ~r ) d3 r0 :
B~ = 0 : (51) = r J d r ~ r
J
4 r3 j~r ~r 0 j3 j~r ~r 0 j3
Comparing Eq. (50) with Eq. (51) and using the fact that
Because of Eq. (5) and the fact that the curl of any pure
0 "0 c2 = 1, one gets radial function is zero, i.e. r
~ (f (r) r^) = 0, the first and the
q ~r second term vanish, so that above equation yields
E~ = (52)
4"0 r3
r~ B~ = 0 : (61)
which is the familiar definition of the electric field of a single
charged particle. Hence, Eq. (50) is one variant of Biot-Savart Now let us calculate the magnetic field at a distance r
law. This law was not included in the original formulation of from the wire produced by an infinitely long wire carrying a
Maxwell’s theory. Hence, Maxwell’s equations were missing current I . Using Ampere’s law, this is given by
this law and thus were incomplete.
I
Since the electric field produced by the nucleus is perpen- B= 0 : (62)
dicular to the electron velocity, Eq. (50) yields 2r
v However, using Eqs. (50) and (51) and the fact that
B = 2 E: (53) I t = q and ~v is perpendicular to ~r, one finds that the magnetic
c
7 Concluding remarks
Acknowledgments