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Title: Ontology or the Theory of Being

Author: Peter Coffey
Release Date: March 30, 2011 [Ebook #35722]
Language: English
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***START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ONTOLOGY OR THE THEORY OF BEING***

Ontology
Or the
Theory of Being
By
Peter Coffey, Ph.D. (Louvain)
Professor of Logic and Metaphysics, Waynooth College, Ireland
Longmans, Green and Co.
London, New York, Bombay, Calcutta, and Madras
1918

CONTENTS
Preface.
General Introduction.
Chapter I. Being And Its Primary Determinations.
Chapter II. Becoming And Its Implications.
Chapter III. Existence And Essence.
Chapter IV. Reality As One And Manifold.

Chapter V. Reality And The True.

Chapter VI. Reality And The Good.
Chapter VII. Reality And The Beautiful.
Chapter VIII. The Categories Of Being. Substance And Accident.
Chapter IX. Nature And Person.
Chapter X. Some Accident-Modes Of Being: Quality.
Chapter XI. Quantity, Space And Time.
Chapter XII. Relation; The Relative And The Absolute.
Chapter XIII. Causality; Classification Of Causes.
Chapter XIV. Efficient Causality; Phenomenism And Occasionalism.
Chapter XV. Final Causes; Universal Order.
Index.
Footnotes

To
The Students
Past And Present
Of
Maynooth College

PREFACE.
It is hoped that the present volume will supply a want that is really felt
by students of philosophy in our universitiesthe want of an English
text-book on General Metaphysics from the Scholastic standpoint. It is the
authors intention to supplement his _Science of Logic_(1) and the present
treatise on Ontology, by a volume on the Theory of Knowledge. Hence no
disquisitions on the latter subject will be found in these pages: the
Moderate Realism of Aristotle and the Schoolmen is assumed throughout.
In the domain of Ontology there are many scholastic theories and
discussions which are commonly regarded by non-scholastic writers as
possessing nowadays for the student of philosophy an interest that is
merely historical. This mistaken notion is probably due to the fact that
few if any serious attempts have yet been made to transpose these
questions from their medieval setting into the language and context of
contemporary philosophy. Perhaps not a single one of these problems is
really and in substance alien to present-day speculations. The author has
endeavoured, by his treatment of such characteristically medieval
discussions as those on _Potentia_ and _Actus_, Essence and Existence,
Individuation, the Theory of Distinctions, Substance and Accident, Nature
and Person, Logical and Real Relations, Efficient and Final Causes, to
show that the issues involved are in every instance as fully and keenly
debatedin an altered setting and a new terminologyby recent and living
philosophers of every school of thought as they were by St. Thomas and his
contemporaries in the golden age of medieval scholasticism. And, as the
purposes of a text-book demanded, attention has been devoted to stating
the problems clearly, to showing the significance and bearings of
discussions and solutions, rather than to detailed analyses of arguments.
At the same time it is hoped that the treatment is sufficiently full to be

helpful even to advanced students and to all who are interested in the
Metaphysics of the Schools. For the convenience of the reader the more
advanced portions are printed in smaller type.
The teaching of St. Thomas and the other great Schoolmen of the Middle
Ages forms the groundwork of the book. This _corpus_ of doctrine is
scarcely yet accessible outside its Latin sources. As typical of the
fuller scholastic text-books the excellent treatise of the Spanish author,
Urraburu,(2) has been most frequently consulted. Much assistance has also
been derived from Kleutgens _Philosophie der Vorzeit_,(3) a monumental
work which ought to have been long since translated into English. And
finally, the excellent treatise in the Louvain _Cours de Philosophie_, by
the present Cardinal Archbishop of Mechlin,(4) has been consulted with
profit and largely followed in many places. The writer freely and
gratefully acknowledges his indebtedness to these and other authors quoted
and referred to in the course of the present volume.

GENERAL INTRODUCTION.
I. REASON OF INTRODUCTORY CHAPTER.It is desirable that at some stage in
the course of his investigations the student of philosophy should be
invited to take a brief general survey of the work in which he is engaged.
This purpose will be served by a chapter on _the general aim and scope of
philosophy_, its distinctive characteristics as compared with other lines
of human thought, and its relations to these latter. Such considerations
will at the same time help to define _Ontology_, thus introducing the
reader to the subject-matter of the present volume.
II. PHILOSOPHY: THE NAME AND THE THING.In the fifth book of Ciceros
_Tusculan Disputations_ we read that the terms _philosophus_ and
_philosophia_ were first employed by Pythagoras who flourished in the
sixth century before Christ, that this ancient sage was modest enough to
call himself not a wise man but a lover of wisdom (, ), nd
hi
c ing nt pre

in  wi
dm but
e rch r wi
dm. Hwever,
de
pite the di
c imer, the term _phi
phy_
n c me t
igniy
_wi
dm_
impy, me ning by thi
the highe
t nd m
t preciu
kind 
knwedge.
Nw hum n knwedge h
r it
bject everything th t  
in ny w y
within hum n experience. It h
_exten
ivey_ gre t v riety in it


ubject-m tter, nd _inten
ivey_ gre t v riety in it
degree
 depth
nd ce rne

nd perectin. _Individu   ct
_  the p
t, cmmunic ted
by hum n te
timny, rm the r w m teri 
 _hi
tric _ knwedge. Then
there re  the individu  thing
nd event
th t   within ne
wn
per
n  experience. Mrever, by the
tudy  hum n  ngu ge (r
 ngu ge
),  wrk
 the hum n mind nd prduct
 hum n geniu
nd

ki, we g in knwedge  _iter ture_, nd  the _ rt
_the ine
rt
nd the mech nic  rt
. But nt merey d we u
e ur
en
e
nd
memry thu
t ccumu te n un

rted
tck  inrm tin
but
i
 ted  ct
: mi
ce neu
m

 ment  urniture which cn
titute

the buk  hum n knwedge in it
_e
t deveped_ rm_cgniti
____vug ri
,___ the knwedge  the cmp r tivey uneduc ted nd
unreecting c

e
 m nkind. We 
 u
e ur re
ning  cuty t
reect, cmp re, c

iy the
e inrm tin
, t interpret them, t
re
n but them, t iner rm them _gener  truth
_ th t embr ce

individu  thing
nd event
_beynd ur per
n  experience_; we try t

exp in them by
eeking ut their _re
n
_ nd _c u
e
_. Thi
ment 
ctivity gr du y cnvert
ur knwedge int _
cientiic_ knwedge, nd
thu
give
ri
e t th
e gre t grup

y
tem tized truth
c ed the
_
cience
_:
, r ex mpe, the phy
ic  nd m them tic 
cience
, the
eement
 which u
u y rm p rt  ur e ry educ tin. The
e
cience

te ch u

gre t de  but ur
eve
nd the univer
e in which we ive.
There i
n need t dwe n the preciu

ervice
cnerred upn m nkind
by di
cverie
due t the prgre

 the v riu
_
peci _
cience
:
m them tic

ppied t engineering  
rt
;
trnmy; the
phy
ic 
cience
 ight, he t,
und, eectricity, m gneti
m, etc.;
chemi
try in  it
br nche
; phy
igy nd n tmy
ppied in
medicine nd
urgery. A the
e undubtedy cntribute much t m n

_bdiy_ we-being. But m n h

_mind_
we

bdy, nd he i

mrever _
ci _ being: there re, therere, ther
peci 

cience
hum n
di
tinct rm phy
ic 
cience
in which m n him
e
i

tudied in hi
ment  ctivitie
nd
ci  re tin
with hi

ew-men: the
cience

ci  nd pitic  ecnmy, cn
titutin 
nd civi  w, gvernment,
t te
m n
hip, etc. Furthermre, m n i

_mr _ being, recgnizing di
tinctin
 gd nd b d, right nd wrng,
pe
ure nd h ppine

, duty nd re
pn
ibiity, in hi
wn cnduct; nd
_reigiu
_ being,  ce t  ce with the  ct th t men
in y he i

univer
y entert in view
, beie
, cnvictin

me
rt r ther,
reg rding m n

ubjectin t, nd dependence n,
me higher pwer r
pwer
dweing
mehw r
mewhere within r bve the whe univer
e 
hi
direct nd immedi te experience: there re therere 

cience

which de  with the
e dm in
, mr ity nd reigin. Here, hwever, the
dm in
re
 exten
ive, nd the prbem
r i
ed by their phenmen re

uch  r-re ching imprt nce, th t the
cience
which de  with them
c n h rdy be c ed
peci 
cience
, but r ther cn
tituent prtin

the ne wider nd deeper _gener _
cience which i
wh t men cmmny
under
t nd nw d y
by phi
phy.
The di
tinctin between the
peci 
cience
n the ne h nd nd
phi
phy, the gener 
cience, n the ther, wi hep u
t re ize
mre ce ry the n ture nd
cpe  the  tter. The
peci 
cience
re
cncerned with di
cvering the _prxim te_ re
n
nd c u
e
 thi
,
th t, nd the ther deinite dep rtment in the whe univer
e  ur
experience. The
ubject-m tter 
me  them i
tt y dierent rm
th t  ther
: phy
igy
tudie
the unctin
 iving rg ni
m
;
gegy
tudie
the rm tin  the e rth
cru
t. Or i tw r mre 
them inve
tig te the
me
ubject-m tter they d
 rm dierent

t ndpint
,
when the zgi
t nd the phy
igi
t
tudy the
me
type r
pecimen in the nim  kingdm. But the cmmn e ture   i

thi
, th t e ch
eek
ny the re
n
, c u
e
, nd  w
which give
_prxim te_ nd _p rti _ exp n tin  the  ct
which it inve
tig te
,
e ving untuched nd un
ved number  deeper nd wider que
tin

which m y be r i
ed but the _whence_ nd _whither_ nd _why_, nt ny
 the  ct
them
eve
, but  the re
n
, c u
e
nd  w


igned by
the p rticu r
cience in exp n tin  the
e  ct
.
Nw it i
th
e deeper nd wider que
tin
, which c n be n
wered ny by
the di
cvery  the _mre remte_ nd _utim te_ re
n
nd c u
e

thing
, th t phi
phy undert ke
t inve
tig te, nd
 r
ie

within m n
pwert n
wer. N ne h
ever di
puted the
upreme
imprt nce 
uch inquirie
int the utim te re
n
nd c u
e

thing
int
uch que
tin

the
e, r in
t nce: Wh t i
the n ture 
m n him
e? H
he in him principe  ie which i

piritu  nd
immrt ? Wh t w
hi
ir
t rigin n the e rth? Whence did he cme? H

hi
exi
tence ny purp
e, nd i
, wh t? Whither de
he tend? Wh t i

hi
de
tiny? Why de
he di
tingui
h between right nd wrng in hum n

cnduct? Wh t i
the utim te re
n r grund  thi
di
tinctin? Why
h ve men gener y
me rm r ther  reigin? Why d men gener y
beieve in Gd? I
there re y Gd? Wh t i
the rigin  the whe
univer
e  m n
experience? O ie in  it
m nie
t tin
? H
the
univer
e ny inteigibe r inteigent purp
e, nd i
, wh t? C n the
hum n mind give cert in n
wer t ny  the
e r
imi r que
tin
?
Wh t but the n ture nd v ue  hum n _knwedge_ it
e? Wh t i
it


cpe nd wh t re it
imit tin
? And
ince v
t mutitude
 men
_beieve_ th t the hum n r ce h
been
peci y enightened by Gd
Him
e, by Divine Reve tin, t knw r cert in wh t m n
de
tiny i
,
nd i

peci y ided by Gd Him
e, by Divine Gr ce, t wrk ut thi

de
tinythe que
tin immedi tey ri
e
: Wh t re the re  re tin

between re
n ne n the ne h nd nd re
n enightened by
uch
Reve tin n the ther, in ther wrd
between n tur  knwedge nd

upern tur   ith?
Nw it wi be dmitted th t the
peci 
cience
t ke u

me di
t nce
ng the r d tw rd
n n
wer t
uch que
tin
, in
much
the truth

e
t bi
hed by the
e
cience
, nd even the wider hypthe
e
cnceived
thugh nt
tricty veriied in them, urni
h u
with m
t v u be d t
in ur inve
tig tin  th
e que
tin
. Simi ry the eged  ct 
Divine Reve tin c nnt be ignred by ny m n de
iru
 u
ing  the
d t v i be
hep
tw rd
their
utin. The Reve tin embdied in
Chri
ti nity c im
nt merey t enighten u
in reg rd t m ny utim te
que
tin
which m nkind wud be be t n
wer withut it


i
t nce,
but 
 t te u
but ur de
tiny
me truth

upreme imprt, which
 ur
eve
we
hud never h ve been be t di
cver. It i
bviu
,
then, th t whether m n h
been brught up rm hi
in ncy t beieve
in the Chri
ti n Reve tin r nt, hi
whe utk n ie wi be
determined very  rgey by hi
beie r di
beie in it
uthenticity nd
it
cntent
. Simi ry, i he be Cnuci n, r Buddhi
t, r
Mh mmed n, hi
utk wi be in p rt determined by wh t he beieve

their te ching
. M n
cnduct in ie h
undubtedy m ny determining
inuence
, but it wi h rdy be denied th t mng them the predmin nt
inuence i
exerted by the view
th t he hd
, the thing
he beieve
t
be true, cncerning hi
wn rigin, n ture nd de
tiny,
we
the
rigin, n ture nd de
tiny  the univer
e in which he ind
him
e. The
Germ n
h ve n expre

ive term r th t which, in the b
ence 
mre
pprpri te term, we m y tr n
 te

m n
_wrd-utk_; they c 
it hi
_Wet n
ch uung_. Nw thi
wrd-utk i
rmed by e ch
individu  r him
e rm hi
interpret tin  _hi
experience

whe_. It i
nt unu
u  t c  thi
wrd-utk
m n
_phi
phy
 ie_. I we u
e the term _phi
phy_ in thi
wide
en
e it bviu
y
incude
wh tever ight
m n m y g ther rm the _
peci 
cience
_, nd
wh tever ight he m y g ther rm diviney reve ed _reigin_ i he
beieve
in
uch,
we
the ight hi
wn re
n m y
hed upn

peci  nd direct
tudy  th
e utim te que
tin
them
eve
, t which
we h ve ju
t reerred. But we mentin thi
wide
en
e  the term
_phi
phy_ merey t put it
ide; nd t
t te th t we u
e the term in
the
en
e mre cmmny ccepted nw d y
, the
en
e in which it i

under
td t be di
tinct rm the _
peci 
cience
_ n the ne
ide nd
rm _
upern tur  thegy_ r the
y
tem tic
tudy  diviney reve ed
reigin n the ther. Phi
phy i
di
tinct rm the
peci 
cience

bec u
e whie the  tter
eek the prxim te, the rmer
eek
the utim te
grund
, re
n
nd c u
e
  the  ct
 hum n experience.
Phi
phy i
di
tinct rm
upern tur  thegy bec u
e whie the rmer
u
e
_the un ided pwer  hum n re
n_ t
tudy the utim te que
tin

r i
ed by hum n experience, the  tter u
e
_re
n enightened by Divine
Reve tin_ t
tudy the cntent
 thi
Reve tin in  their be ring

n m n
ie nd de
tiny.
Hence we rrive t thi

impe nd widey ccepted deinitin 
phi
phy: _the
cience   thing
thrugh their utim te re
n
nd
c u
e

di
cvered by the un ided ight  hum n re
n_.(5) The ir
t
p rt  thi
deinitin m rk
 phi
phy rm the
peci 
cience
,
the
ecnd p rt m rk
it  rm
upern tur  thegy.
We mu
t remember, hwever, th t the
e three dep rtment

knwedge
cientiic, phi
phic , nd reve ed re nt i
 ted
rm ne nther in ny m n
mind; they ver p in their

ubject-m tter, nd thugh diering in their re
pective

t ndpint
they perme te ne nther thrugh nd thrugh. The

ep r tin  the
peci 
cience
rm phi
phy, thugh
dumbr ted in the
pecu tin
 ncient time
nd m de mre
deinite in the midde ge
, w
cmpeted ny in mdern time

thrugh the grwth nd prgre

 the
peci 
cience

them
eve
. The ine  dem rc tin between phi
phy nd

upern tur  thegy mu
t be determined by the prper re tin

between Re
n nd F ith: nd n tur y the
e re tin
re

ubject  deb te between phi
pher
wh beieve in the
exi
tence  n uthentic Divine Reve tin nd phi
pher
wh
d nt. It i
the duty  the phi
pher

uch t determine by
the ight  re
n whether Supreme Being exi
t
nd whether
Divine Reve tin t m n i
p

ibe. I he cnvince
him
e 
the exi
tence  Gd he wi h ve itte diicuty in inerring
the _p

ibiity_ 
Divine Reve tin. The _ ct_ 
Divine
Reve tin i

m tter nt r phi
phic  but r hi
tric 
re
e rch. Nw when m n h
cnvinced him
e  the exi
tence 
Gd nd the  ct 
Divine Reve tinthe _pre mbu idei_ r
prerequi
ite cnditin
 F ith,
they re c edhe mu
t
ee
th t it i
eminenty re
n be r him t beieve in the cntent


uch Divine Reve tin; he mu
t
ee th t the truth
reve ed by
Gd c nnt p

iby tr mme the reedm  hi
wn re
n in it

phi
phic  inquirie
int utim te prbem
cncerning m n nd
the univer
e; he mu
t
ee th t the
e truth
m y p

iby ct

be cn
which wi keep him rm ging
tr y in hi
wn
inve
tig tin
: knwing th t truth c nnt cntr dict truth he
knw
th t i he re che

cncu
in re y incmp tibe with ny
cert iny reve ed truth,
uch cncu
in mu
t be errneu
; nd

 he i
biged t recn
ider the re
ning prce

e
th t ed
him t
uch cncu
in.(6) Thu
, the p
itin  the Chri
ti n
phi
pher, ided in thi
neg tive w y by the truth
 n
uthentic Divine Reve tin, h

di
tinct dv nt ge ver th t 
the phi
pher wh de
nt beieve in
uch reve tin nd wh
trie
t
ve  utim te que
tin
independenty  ny ight

uch reve tin m y
hed upn them. Yet the  tter phi
pher

rue nt ny reg rd
the independent p
itin, which he
him
e t ke
up in the n me  reedm  thught nd reedm
 re
e rch,
the
uperir p
itin, but
the ny ne
cn
i
tent with the dignity  hum n re
n; nd he cmmny
ccu
e
the Chri
ti n phi
pher  wing re
n t be
en
 ved in the
h cke
 dgm . We c n
ee t nce the
un irne


uch ch rge when we remember th t the Chri
ti n
phi
pher h
cnvinced him
e _n grund
 re
n ne_
th t Gd exi
t
nd h
m de reve tin t m n. Hi
beie in
Divine Reve tin i

_re
ned_ beie, _r tin bie
b
equium_ (Rm. XII. 1); nd ny i it were bind beie,
unju
tii be n grund
 re
n, wud the ccu
tin reerred

t be  ir ne. The Chri
ti n phi
pher might retrt th t it

i
the unbeieving phi
pher him
e wh re y de
try

reedm  thught nd re
e rch, by c iming r the  tter wh t
i
re y n bu
e  reedm, n mey _icen
e_ t beieve wh t
re
n
hw
t be errneu
. But thi
cunter-ch rge wud be
equ y un ir, r the unbeieving phi
pher de
nt c im ny

uch undue icen
e t beieve wh t he knw
t be  
e r t
di
beieve wh t he knw
t be true. I he denie
the  ct r the
p

ibiity 
Divine Reve tin, nd therere pur
ue
hi

phi
phic  inve
tig tin
withut ny reg rd t the cntent


uch reve tin, it i
bec u
e he h
cnvinced him
e n grund

 re
n th t
uch reve tin i
neither  ct nr
p

ibiity. He nd the Chri
ti n phi
pher c nnt bth be
right; ne  them mu
t be wrng; but
re
n be men they

hud gree t dier r ther th n hur unju
tii be ch rge
nd
cunter-ch rge
t e ch ther.
A phi
pher
wh beieve in the Chri
ti n Reve tin nd w
it
uthentic te ching
t guide nd
uppement their wn r tin 
inve
tig tin int utim te que
tin
, re keeny cn
ciu
 the
cn
equent
uperir depth nd une

nd certitude  Chri
ti n
phi
phy
cmp red with  the ther cnicting nd
r gment ry phi
phie
th t m rk the prgre

 hum n

pecu tin n the utim te prbem
 m n nd the univer
e dwn
thrugh the centurie
. They ee
ecure in the p

e

in 
_phi
phi __ perenni
_,(7) nd nne mre
ecure th n th
e 
them wh cmpete nd cnirm th t phi
phy by the ny u nd
uthentic dep
it  Diviney Reve ed Truth, which i
t be und
in the te ching  the C thic Church.
The hi
try  phi
phic  inve
tig tin yied
n ne univer
y
received cnceptin  wh t phi
phy i
, nr wud the deinitin given
bve be unre
ervedy ccepted. Windeb nd, in hi
_Hi
try 
Phi
phy_(8) in
t nce
the wing predmin nt cnceptin

phi
phy ccrding t the chrngic  rder in which they prev ied:
(_ _) the
y
tem tic inve
tig tin  the prbem
r i
ed by m n nd the
univer
e (e ry Greci n phi
phy: b
ence  dierenti tin 
phi
phy rm the
peci 
cience
); (_b_) the pr ctic  rt  hum n
cnduct, b
ed n r tin 
pecu tin ( ter Greci n phi
phy: di
tru
t
in the v ue  knwedge, nd emph
i
n pr ctic  guid nce  cnduct);
(_c_) the heper nd h ndm id  the Science  Reve ed Truth, _i.e._

upern tur  thegy, in the
utin  utim te prbem
(the Chri
ti n
phi
phy  the F ther
 the Church nd  the Mediev  Sch
dwn
t the
ixteenth century: univer
 recgnitin  the v ue  the
Chri
ti n Reve tin
n id t r tin  inve
tig tin); (_d_) purey
r tin  inve
tig tin  th
e prbem
, ging beynd the inve
tig tin

 the
peci 
cience
, nd either b
tr cting rm, r denying the v ue
, ny ight r id rm Reve tin (dierenti tin  the dm in


cience, phi
phy nd thegy; mdern phi
phie
rm the
ixteenth
t the nineteenth century; exce

ive individu i
m nd r tin i
m 
the
e
unn tur y divrced rm recgnitin , nd beie in, Divine
Reve tin, nd unduy i
 ted rm the prgre

ing p
itive
cience
);
(_e_) critic  n y
i
 the
igniic nce nd
cpe nd imit tin

hum n knwedge it
e (recent phi
phie
, m iny cncerned with
therie
 knwedge nd
pecu tin
n the n ture  the cgnitive
prce

nd the rei biity  it
prduct
).
The
e v riu
cnceptin
re intere
ting nd
ugge
tive; much might be

id but them, but nt t ny u
eu purp
e in brie intrductry

ch pter. Let u
r ther, dpting the deinitin re dy
et rth, try
next t m p ut int it
e ding dep rtment
the whe phi
phic 
dm in.
III. DIISIONS OF PHILOSOPHY: SPECULATIE AND PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY.The
gener  prbem  c

iying  the
cience
buit up by hum n thught
i

gic  prbem  n itte cmpexity when ne trie
t wrk it ut
in det i. We reer t thi
gener  prbem ny t mentin widey
ccepted principe n which it i
u
u y ppr ched, nd bec u
e the
divi
in  phi
phy it
e i

ectin  the gener  prbem. The
principe in que
tin i
th t
cience
m y be di
tingui
hed indeed by
p rti  r tt  _diver
ity 
ubject-m tter_, but th t
uch diver
ity i

nt e

enti , th t _diver
ity 
t ndpint_ i
nece

ry nd
uicient
t cn
titute di
tinct
cience
even when the
e de  with ne nd the
me

ubject-m tter. Nw ppying thi
principe t phi
phy we
ee ir
ty
th t it h
the
me
ubject-m tter
 the
peci 
cience
t ken
cectivey, but th t it i
di
tinct rm   them in
much
it

tudie
their d t nt rm the
t ndpint  the prxim te c u
e
, but
rm the higher
t ndpint  the utim te c u
e
 the
e d t . And we

ee
ecndy th t phi
phy, h ving thi
ne higher
t ndpint thrughut
 it
dep rtment
, i
_ne_
cience; th t it
divi
in
re ny
m teri  divi
in
; th t there i
nt
pur ity  phi
phie

there
i

pur ity 
cience
, thugh there i

pur ity  dep rtment
in
phi
phy.(9) Let u
nw
ee wh t the
e dep rtment
re.
I we
k why pepe
eek knwedge t , in ny dep rtment, we
h 
detect tw m in impeing mtive
. The ir
t  the
e i

impy the de
ire
t knw: _tr himur mne
cupidit te
ciendi_. The n tur  eeing 
wnder,
tni
hment, _ dmir ti_, which ccmp nie
ur perceptin 
thing
nd event
, prmpt
u
t
eek their c u
e
, t di
cver the
re
n
which wi m ke them _inteigibe_ t u
nd en be u
t
_under
t nd_ them. But whie the p

e

in  knwedge r it
wn
ke
i
thu

mtive  re
e rch it i
nt the ny mtive. We
eek knwedge
_in rder t u
e it_ r the guid nce  ur cnduct in ie, r the
rient tin  ur ctivitie
, r the imprvement  ur cnditin;
knwing th t knwedge i
pwer, we
eek it in rder t m ke it mini
ter
t ur need
. Nw in the degree in which it ui

uch uterir
purp
e
, r i

ught r the
e purp
e
, knwedge m y be de
cribed

_pr ctic _; in the degree in which it
erve
n uterir end, r i


ught r n uterir end, ther th n th t  perecting ur mind
, it
m y be de
cribed
_
pecu tive_. O cur
e thi
 tter purp
e i
in
it
e
highy pr ctic  purp
e; nr indeed i
there ny knwedge,
hwever
pecu tive, but h
, r t e
t i
c p be  h ving,
me
inuence r be ring n the ctu  tenr nd cnduct  ur ive
; nd in
thi

en
e  knwedge i
pr ctic . Sti we c n di
tingui
h br dy
between knwedge which h
n direct, immedi te be ring n ur ct
, nd
knwedge th t h
.(10) Hence the p

ibiity  di
tingui
hing between
tw gre t dm in
 phi
phic  knwedge_Theretic _ r _Specu tive
Phi
phy_, nd _Pr ctic  Phi
phy_. There re, in  ct, tw gre t
dm in
int which the d t   hum n experience m y be divided; nd
r e ch di
tinct dm in
ubmitted t phi
phic  inve
tig tin there
wi be di
tinct dep rtment  phi
phy. A ir
t dm in i
the rder
_re ized_ in the univer
e independenty  m n;
ecnd i
the rder
which m n him
e _re ize
_: _thing
_, therere, nd _ ct
_. The rder
 the extern  univer
e, the rder  n ture
it i
c ed, exi
t

independenty  u
: we merey
tudy it (_
pecu ri_, ),  do not
cat it. Th oth o _pactical_ od is stablishd by ou acts of
_intllignc_ and _ill_, and by ou _bodily action_ on xtnal things
und th diction of thos facultis in th ats. Hnc  hav a
_spculativ_ o _thotical_ philosophy and a _pactical_

philosophy.(11)
IV. DEPARTMENTS OF PRACTICAL PHILOSOPHY: LOGIC, ETHICS AND ESTHETICS.In
th domain of human activitis, to th ight gulation of hich pactical
philosophy is dictd,  may distinguish to dpatmnts of mntal
activity, namly _intllctual_ and _volitional_, and bsids ths th
hol dpatmnt of _xtnal_, xcutiv o bodily activity. In gnal
th ight gulation of acts may b said to consist in dicting thm to
th alization of som idal; fo all cognitiv acts this idal is th
_tu_, fo all apptitiv o volitional acts it is th _good_, hil fo
all xtnal opations it may b ith th _bautiful_ o th
_usful_th spctiv objcts of th fin ats and th mchanical ats
o cafts.
_Logic_, as a pactical scinc, studis th mntal acts and pocsss
involvd in discoving and poving tuths and systmatizing ths into
scincs, ith a vi to dicting ths acts and pocsss aight in th
accomplishmnt of this complx task. Hnc it has fo its subjct-matt,
in a ctain sns, _all_ th data of human xpinc, o hatv can b
an objct of human thought. But it studis ths data not dictly o in
thmslvs o fo thi on sak, but only in so fa as ou acts of
ason, hich fom its dict objct, a bought to ba upon thm. In
all th oth scincs  mploy thought to study th vaious objcts of
thought as things, vnts, alitis; and hnc ths may b calld al
scincs, _scintia als_; hil in Logic  study thought itslf, and
vn h not spculativly fo its on sak o as a ality (as  study
it fo instanc in Psychology), but pactically, as a pocss capabl of
bing dictd toads th discovy and poof of tuth; and hnc in
contadistinction to th oth scincs as al,  call Logic _th_
ational scinc, _scintia ationalis_. Scholastic philosophs xpss
this distinction by saying that hil Spculativ Philosophy studis
_al_ bing (_Ens Ral_), o th objcts of dict thought (_objcta
pima intntionis mntis_), Logic studis th bing hich is th _poduct
of thought_ (_Ens Rationis_), o objcts of flx thought (_objcta
scunda intntionis mntis_).(12) Th mntal pocsss involvd in th
attainmnt of scintific tuth a concption, judgmnt and infnc;
moov ths pocsss hav to b xcisd mthodically by th combind
application of analysis and synthsis, o induction and dduction, to th
vaious domains of human xpinc. All ths pocsss, thfo, and
th mthods of thi application, constitut th pop subjct-matt of
Logic. It has bn mo o lss a matt of dbat sinc th days of
Aistotl hth Logic should b gadd as a dpatmnt of
philosophical scinc pop, o ath as a ppaatoy disciplin, an
instumnt o _oganon_ of asoningas th collction of Aistotls on
logical tatiss as calld,and so as a vstibul o intoduction to
philosophy. And th is a simila diffnc of opinion as to hth o
not it is advisabl to st don Logic as th fist dpatmnt to b
studid in th philosophical cuiculum. Such doubts ais fom
diffncs of vi as to th ustions to b invstigatd in Logic, and
th point to hich such invstigations should b caid thin. It is
possibl to distinguish btn a mo lmntay tatmnt of
thought-pocsss ith th avodly pactical aim of stting foth canons
of infnc and mthod hich ould hlp and tain th mind to ason and
invstigat coctly; and a mo philosophical tatmnt of thos
pocsss ith th spculativ aim of dtmining thi ultimat
significanc and validity as factos of knoldg, as attaining to tuth,
as poductiv of scinc and ctitud. It is only th fom fild of
invstigation that is usually accodd to Logic noadays; and thus
undstood Logic ought to com fist in th cuiculum as a ppaatoy
taining fo philosophical studis, accompanid, hov, by ctain

lmntay tuths fom Psychology gading th natu and functions of

th human mind. Th oth domain of dp and mo spculativ
invstigation as fomly xplod in hat as gadd as a scond
potion of logical scinc, und th titl of Citical Logic_Logica
Citica_. In modn tims this is gadd as a distinct dpatmnt of
Spculativ Philosophy, und th vaious titls of _Epistmology_,
_Citiology_, o th _Thoy of Knoldg_.
_Ethics o Moal Philosophy_ (, _m
_, _mre
_, mr 
, cnduct) i

th t dep rtment  pr ctic  phi
phy which h
r it

ubject-m tter
 hum n ct
, _i.e._  ct
eicited r cmm nded by the wi  m n
cn
idered

ree, r tin  nd re
pn
ibe gent. And it
tudie
hum n
cnduct with the pr ctic  purp
e  di
cvering the utim te end r
bject  thi
cnduct, nd the principe
whereby it mu
t be regu ted in
rder t tt in t thi
end. Ethic
mu
t therere n y
e nd ccunt r
the di
tinctin  _right_ nd _wrng_ r _gd_ nd _b d_ in hum n
cnduct, r it
e ture  _mr ity_. It mu
t ex mine the mtive
th t
inuence cnduct: pe
ure, we-being, h ppine

, duty, big tin,
mr   w, etc. The
upreme determining  ctr in 
uch cn
ider tin

wi bviu
y be _the utim te end  m n_, wh tever thi
m y be: hi

de
tiny
reve ed by
tudy  hi
n ture nd p ce in the univer
e.
Nw the n ture  m n i

tudied in P
ychgy,
re 
 the n ture,
cnditin
nd eect
 hi
ree ct
, nd the  ciitie
, di
p
itin

nd rm
 ch r cter cn
equent n the
e. Furthermre, nt ny rm the

tudy  m n in P
ychgy, but rm the
tudy  the extern  univer
e in
C
mgy, we m

d t rm which in N tur  Thegy we e
t bi
h the
exi
tence 
Supreme Being. We then prve in Ethic
th t the 
t end 
m n, hi
highe
t perectin, cn
i
t
in knwing, ving,
erving, nd
thu
griying Gd, bth in thi
ie nd in the next. Hence we c n
ee
hw the
e br nche

pecu tive phi
phy
ub
erve the pr ctic 

cience  mr 
. And
ince m n
interpret tin  the mr 
di
tinctin

 right r wrng, meritriu
r b mewrthy, utnmu

r  big tinwhich he recgnize

pert ining t hi
wn
ctin

ince hi
interpret tin  the
e di
tinctin
i

 intim tey
bund up with hi
reigiu
utk nd beie
, it i
t nce pp rent
th t the
cience  Ethic
wi be  rgey inuenced nd determined by
the
y
tem 
pecu tive phi
phy which in
pire
it, whether thi
be
Thei
m, Mni
m, Agn
tici
m, etc. N dubt the
cience  Ethic
mu
t t ke

it
d t

rt
 mr  beie
, cu
tm
nd pr ctice
prev ent t
ny time mng men; but it i
nt
pecu tive
cience which wud merey
im t _ p
teriri_ inerence
r inductive gener iz tin
rm the
e
d t ; it i

pr ctic , _nrm tive_
cience which im
t di
cvering the
truth
t wh t i
the right nd the wrng in hum n cnduct, nd t
pinting ut the right ppic tin  the principe
ri
ing ut  thi

truth. Hence it i

upreme imprt nce r the phi
pher  mr 
t
determine whether the hum n r ce h
re y been vuch
ed
Divine
Reve tin, nd, cnvincing him
e th t Chri
ti nity cnt in

uch
reve tin, t recgnize the p

ibiity 
uppementing nd perecting
wh t hi
wn n tur  re
n c n di
cver by wh t the Chri
ti n reigin
te che
but the end  m n
the
upreme determining principe  hum n
cnduct. Nt th t he i
t t ke the reve ed truth
 Chri
ti nity

principe
 mr  _phi
phy_; r the
e re the principe
 the
_
upern tur  __ Chri
ti n Thegy_  hum n mr 
; but th t

Chri
ti n phi
pher, _i.e._
phi
pher wh recgnize
the truth 
the Chri
ti n Reve tin, he
hud re
n ut phi
phic y
cience
 Ethic
which,
  r
it ge
, wi be in h rmny with the mr 
te ching
 the Chri
ti n Reigin, nd wi dmit  being perected by
the
e. Thi
recgnitin,
re dy rem rked, wi nt be
hindr nce but
hep t him in expring the wide dm in
 the individu , dme
tic,

ci  nd reigiu
cnduct  m n; in determining, n the b
i


thei
m e
t bi
hed by n tur  re
n, the right mr  cnditin
nd

re tin
 m n
cnduct
n individu ,

member  the  miy,

member  the
t te, nd

cre ture  Gd. The n ture,
urce nd

nctin  uthrity, dme
tic,
ci  nd reigiu
;  the dict te 
cn
cience;  the n tur  mr   w nd   p
itive  w;  the mr 
virtue
nd vice
the
e re  que
tin
which the phi
pher  Ethic

h
t expre by the u
e  n tur  re
n, nd r the inve
tig tin 
which the Chri
ti n phi
pher  Ethic
i
incmp r by better equipped
th n the phi
pher wh, thugh p

e

ing the cmp

 n tur  re
n,
ignre
the be cn ight
 Diviney Reve ed Truth
.
_E
thetic
_, r the _Phi
phy  the Fine Art
_, i
th t dep rtment 
phi
phy which
tudie
the cnceptin  the _be utiu_ nd it

extern  expre

in in the wrk
 n ture nd  m n. The rt

them
eve
,  cur
e, whether cncerned with the re iz tin  the
u
eu r  the be utiu, re di
tinct rm
cience
, even rm
pr ctic 
cience
.(13) The _technique_ it
e cn
i
t
in
ki
cquired by pr cticeby pr ctice guided, hwever, by
et  pr ctic 
c nn
r rue
which re the ripe ruit  experience.(14) But behind
every rt there i
w y

me b ckgrund  mre r e


pecu tive
truth. The cnceptin  the _u
eu_, hwever which underie
the
mech nic  rt
nd cr t
, i
nt n utim te cnceptin c ing r ny
urther n y
i
th n it receive
in the v riu

peci 
cience
nd in
met phy
ic
. But the cnceptin  the _be utiu_ de

eem t dem nd

peci  phi
phic  cn
ider tin. On the
ubjective r ment 
ide the
e
thetic
en
e, rti
tic t
te, the
entiment  the be utiu, the
cmpex emtin
ccmp nying
uch experience; n the bjective
ide the
eement
r  ctr
requi
ite t prduce thi
experience; the re tin 
the e
thetic t the mr ,  the be utiu t the gd nd the truethe
e
re  di
tincty phi
phic  que
tin
. Up t the pre
ent time,
hwever, their tre tment h
been divided between the ther dep rtment

phi
phyp
ychgy, c
mgy, n tur  thegy, gener  met phy
ic
,
ethic
r ther th n gruped tgether t rm n dditin  di
tinct
dep rtment.

. DEPARTMENTS OF SPECULATIE PHILOSOPHY: METAPHYSICS.The

which
tudie
the rder re ized in thing
p rt rm ur

pecu tive phi
phy, h
been v riu
y divided up int
dep rtment
rm the ir
t rigin
 phi
phic 
pecu

phi
phy
ctivity,

ep r te
tin.

When we remember th t  inteectu  knwedge  thing
invve
the

pprehen
in  _gener _ truth
r  w
but the
e thing
, nd th t thi

pprehen
in  inteigibe
pect
cmmn t
mre r e

exten
ive
grup  thing
invve
the exerci
e  _ b
tr ctin_, we c n under
t nd
hw the whe dm in 
pecu tive knwedge, whether
cientiic r
phi
phic , c n be dierenti ted int cert in  yer
r eve
,
 t

pe k, ccrding t v riu
degree
 b
tr ctne

nd univer
ity in
the inteigibe
pect
under which the d t  ur experience m y be
cn
idered. On thi
principe Ari
tte nd the
ch
tic
divided 

pecu tive knwedge int three gre t dm in
, _Phy
ic
_, _M them tic
_
nd _Met phy
ic
_, with their re
pective prper bject
, _Ch nge_,
_Qu ntity_ nd _Being_, bject
which re
ucce

ivey pprehended in
three gre t
t ge
 b
tr ctin tr ver
ed by the hum n mind in it

ert t under
t nd nd exp in the Univer
 Order  thing
.
And

m tter   ct perh p
the ir
t gre t cmmn nd m
t bviu

e ture which
trike
the mind reecting n the vi
ibe univer
e i
the
e ture  -perv ding ch nge (), moveme
t, evoluto
, progre


a
d regre

, growt a
d decay; we
ee t everywere 
a varety of form
,
meca
cal or local ca
ge, qua
ttatve ca
ge, qualtatve ca
ge, vtal

ca
ge. Now te
owledge acqured by te
tudy of t
g
u
der t

commo
a
pect 
called _Py
c
_. Here te m
d ab
tract
merely from te

dvdualz
g dffere
ce
of t
ca
ge 

dvdual t
g
, a
d fxe

t
atte
to
o
te great, commo
,
e

ble a
pect t
elf of v
ble
ca
ge.
But te m
d ca
ab
tract eve
from te
e

ble ca
ge
tat ta e place

te py
cal u
ver
e a
d fx t
atte
to
o
a _
tatc_ feature 

te ca
g
g t
g
. T

tatc eleme
t ( ), wic e
i
ellec appree
ds i
_maerial_ i
gs as
aurally i
separable frm
em ( ), 
he _qua
y_, he exe

o


pae. Whe
he m
d
p
a maeal obje of all 
v
ble,
e

ble
popee
o
hh 
meha
al, phy
al a
d hemal ha
ge

depe
dhee
ll ema

a
a
obje of hough a
omeh
g fomed of
pa
ou
de pa

hee dme

o

of
pae. Th
_ab
a_
qua
y, _qua
a

ellgbl
_hehe a
o

uou
o
d
o

uou
, a
_mag
ude_ o _mulude_
he pope obje of
_Mahema
_.
Bu he m
d a
pe
eae fahe
ll 
o he ealy of he maeal
daa hh  f
d
e
doed h he abue
of ha
ge a
d qua
y: 
a
elm
ae fom he obje of 
hough eve
h
lae o
mahemaal abue, a
d
eze o

omeh
g
ll moe fu
dame
al. The
vey e

e
e,
ub
a
e,
aue, be
g 
elf, of he h
g, he
u
dely
g
ubje a
d oo p
ple of all he h
g
opeao

a
d
abue
, 

omeh
g deepe ha
a
y of he
e abue
,
omeh
g a
lea
 me
ally d

 fom he
e lae ( ): a
d
h

omeh
g 
he pope obje of ma

hghe

peulave
k
oledge, hh A
ole alled , _phi
phi prim _,
the _ir
t_ r _und ment _ r _deepe
t_ phi
phy.(15)
But he g ve thi
 tter rder  knwedge nther very
igniic nt tite:
he c ed it _thegy_ r _thegic 
cience_, , by a
dnmnan dvd _a  a_, m 
nb a, 

cumnan n  nwd  Gd. L u

 w. F A
 _


y_ 

cnc  _bn and 


na abu
_.(16)
H  mnd and

bjc a
_
ac_  ab
acd m can,
and a
_mmaa_  ab
acd m uany,  undamna abu
 maa aya
. No  
he
ub
a
e,

aue, o e

e
e of _he h
g
of ou de a
d mmedae expee
e_,
ha fom
he pope obje of h
hghe

e
e. Bu 
he
e h
g

he
ub
a
e,
aue, o e

e
e, 

o fou
d 
_eal a
d aual_

epaao
fom he maeal abue
of ha
ge a
d qua
y;  

_o

deed_
epaaely fom he
e o
ly by a
effo of me
al
ab
ao
. Eve
he
aue of ma
hm
elf 

o holly mmaeal;
o

he
pual p
ple 
ma
, h

oul, e
ely exemp fom maeal
o
do

. He
e 

o fa a
f
 phlo
ophy
ude
he be
g of he
h
g
of ou de expee
e, 
obje 
mmaeal o
ly
_
egavely_ o _by me
al ab
ao
_. Bu doe
h

udy b
g h

he
ope of ou expee

e a
y be
g o ealy ha 
_po
vely a
d
aually_ exemp fom all ha
ge a
d all maeal o
do

? If
o he

udy of h
be
g, he Dv
e Be
g, ll be he hghe
 effo, he
o

g pefeo
, of _f
 phlo
ophy_; hh e may heefoe all
he _heologal_
e
e. If, e
A
ole,(17) hee eally
ex

a
ub
a
e ab
oluely mmuable a
d mmaeal, 
a od, a
Dv
e Be
ga
e hope o povehe

uh Be
g mu
 be he ab
oluely
f
 a
d
upeme p
ple, a
d he
e
e ha aa

o
uh Be
g
ll be heologal.
I
h
ple dv
o
of
peulave phlo
ophy 
o Phy

,

Mahema
, a
d Meaphy

,  ll
aually ou o o
e o a
k: Dd
A
ole d

gu
h beee
ha he alled Phy

a
d ha e
oaday

all he
peal phy
al
e
e
? He dd. The
e
peal _a
aly_

ude
of he vaou
depame

of he phy
al u
ve
e, a
mae a
d

a
mae, A
ole de
bed 
d
m
aely a
paal
e
e
:
. T
 d
cv,
nducv, cmaav
ud
, cdn _a 
_ m c

cau

,  cncvd a a
a aan 
cnc nwd
; 
a  cncvd  b a _
ync_, dducv
xanan  n
, n   
m cmmn a
c dcd n m
a
nc  cau
  a  cnc caac
c
.(18) Suc

ync nwd  n
, n   
m
uc cmmn a
c a

can, 
wa  add a

cnc nwd, mann by wa
w man by 
ca nwd.(19) Wa  cad _Py
c
_,
, 
wa w nwaday
und
and a
_C
my_ and
_P
ycy_.(20)
Mamaca
cnc A
  w
 add a

cnc n  u
and c
n
, _.._ a

ca. Bu ju
 a
w d
nu

nwaday
bwn 
ca y
ca and uman
cnc
n  n and,
and  
y  xna nau and man n  ,
 w may
d
nu
 bwn 
ca mamaca
cnc
and a P
y 
Mamac
: w 
dnc, a w  m u

ca

cnc
a many nducv  mamaca u 
many dducv.
Fum,  P
y  Mamac
wc nv
a
u
n

adn  uma
ncanc  mamaca cnc
, axm
and
a

umn
: uny, muud, manud, uany,
ac, m, c.d

n u
uay m a
aa damn n  
ca cucuum:

bm
a da w a
y a
 n   damn

May
c
.
B unn  mdn dv
n
 May
c
w may n a 

a m wa
n u
d by A
. W w  baby  Andncu

Rd
( 40 B.C.), w, wn aann a cm dn  A


w
, acd nx n d a  _Py
c
_,  y
ca a

,
a  a
and amn
  ma

w
ban un 
mmuab and mmaa bjc   _
a ma_; 
 
abd () , _po
t phy
c _, the oo
_ fter the
phy
c
_: hence the n me _met phy
c
_,(21) pped to th
hghe
t

ecton of
pec tve pho
ophy. It w

oon notced th t the term, th

fortto
y pped to
ch nve
tg ton
, conveyed
very ppropr te
de
crpton of ther
cope nd ch r cter f nterpreted n the
en
e of
_
pr _-phy
c , or _tr n
_-phy
c : n
mch
the oject of the
e
nve
tg ton


_hyperphy
c _ oject, n oject th t 
ether
po
tvey nd re y, or neg tvey nd y 
tr cton, eyond the
m ter  condton
of q ntty nd ch nge. St. Thom
comne
oth
me nng
of the term when he
y
th t the
tdy of t

ject-m tter
come
n tr y _ fter_ the
tdy of phy
c
, nd th t we n tr y p


from the
tdy of the
en
e to th t of the
pr
en
e.(22)
The term _pho
oph prm _ h
now ony n h
torc  ntere
t; nd the
term _theoogy_, 
ed wthot q fc ton, 
now gener y nder
tood
to
gnfy _
pern tr _ theoogy.
VI. DEPARTMENTS OF METAPHYSICS: COSMOLOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, AND NATURAL
THEOLOGY.Now d y
the term _Met phy
c
_ 
nder
tood

ynonymo
wth

pec tve pho
ophy: the nve
tg ton of the eng, n tre, or
e

ence, nd e

ent  ttrte
of the re te
whch re 
o
tded
n the v ro

pec 
cence
: the
e rch for the _tm te_ grond
,
re
on
nd c 
e
of the
e re te
, of whch the proxm te exp n ton

re
oght n the
pec 
cence
. We h ve
een th t t h
for t

pec  oject th t mo
t 
tr ct
pect of re ty wherey the  tter 

eng m y
conceved
ch ngee

nd mm ter ; nd we h ve
een th t
h ve the
e ttrte
ether y ment  
tr cton merey, or n ct 
re ty. In other word
the pho
ophc 
tdy of thng
th t re re y
m ter  not ony
gge
t
the po

ty, t e
t 
he
the ct 
ex
tence, of Beng th t 
re y ch ngee

nd mm ter :
o th t
met phy
c
n  t
mptde wod e _the pho
ophc 
cence of
thng
th t re neg tvey_ (y 
tr cton) _or po
tvey_ (n re ty)
_mm ter _. Th
d
tncton
gge
t

dv
on of met phy
c
nto
_gener _ nd _
pec _ met phy
c
. The former wod e the pho
ophc 

tdy of _ _ eng, con
dered y ment  
tr cton
mm ter ; the
 tter wod e the pho
ophc 
tdy of the re y nd po
tvey
ch ngee

nd mm ter  Beng,God. The former wod n tr y f  nto
two gre t r nche
: the
tdy of _n nm te_ n tre nd the
tdy of
_vng_ thng
, _Co
moogy_ nd _P
ychoogy_; whe
pec  met phy
c
,
the pho
ophc 
tdy of the _Dvne_ Beng, wod con
ttte _N tr 
Theoogy_. The
e three dep rtment
, one of
pec  met phy
c
nd two of
gener  met phy
c
, wod not e three d
tnct pho
ophc 
cence
,
t three dep rtment
of the one
pec tve pho
ophc 
cence. The

t ndpont wod e the
me n  three
ecton
, _vz._ _eng_
con
dered
_
t tc nd mm ter _ y _ment  
tr cton_: for
wh tever _po
tve_ nowedge we c n re ch ot eng th t 
re y
mm ter  c n e re ched ony throgh concept
derved from m ter 
eng nd pped n ogc y to mm ter  eng.
_Co
moogy_ nd _P
ychoogy_ dvde etween them the whoe dom n of m n

mmed te experence. Co
moogy, tzng not ony the d t of drect
experence, t 
o the conc
on
e
t 
hed y the n ytc
tdy of
the
e d t n the phy
c 
cence
, expore
the orgn, n tre, nd
de
tny of the m ter  nver
e. Some pho
opher
ncde mong the d t
of Co
moogy  the phenomen of veget tve fe, re
ervng
entent nd
r ton  fe for P
ychoogy; other
ncde even
entent fe n
Co
moogy, re
ervng the
tdy of hm n fe for P
ychoogy, or,
they
wod c  t, Anthropoogy.(23) The mere m tter of oc ton 
of

econd ry mport nce. Seeng, however, th t m n emode
n hm
ef 
three form
of fe, veget tve,
entent, nd r ton ,  three wod
perh p
more n tr y eong to P
ychoogy, whch wod e the
pho
ophc 
tdy of fe n  t
m nfe
t ton
(,  va
nc, 
u). Ju
 a
 cncu
n
  y
ca
cnc
a
 daa  C
my,
  cncu
n
  naua  bca

cnc
Zy, Bany, Py
y, My, Cua By,
c.a  daa  P
ycy. Indd n P
ycy 

cay n
m cn ya
 


b  d
nu
 a 
v, anayc,
mca
udy   nmna  cn
cu
n

, a
udy wc wud
an a a
a
ca an a
an uma  
ca
cnc; and
a
ync, ana
udy   
u
 
anay

, a
udy wc
wud b
cy 
ca n caac. T
wud av  

bjc  dmn  n, nau and d
ny  vn n
n
na and  man m
 n acua. I wud n u n  nau
and 

na 
 vn ma, n  nau  
ubjc
 cn
cu

a
, n  an
and acu
  uman mnd,
n  nau   uman
u and 
md  unn w  bdy,
n  anay   uman nc and  dm   uman
w, 
uay and mmay   uman
u, c.
Bu
nc  uman mnd 
 
 naua n
umn wby man
ac u
_a_ 
nwd,  w b a nc aan a 
udy
  nmnn  _ nwd_ 
,   _cnv_ acvy 
 mnd, can b
udd, and mu
 b
udd, n my a
a naua

nmnn   mnd, bu m  n  vw  _

ca

ncanc a

nav_  bjc
 an 
, m 
n  vw  _
vady  nvady_, _
u  a
y_, and
w 
ca am  dmnn 
c and man
and
cndn
 
bjcv vady. W av aady d  

udy  uman nwd m 

andn, n cnnxn w wa wa


ad abv cncnn Lc. I a
a c
 n
 w Lc n  n
and, and w P
ycy n  ; and nwaday
 m
a d
nc
banc 
cuav P
y und    _Cy_,
_E
my_,   _Ty  Knwd_.
A
n u   daa  u dc xnc, xna and nna,
a

udd n  
ca damn
ju
 und, w nd a
vay  vdnc
a nn bynd  dman  
dc
xnc  
um cncu
n a  x

 nc

y,
d
nc m 
dcy xncd unv
, a

Ca,
Cn
v, and Ru, 
F
 Bnnn and 
La
 End, 
_Aa_
and _Oma_, On Dvn and Inn Bn,  Dy. T x
nc and
abu
  Dy, and  an
 man and  unv
  
Dy, m 
ubjc-ma  _Naua Ty_.
VII. DEPARTMENTS OF METAPHYSICS: ONTOLOGY AND EPISTEMOLOGY.Accdn 
 A
an and
ca
c cncn
cuav 
y wud
uz a
daa  cncu
n
 
ca
cnc
y
ca,
bca, and uman. I wud y  ac a d xanan  
daa by
yn
zn 
 und  wd a
c
 can, uany,
and bn, u
bnn    uma cau

, a
n
, and
xanay nc
 n
. T
w
udy wud nauay a
n w a banc
: Gna May
c
(_C
my_ and
_P
ycy_), wc wud
udy n
xm m uany and can
n ay bu ny by mna ab
acn; and Sca May
c

(_Naua Ty_), wc wud
udy  
vy mmaa and
mmuab Bn   Dy.
T
dv
n  May
c
, uy
und n nc, and ba
d n
a
an and ana vw   an bwn 
ca
cnc
and

y, a
bn am
 ny(24)
uand n mdn m
by a
dv
n wc, ab
acn m  nu
aud a md 
n  
 n
anc, a
muc  cmmnd  m 
andn 
acca cnvnnc  amn. T mdn dv
n wa
nducd by
W (1679-1755), a Gman 
,a d
c  Lbnz (1646-1716)
and unn  Kan (1724-1804).(25) Inuncd by  xc

vy
dducv md  Lbnz 
y, wc 
u 
y
maz
and  uaz,  wny cncvd  may
ca
udy  ay
a

mn wy aa and
aa m  nducv nv
an 


am ay n  
v
cnc
. I cm
d 
udy  
m
 undamna and 

na nc
 bn, cn
dd n
m
v
; and  dducv acan  
 nc
  
a dman
 acua ay,  ca unv
,  uman
u,
and Gd. T
udy   
 nc
 bn n m
v
wud
cn
u _Gna May
c
_,  _Ony_ (-). Their
appiai
s wd 
sie hree rea deparme
s f _Speia
Meaphsis_: _Csm_, whih he desribed as ra
se
de
a i

ppsii
 he experime
a phsia sie
es; _Psh_, whih he
ermed rai
a i
ppsii
 he empiria biia sie
es; a
d
fi
a Nara The, whih he e
ied _Thedi_
(--), u

g a em 
ve
ed by Leb
z fo h
e

ay


v
dao
of he 
dom a
d ju
e of Dv
e Povde
e
oh
a
d
g
he evl
of he u
ve
e.

The
p ha a
maed h
aa
geme
 of he depame

of
meaphy

, e
Mee, a
u

ou
d 
heoy a
d
u
fou
ae 
e
de
y. I
eeoyped fo e
ue
a d
a
ou

dvoe beee
phlo
ophy a
d he
e
e
, a dvoe ha had

og

um
a
e
peula o he 
elleual
amo
phee of he ealy eghee
h e
uy. A
a e
ul of 
hee a

oo

o ommo
la
guage o u
de
a
d
g beee

e


a
d phlo
ophe
. The em
hh expe

ed he mo

fu
dame
al dea
mae,
ub
a
e, moveme
, au
e, foe,
e
egy, a
d
uh lkeee ake

dffee

e

e


e
e
a
d 
phlo
ophy. He
e m
u
de
a
d
g
, aggavaed by a
go
g muual d
u
 a
d ho
ly, u
l f
ally people ame
o beleve ha
e
f a
d meaphy
al peoupao

ee

ompable f
o po
vely oppo
ed o eah ohe.(26)
Ho vey dffee
 fom he d

ega
g o
epo
hee
zed 
he ado
al A
oela
a
d
hola

o
epo
of he ompleme
ay fu
o

of phlo
ophy a
d he

e
e

u
fy
g huma
k
oledge: a o
epo
hu
eloque
ly
expe

ed by NEWMAN 
h
_Idea of a U
ve
y_:(27)
All ha ex

, a
o
emplaed by he huma
m
d, fom
o
e
lage
y
em o omplex fa.... No,  

o o
deful ha,
h all 
apable
, he huma
m
d a

o ake 
h

hole va
 fa a a

gle gla
e, o ga
po

e

o
of  a
o
e. Lke a
ho-
ghed eade, 
eye poe
lo
ely, a
d
avel

loly, ove he aful volume hh le
ope
fo 



peo
. O aga
, a
e deal h
ome huge
uue of ma
y
pa
a
d
de
, he m
d goe
ou
d abou ,
o
g do
, f

o
e h
g, he
a
ohe, a
be
  may, a
d ve
g  u
de
dffee
 a
pe
, by ay of mak
g poge

oad
ma
e
g he
hole.... The
e vaou
paal ve
o ab
ao

... ae
alled
e
e
... hey poeed o
he p
ple of a dv
o
of
labou.... A
hey all belo
g o o
e a
d he
ame le of
obje
, hey ae o
e a
d all o

eed ogehe; a
hey ae bu

a
pe
of h
g
, hey ae
eveally 
omplee 
he elao

o he h
g
hem
elve
, hough omplee 
he o
dea a
d
fo he o
e
peve pupo
e
; o
boh aou

hey a o
e

eed a
d
ub
eve eah ohe. A
d fuhe, he ompehe

o
of
he bea
g
of o
e
e
e o
a
ohe, a
d he u
e of eah o
eah, a
d he loao
a
d lmao
a
d adju
me
 a
d due
appeao
of hem all, o
e h a
ohe, h
belo
g
, I
o
eve, o a
o of
e
e d

 fom all of hem, a
d 

ome
e

e, a
e
e of
e
e
, hh 
my o
o
epo
of
ha 
mea
 by Phlo
ophy....
Whou 
a
y ay ou
e
a

g
uh a

olao
of meaphy

fom he
po
ve
e
e
, e may,
evehele

, adop he mode
dv
o


ub
a
e a
d 
pae. Whle eog
z
g he 
mae o

exo

beee
he
peal
e
e
a
d meaphy


all 
ba
he
, e may
egad a
_Ge
eal Meaphy

_ all 
que

o he fu
dame
al
p
ple
of _be
g_ a
d of _k
o
g_, of _ealy_ a
d of _k
oledge_;
a
d a
_Speal Meaphy

_ he phlo
ophal
udy of phy
al
aue,
of huma

aue, a
d of God, he Auho a
d Supeme Cau
e of all f
e
ealy. Thu
, hle
peal meaphy

ould embae Co
mology,
P
yhology, a
d Naual Theology, ge
eal meaphy

ould embae
O
ology a
d Ep
emology. The
e o lae d
pl
e
mu

o doub

ve
gae ha 

a ea

e

e o
e a
d he
ame
ubje-mae,


a
muh a
_k
oledge_ 
k
oledge of ealy,
o a
he _k
o
g
m
d_ (he _
ubjeum og
o
e

_) a
d he k
o
ealy (he _objeum
og
um_) be holly
epaaed o
uded 
omplee 
olao
fom eah
ohe. Ye he hole o
e
 of huma
expee
e, hh fom
he ommo

ubje-mae, a
be egaded by me
al ab
ao
fom he o
d


a
dpo

of he k
o
g m
d a
d he k
o
ealy, a
d a

hu
gve 
e o o d


e
of poblem
. Ep
emology 
hu

o
e
ed h he uh a
d eude of huma
k
oledge; h he

ubjeve o
do

a
d he
ope a
d lm
of 
valdy; h he

ubjeve o me
al fao

volved 
k
o
g.(28) O
ology 

o
e
ed h he obje
of k
oledge, h ealy o

deed 
he
de
, deepe
, a
d mo
 fu
dame
al a
pe
u
de hh  
o
eved
by he huma
m
d: h he be
g a
d beom
g of ealy, 
po

bly
a
d 
aualy, 
e

e
e a
d 
ex
e
e, 
u
y a
d plualy;
h he a
pe
of uh, good
e

, pefeo
, beauy, hh  a

ume


elao
h ou m
d
; h he o

ge
y of f
e ealy a
d he
gou
d
a
d mplao

boh of 
aual ex
e
e a
d of 


ellgbly; h he mode
of 
o
ee ex
e
e a
d behavou,
he
upeme aegoe
of ealy a
hey ae alled:
ub
a
e,

dvdual
aue, a
d pe
o
aly; qua
y,
pae a
d me, qualy a
d
elao
, au
aly a
d pupo
e. The
e ae he p
pal op


ve
gaed 
he pe
e
 volume. The 
ve
gao

o
f
ed o
fu
dame
al o
ep
a
d p
ple
, leav
g he applao

o be
folloed ou 

peal meaphy

. Fuhemoe, he heoy of k
oledge
k
o
a
_Modeae Real
m_,(29) he Real
m of A
ole a
d he
Shola

, 
egad o he valdy of k
oledge boh
e

ual a
d

elleual, 
a

umed houghou: beau
e
o alo
e 
h
he ue
heoy, bua
a
aual o

eque
e 
he o
ly heoy hh e
de

he 
dvdual h
g
a
d eve

of huma
expee
e eally 
ellgble,
a
d a he
ame me keep
he hghe
 a
d mo
 ab
a 
elleual

peulao

of meaphy


o

a
 a
d hole
ome o
a h he
o
ee, aual old 
hh e lve, move, a
d have ou be
g.
III. REMARKS ON SOME MISGIINGS AND PREJUDICES.The
ude
, e
peally
he beg

e, ll f
d he 
ve
gao


h
volume ahe ab
a;
bu f he emembe
ha he o
e
 of ou 
elleual o
ep
, be hey
eve
o ab
a a
d u
ve
al, 
eally emboded 
he 
dvdual
h
g
a
d eve

of h
daly expee
e, he ll
o be d
po
ed o
de
ou
e all ulmae a
aly

of he
e o
ep
a
u
pofable o
u
eal. He ll eog
ze ha he epoah of alk
g 
he a,
hh a
levelled by a
em
e
 medeval
hola
(30) a ea

phlo
ophe
of h
me, ell
aga

 he meaphy
al
peulao

of
Co
epual
m, bu
o aga

 ho
e of Modeae Real
m. The epoah 

ommo
ly a
 a _all_
y
ema meaphy


oaday
fom pejude
oo

umeou
a
d vaed o adm of 
ve
gao
hee.(31) The mode

pejude hh de
e
he vey po

bly of meaphy

, a pejude
a

g fom Phe
ome

m, Po
v
m, a
d Ag
o

m
y
em
hh ae
hem
elve

o le

meaphy
al ha
eo
eou
ll be exam
ed 
due
ou
e.(32)
Bu eally 
ode o d
pel all
uh m
gv
g
o
e ha
o
ly o emembe
ha meaphy

,
y
ema o ohe
e, 

oh
g moe ha
a ma


ea
o
ed oulook o
he old a
d lfe. Whaeve h
o

ou
op
o


a
d o
vo

may be egad
g he
aue a
d pupo
e of hm
elf, a
d
ohe me
, a
d he old a lagea
d f he u
e h
ea
o
a all he mu

have
ome
o of op
o

a
d o
vo

, hehe po
ve o
egave,
o
he
e mae
ho
e op
o

a
d o
vo

ae pe
ely ha ma


meaphy

. Beak
g fee fo he mome
 fom all h
oal a
d
eh
al def
o
, le u
affm: _To ge a ealy_h

he am
of meaphy

. So e
Pofe

o Ladd 
he ope

g hape of h

_Theoy of Realy_.(33) Bu f h


o,
uely a
y
ema aemp o

ge a ealy,
o mae ho deep a
d de,
o mae ho ab
a a
d
u
ve
al be he o
epo

a
d
peulao

o hh  lead
u
, a

o

evehele

alay
a
d of
ee

y have he effe of 
volv
g u

a
mage of llu
o
a
d u
ealy.
Sy
ema meaphy

o quoe aga
he auho ju
 efeed
o(34) 
... he
ee

ay e
ul of a pae
, odely,
ell-
fomed, a
d polo
ged
udy of ho
e ulmae poblem

hh ae popo
ed o evey efleve m
d by he eal ex
e
e

a
d aual a

ao

of
elve
a
d of h
g
. Thu
o

deed
 appea
a
he lea
 ab
a a
d foeg
o o
ee eale

of all he hghe pu
u
of ea
o
. Mahema

ab
a;
log 
ab
a; mahemaal a
d
o-alled pue phy

ae
ab
a. Bu meaphy


bou
d by 
vey
aue a
d all
g
alay
o keep
ea o he aual a
d o he o
ee. Dve 
o
he deph
of
peulao

deed  may; a
d 
oea


bou
dle


expa

e a
d deep beyo
d all eah of huma
plumme
.
Bu  f
d

plae of
a
d
g, fo evey
e u
of da
g
expla
ao
, o

ome b of
old gou
d. Fo  
aualy
hh  
he
o u
de
a
dalhough 
efleve a
d

epeave ay. To quoe fom Pofe

o Roye: The ba

of
ou hole heoy 
he bae, bue fa of expee
e hh you
have alay
h you,
amely, he fa: _Someh
g 
eal._ Ou
que
o

: Wha 
h
ealy? o, aga
, Wha 
he
ulmaely eal?(35)
The o
deful poge

of he po
ve
e
e
du
g he la
 fe
e
ue
ha
bee
he oa
o
of pejude aga

 meaphy


a
vaey of ay
. I 
objeed, fo 

a
e, ha meaphy

ha

o
oe
po
d
g poge

o boa
 of; a
d fom h
hee 
bu a
mall

ep o he o
lu
o
ha all meaphy
al
peulao


ele. The
ompa
o

u
fa fo ma
y ea
o

. Re
eah 
o he ulmae gou
d

a
d au
e
of h
g

ma
fe
ly moe dfful ha
e
eah 
o he
poxmae gou
d
a
d au
e
. Aga
, hle he po
ve
e
e
have

ea
ed ou k
oledge ma
ly 
exe
 ahe ha

deph,  

meaphy

a
d o
ly meaphy

ha a

ea
e h
k
oledge 


u
y, ompehe

ve
e

, a
d
g
fa
e.
A po
ve 
ea
e 
ou k
oledge of he ma
fold daa of huma

expee
e 

o he am of meaphy

; 
am 
o gve a
ulmae
mea

g a
d 
epeao
o h
k
oledge. I 

o ulaa

he

aoe
e

e 
hh he po
ve a
d
peal
e
e
ae ulaa

by m

e
g o ou maeal
eed
; bu 
he hghe a
d
oble
e

e
of po

g ou o u
he bea
g of all huma
k
oledge a
d aheveme

o
ou eal
aue a
d de

y. Tue, 
deed, 
dvdual leade
a
d

hool
of meaphy

have
ayed fom he uh a
d
poke
h
o
fl
g a
d u
ea
voe
, e
peally he
hey have faled o
aval hem
elve
of Tuh Dv
ely Revealed. Th
, hoeve, 

o a
falue of meaphy

bu of 
dvdual meaphy
a

. A
d fuhemoe,
 
u
de
able hal, ha he meaphy
al labou
of he gea
phlo
ophe

all age
have o
bued hly o he e
lghe
me
 a
d
vlzao
of ma
k
dpaulaly he
he
e labou
have bee


o
od a
d o-opeao
h he eleva
g a
d pufy
g 
flue
e
of
he Ch
a
elgo
. Of
o meaphy
al
y
em 
h

o e
ely ue
a
of ha emboded 
Shola
 Phlo
ophy. The geae
 
elle of
he Mddle Age
, S. Thoma
Aqu
a
, gave o h
phlo
ophy a
expe

o

hh 
ghly egaded by he mode

hola
 a
h

elleual

hae a
d he mo
 ohy
a
g-po
 of h
phlo
ophal

ve
gao

. The follo
g pa

age fom a
em
e
 epe
e
ave of
mode

hola
 hough(36) 

uffe
ly
ugge
ve o adm of
quoao
:
Amd he almo
 u

euped d

egao
of
y
em
du
g he
la
 hee e
ue
, he phlo
ophy of S. Thoma
ha
alo
e bee

able o
a
d he
hok of 
m;  alo
e ha
poved

uffe
ly
old a
d ompehe

ve o
eve a
a

elleual
ba

a
d u
fy
g p
ple fo all he
e fa
a
d phe
ome
a
bough o lgh by he mode

e
e
. A
d u
le

e ae muh
m
ake
, ho
e ho ake up a
d follo h
phlo
ophy ll ome
o h
k, a
e do, ha o
he a
aly

of me
al a
a
d
poe

e
, o
he 

e
aue of opoeal h
g
, of lv
g
h
g
, a
d of ma
, o
he ex
e
e a
d
aue of God, o
he
fou
dao

of
peulave a
d moal
e
e,
o
e have hough o
e
moe 
ely ha
S. Thoma
Aqu
a
. Bu hough e plae
ou pogamme a
d eah
g u
de he pao
age of he llu
ou

ame of h
p
e of
hola

, e do
o egad he Thom

phlo
ophy a
a
deal beyo
d po

bly of ameloao
, o a
a
bou
day o he avy of he huma
m
d. We do h
k, hoeve,
o
maue efleo
, ha e ae a
g
o le


ely ha

mode
ly 
ak
g  a
ou
a
g-po
 a
d o

a

a
dad
of efee
e. Th
e
ay 
a

e o ho
e of ou fe
d
a
d
e
eme
ho ae oa
o
ally plea
ed o a
k u
f e eally do
mea
o lead bak he mode
m
d 
o he Mddle Age
, a
d o
de
fy phlo
ophy _
mply_ h he hough of a
y _o
e_
phlo
ophe. Ma
fe
ly, e mea

oh
g of he k
d. Ha

o Leo
XIII., he gea 
ao of he
e
hola
 moveme
,
expe

ly a
ed u
(37) o be m
dful of he pe
e
: Edmu

lbe
 gaoque a
mo epe
dum e

e qudqud
ape
e dum,
qudqud ule fue a quopam 
ve
um aque exogaum?
S. Thoma
hm
elf ould be he f
 o ebuke ho
e ho ould
follo h
o
phlo
ophal op
o


all h
g
aga

 he
o
bee judgme
, a
d o em
d hem of ha he oe a he
head of h
_Summa_: ha 
phlo
ophy, of all agume

ha
ba
ed o
huma
auhoy 
he eake
, lou
ab auoae qu
fu
dau
upe ao
e huma
a, e
 
fm

mu
.(38)
Aga
, heefoe, le u
a

e ha e
pe fo ado


o

evly bu mee eleme
ay pude
e. Re
pe fo a do
e of
ho
e
ou
d
e

a
d oh e ae pe
o
ally o
v
ed 

o
fe
h
m;  
bu a ao
al a
d ghful bue o he
dom
o
of Tuh ove M
d.
Mode

hola

ll k
o ho o ake o hea a
d pof by
he le

o

of he
eve
ee
h a
d eghee
h e
uy
o
ove
e
; hey ll avod he m
ake
of he pedee

o
;
hey ll keep 
lo
e o
a h he
peal
e
e


ub
day o phlo
ophy a
d h he ve
a
d eah
g
of
mode
a
d o
empoay h
ke
.(39)
A
oveee

g o
fde
e 
he poe of he
peal
e
e
o
olve
ulmae que
o

, o a lea
 o ell u
all ha a
be k
o
fo
ea
abou he
e poblem
, a o
fde
e ba
ed o
he a
o

h
g
poge

of ho
e
e
e

mode
me
, 
he
oue of ye a
ohe
pejude aga

 meaphy

. I 
a pejude of he half-eduaed

m
d, of he amp-folloe
of
e
e,
o of 
leade
. The
e lae
ae kee
ly o

ou
ha he
oluo
of ulmae que
o

le
e
ely
beyo
d he mehod
of he
peal
e
e
. No ha eve
he mo
 em
e


e


do
o 
dulge 

peulao

abou ulmae poblem
a
hey
have a pefe gh o do. Bu hough hey may be hem
elve
que aae
ha
uh
peulao

ae d

ly meaphy
al, hee ae mulude

ho
eem o h
k ha a heoy ea
e
o be meaphy
al a
d beome


e
f povded o
ly  
boahed by a
e
f expe a
d


fom a meaphy
a
.(40) Bu all

ee h
ke
ll eog
ze ha
o
ulmae que
o
abou he oaly of huma
expee
e a
be
olved by
a
y
e
e hh exploe
meely a poo
of h
expee
e. Nay, he
moe apd a
d exe

ve 
he poge

of he vaou

peal
e
e
,
he moe mpeave a
d 


e
 beome
he
eed o olle a
d ollae
he
epaae f
d
g
, o 
eogae hem o
e a
d all a
o hehe a
d
ho fa he
e f
d
g
f 
h he fa
a
d o
do

of huma
lfe
a
d ex
e
e, o deem
e ha lgh a
d ad hey o
bue o he

oluo
of he gea a
d eve eu
g que
o

of he _he
e_? a
d
_hhe_? a
d _hy_? of ma
a
d he u
ve
e. O
e ho 
a

ee

e

 a
ell a
a
ea
e
 phlo
ophe ha
e
_ popo
_ of h

ee

y 
he follo
g em
:
The fahe
e
e ha
pu
hed bak he lm
of he d
e
ble
u
ve
e, he moe 


e
ly do e feel he dema
d h
u
fo

ome
a
faoy expla
ao
of he hole. The old, ee
al
poblem

e up befoe u
a
d lamou loudly a
d eve moe loudly
fo
ome
ee a
d bee
oluo
. The
oluo
offeed by a
bygo
e age a

ooh
g a lea
, f  a

o f
al. I
he
pe
e
 age, hoeve, he poblem
eappea h a
aue
e

ha

almo
 pa
ful: he deep
ee of ou o
huma

aue, he
que
o

of ou og
a
d de

y, he 
emeddl
g of bl
d

ee

y a
d ha
e a
d pa

he
a
ge, a
gled dama of ou
ex
e
e, he foble
a
d odde
of he huma

oul, a
d all he
my
fy
g poblem
of
oal elao

: ae
o he
e all
o ma
y
e
gma
hh ome
 a
d ouble u
hhe
oeve e u
? A
d
all
eem o le aou
d he o
e e

e
al que
o
: Ha
huma

aue a eal mea


g a
d value, o 

o uely am

ha
uh a
d peae ll
eve be 
poo
?(41)
A f
al dffuly aga

 phlo
ophal e
eah 

ugge
ed by he
hough ha f he phlo
ophe ha
o ake og
za
e of all he
o
lu
o

of all he
peal
e
e
h
a
k 
a
mpo

ble o
e,

a
muh a

oaday
a all eve

 ould ake a lfeme o beome
pofe
 
a fe of he
e
e
e

o o
peak of all of hem.
Thee 

o que
o
, hoeve, of beom
g pofe
 
hem; he
phlo
ophe
eed
o be a
peal
 
a
y po
ve
e
e; h

aqua
a
e h he o
e

of he
e
e
e

eed exe
d
o fahe
ha

uh e
abl
hed o
lu
o

a
d
uh ue
 hough u
vefed
hypohe
e
a
have a
mmedae bea
g o
ulmae o phlo
ophal
poblem
.
Moeove, hle  ould be 
juou
boh o phlo
ophy a
d o
e
e,
a

poved by he h
oy of boh alke, o
epaae
y
he fom
a
aly
peulao
by a dvoe beee
phlo
ophy a
d
e
e; hle 
ould be u

e o g
oe he o
lu
o

of he
peal
e
e
a
d o
ba
e phlo
ophal e
eah _exlu
vely_ o
he daa of he pla
ma


ommo
a
d u
a
aly
ed expee
e,  mu
 be emembeed o
he ohe ha
d
ha he mo
 fu
dame
al uh
of
peulave a
d paal phlo
ophy,

he uh
ha ae mo
 mpoa

 fo he gh a
d pope oe
ao
of
huma
lfe, a
be e
abl
hed a
d defe
ded 
depe
de
ly of he
peal
e
eahe
of he po
ve
e
e
. The huma
m
d had
o o aa he
d
ovey of adum 
ode o pove he ex
e
e of God. Suh
upeme
uh
a
he ex
e
e of God, he mmoaly of he huma

oul, he
feedom of he huma
ll, he ex
e
e of a moal la, he d

o

beee
gh a
d o
g, e., have bee
_alay
_ 
po

e

o
of he
huma
ae. I ha
bee
, moeove, o
fmed 

po

e

o
of hem by
Dv
e Revelao
. A
d  ha

o
eeded ehe he 
e o he poge


of mode

e
e o defe
d hem. The
e fu
dame
al ao
al uh

o

ue a _phlo
opha pee


_: a fu
d of uh hh 
, lke all
uh, _mmuable_, hough ou huma


gh 
o  may develop 
deph
a
d lea
e

.
Bu hle h


o  

o
e he le

ue ha phlo
ophy, o be
poge

ve 

o
ode, mu
 ake aou
 of evey
e fa a
d
o
lu
o
bough o lgh 
evey depame
 of
e
fa
d
h
oal, a
d a
, a
d leay, a
d evey ohe
o ofe
eah.
A
d h
fo he
mple ea
o
ha evey
uh ae

o
, hehe of fa
o of heoy, 
a
e
lageme
 of huma
expee
e; a

uh  lamou

o
he o
e ha
d fo phlo
ophal 
epeao
, fo expla
ao

he
lgh of ha e k
o aleady abou he ulmae gou
d
a
d au
e
of
h
g
, fo adm

o

o ou old-oulook, fo adju
me
 a
d
o-od
ao
h he pevou
o
e

of he lae; hle, o
he
ohe ha
d, by 
vey appeaa
e o
he hozo
of huma
expee
e 
may e
h o llum
e, efy o ohe
e 
flue
e, h
oulook o

ome a
pe of .(42)
If, he
, phlo
ophy ha
o ake aou
 of adva
e

evey ohe
depame
 of huma
e
eah,  
lea ha 
ma
ey a he pe
e

day 
a moe laboou
a
k ha
eve  a

he pa
. I
ode o ge
a

ellge
 ga
p of 
p
ple

he applao

o he
poblem
a
ed by he poge

of he
e
e
, o
ely d
oveed fa

a
d
ely popou
ded hypohe
e
, he
ude
 mu
 be famla h he
e
fa
a
d hypohe
e
; a
d all he moe
o beau
e hough he medum of a

e

ao
al
e
pape pe

ha ha
moe egad fo
ovely ha
uh,
he
e fa
a
d hypohe
e
ae
o
oo
e bough o lgh by
e



ha
ha ae ofe
gabled a
d d
oed ve
o

of hem ae ulaed
amo
g he ma

e
.(43)
Smlaly, 
ode ha a
ou
d
y
em of
peulave a
d paal
phlo
ophy be expou
ded, developed, a
d defe
ded a he pe
e
 me, a

y
em ha ll embae a
d o-od
ae he aheved e
ul
of mode

e
f e
eah, a
y
em ha ll offe he mo

a
faoy

oluo

of old dffule


e fom
a
d gve he mo
 ea
o
able
a
d elable a

e
o he eve eu
g que
o

g
of ma
o
e

g
h
o

aue a
d de

y 
lea ha he 

uffe
y of

dvdual effo mu
 be
uppleme
ed by he o-opeao
of
umbe
. I

he ab
e
e of ful
e

, omplee
e

, adequay, 
mo
 mode

y
em

of phlo
ophy, he fagme
ay haae, he u
equal developme
 of
he pa
, ha aou

vey lagely fo he de
pa
g aude of he
ma
y ho
oaday
de
p
e a
d u
aay fom phlo
ophal
peulao
.
Add o h
he u
ea
voe h hh he
e phlo
ophe

peak 

o

eque
e of he advoae
g
o
g he mplao

of he mo


upe
dou
fa 
huma
expee
e,he Ch
a
Revelao
. Bu hee

o
e phlo
ophy hh 
fee fom he
e defe
, a phlo
ophy hh 


omplee hamo
y h Revealed Tuh, a
d hh fom
h he lae
he o
ly ue _Phlo
ophy of Lfe_; a
d ha o
e phlo
ophy 
he
y
em
hh, a

mla
g he 
dom of Plao, A
ole a
d all he ohe
geae
 h
ke
of he old, ha
bee
ado
ally expou
ded 
he

Ch
a

hool
he _Shola
_
y
em of phlo
ophy. I ha
bee

elaboaed by
o o
e ma
, a
d 
he og
al fu of
o o
e m
d. U
lke
he phlo
ophe
of Ka
 o Hegel o Spe
e o Jame
o Come o Beg
o
,
 

o a o
e-ma
phlo
ophy. I a

o boa
 of he
ovely o
og
aly of he ma
y ee
 a
d ephemeal
y
em
hh have

ueeded o
e a
ohe
o apdly 
ee
 me

he old of

elleual fa
ho
; bu  ha
eve po

e

ed he e
du
g
ovely of
he _uh_, hh 
eve a
e
 a
d eve
e. No alhough h

phlo
ophy may have bee
ma
eed 

boad oul
e
a
d applao


by
peally gfed 
dvdual

pa
 age
, 
poge

ve expo
o

a
d developme
, a
d 
applao
o he va
ly exe
ded a
d
eve-go
g doma

of expee
e ha ae be
g o

a
ly exploed by
he
peal
e
e
, a

eve be he ok of a
y 
dvdual:  a
be
aompl
hed o
ly by he ea
e
 o-opeao
of Ch
a
phlo
ophe


evey pa of he vlzed old.(44)

I
ay
g o
h
ok e have
o o buld fom he beg


g. I ha


omeme
bee
emaked, a
Nema
ob
eve
,(45) he
me
have boa
ed
of he k
oledge of mode
me
, ha
o o
de e
ee moe ha
he
a
e

beau
e e ae mou
ed upo
he
houlde
. Ye
; he

elleual ole
of o-day ae he
o he 
elleual ealh of
he a
e
o
. We have ado
:
o o de
p
e bu o u
e, ally,
judou
ly, evee
ly, f e ae o u
e  pofably. Thoma
Dav
ha


omehee
ad ha hey ho demol
h he pa
 do
o buld up fo he
fuue. A
d e have he Ch
a
Revelao
, a
a _lamp_ o ou _fee_
a
d a _lgh_ o ou _pah
_(46) 
all ho
e ao
al 
ve
gao


hh fom he appo
ed a
k of he phlo
ophe. He
e,
Le k
oledge go fom moe o moe,
Bu moe of evee
e 
u
dell;
Tha m
d a
d
oul, aod
g ell,
May make o
e mu
 a
befoe,
Bu va
e.(47)

CHAPTER I. BEING AND ITS PRIMARY DETERMINATIONS.

1. OUR CONCEPT OF BEING: ITS EXPRESSION AND FEATURES.The em _Be
g_
(La. _e

_; G. ; Ge. _See
d_; F. _a
_) a
pe
e
 paple of
he veb _o be_ (La. _e

e_; G. ; Ger. _Sen_; Fr. _tre_) me ns
_exstng_ (_exstens_, _exstere_). But te p rtcple  s come to be
use s noun; n s suc t oes not necess rly mply ctu l exstence
_c et nunc_. It oes nee mply some rel ton to ctu l exstence; for
we esgn te s beng (n te subst ntve sense) only w tever we
conceve s ctu lly exstng or t le st s c p ble of exstng; n t
s from te p rtcp l sense, wc mples ctu l exstence, t t te
subst ntve sense  s been erve. Moreover, te ntellgble use of te
wor beng s term mples reference to some ctu lly exstng
spere of re lty.(48) It s n te subst ntve me nng te term wll be
most frequently use n tese p ges, s te context wll sow. Wen we
spe of beng n te concrete, te wor  s te s me me nng s
tng (_res_) use n te we sense n wc ts l tter nclues
persons, pl ces, events, f cts n penomen of w tsoever n. In te
s me sense we spe of re lty, ts term  vng t en on concrete,
n ton to ts orgn l bstr ct, me nng. Beng  s lso ts

bstr ct sense wen we spe of te beng or re lty of tngs. Fn lly

t m y be use n collectve sense to nc te te sum-tot l of ll t t
s or c n be ll re lty.
(_ _) Te noton of beng, spont neously re ce by te um n mn, s
foun on reflecton to be te _smplest_ of ll notons, efyng every
ttempt t n lyss nto smpler notons. It s nvolve n every oter
concept wc we form of ny object of tougt w tsoever. Wtout t we
coul  ve no concept of nytng.
(_b_) It s tus te frst of ll notons _n te logc l orer_, _.e._
n te process of r ton l tougt.
(_c_) It s lso te _frst_ of ll notons _n te cronologc l orer_,
te frst wc te um n mn forms n te orer of tme. Not, of course,
t t we remember  vng forme t before ny oter more etermn te
notons. But te cls w enng ntellectu l ctvty must  ve
proceee from te smplest, e sest, most superfc l of ll concepts, to
fuller, cle rer, n more etermn te concepts, _.e._ from te v gue n
confuse noton of beng or tng to notons of efnte moes of
beng, or ns of tng.
(__) Ts rect noton of beng s l ewse te _most netermn te_ of
ll notons; toug not of course entrely netermn te. An object of
tougt, to be concev ble or ntellgble t ll by our fnte mns,
must be renere efnte n some m nner n egree; n even ts west
noton of beng s renere ntellgble only by beng conceve s
postve n s contr stng wt bsolute non-beng or notngness.(49)
Accorng to te Hegel n plosopy pure tougt c n pp rently
tn pure beng, _.e._ beng n bsolute netermn teness,
beng s not even fferent te from pure not-beng or bsolute
notngness. An ts bsolutely netermn te confuson (we m y
not c ll t syntess or unty) of sometng n notng, of
beng n not-beng, of postve n neg tve, of ffrm ton n
en l, woul be conceve by our fnte mns s te objectve
correl tve of, n t te s me tme s bsolutely entc l wt,
ts subjectve correl tve wc s pure tougt. Well, t s
wt te um n mn n ts objects, n ow t tn s tose
objects, t t we re concerne t present; not wt specul tons
nvolvng te gr tutous ssumpton of Beng t t woul
tr nscen ll u lty of subject n object, ll etermn teness
of nowng n beng, ll stncton of tougt n tng. We
beleve t t te um n mn c n est bls te exstence of
Supreme Beng wose moe of Tougt n Exstence tr nscens ll
um n compreenson, but t c n o so only s te culmn tng
cevement of ll ts specul ton; n te tr nscenent Beng t
tus re ces  s notng n common wt te monstc e l-re l
beng of Hegels plosopy. In ene vourng to set out from te
g _ pror_ groun of suc n nt ngble concepton, te
Hegel n plosopy st rts t te wrong en.
(_e_) Furter, te noton of beng s te _most bstr ct_ of ll notons,
poorest n ntenson s t s west n extenson. We erve t from te
 t of our experence, n te process by wc we re c t s process
of bstr cton. We l y se ll te fferences wereby tngs re
stnguse from one noter; we o not conser tese fferences; we
prescn or bstr ct from tem ment lly, n ret n for conser ton only

w t s common to ll of tem. Ts common element forms te explct

content of our noton of beng.
It must be note, owever, t t we o not _postvely exclue_ te
fferences from te _object_ of our concept; we c nnot o ts, for te
smple re son t t te fferences too re beng, n smuc s tey too
re moes of beng. Our tttue tow rs tem s _neg tve_; we merely
bst n from conserng tem explctly, toug tey rem n n our
concept mplctly. Te sep r ton effecte s only ment l, subjectve,
noton l, form l, neg tve; not objectve, not re l, not postve. Hence
te process by wc we n rrow own te concept of beng to te more
compreensve concept of ts or t t generc or specfc moe of beng,
oes not  to te former concept nytng re lly new, or stnct from,
or extr neous to t; but r ter brngs out explctly sometng t t w s
mplct n te l tter. Te composton of beng wt ts moes s,
terefore, only _logc l_ composton, not re l.
On te oter  n, t woul seem t t wen we bstr ct
generc moe of
beng from te specfc moes suborn te to te former, we _postvely
exclue_ te fferent tng c r cterstcs of tese speces; n t t,
conversely, wen we n rrow own te genus to
suborn te speces we o
so by _ ng on_ fferent tng moe wc w s not cont ne even
mplctly n te generc concept. Tus, for ex mple, te fferent tng
concept r ton l s not cont ne even mplctly n te generc concept
nm l: t s e on _ b extr _ to te l tter(50) n orer to re c
te specfc concept of r ton l nm l or m n; so t t n bstr ctng
te generc from te suborn te specfc concept we prescn
_objectvely_ n _re lly_ from te fferent tng concept, by postvely
exclung ts l tter. Ts n of bstr cton s c lle objectve, re l,
postve; n te composton of suc generc n fferent tng moes of
beng s tecnc lly nown s _met pysc l_ composton. Te fferent
moes of beng, wc te mn c n stngus t fferent levels of
bstr cton n ny specfc conceptsuc s r ton l, sentent,
lvng, corpore l, n te concept of m n re l ewse nown s
met pysc l gr es of beng.
It  s been questone weter ts l tter n of bstr cton s
lw ys use n rel tng generc, specfc, n fferent l moes
of beng. At frst sgt t woul not ppe r to be qute
s tsf ctory ccount of te process n c ses were te generc
noton exbts
moe of beng wc c n be emboe only n one
or oter of number of ltern tve specfc moes by me ns of
_fferent e_ not foun n ny tngs lyng outse te genus
tself. Te generc noton of pl ne rectlne r fgure oes not,
of course, nclue explctly ts speces tr ngle,
qu rl ter l, pent gon, etc.; nor oes t nclue even
mplctly ny efnte one of tem. But te concept of e c of
te fferent tng c r cters, _e.g._ te _fferent _
tree-seness, s unntellgble except s moe of pl ne
rectlne r fgure.(51) Ts, owever, s only ccent l, _.e._
ue to te spec l objects consere;(52) n even ere tere
perssts ts fference t t were s w t fferent tes te
speces of pl ne rectlne r fgures s not explctly n
form lly pl ne-rectlne rty, t t wc fferent tes fnte
from nfnte beng, or subst nt l from ccent l beng, s
tself lso form lly n explctly _beng_. But tere re oter
c ses n wc te bstr cton s m nfestly objectve. Tus, for
ex mple, te fferent tng concept r ton l oes not even
mplctly nclue te generc concept nm l, for te former

concept m y be foun re lze n bengs oter t n nm ls; n

te fferent tng concept lvng oes not even mplctly
nclue te concept corpore l, for t m y be foun re lze n
ncorpore l bengs.
(_f_) Snce te noton of beng s so smple t t t c nnot be n lyse
nto smpler notons wc mgt serve s ts _genus_ n _fferent _,
t _c nnot_ strctly spe ng _be efne_. We c n only escrbe t by
conserng t from v rous ponts of vew n comp rng t wt te
v rous moes n wc we fn t re lze. Ts s w t we  ve been
ttemptng so f r. Conserng ts fun ment l rel ton to exstence we
mgt s y t t Beng s t t wc exsts or s t le st c p ble of
exstng: _Ens est  quo exstt vel s ltem exstere potest._ Or,
conserng ts rel ton to ts opposte we mgt s y t t Beng s t t
wc s not bsolute notngness: _Ens est  quo non est nl
bsolutum._ Or, conserng ts rel ton to our mns, we mgt s y t t
Beng s w tever s tn ble, w tever c n be n object of tougt.
(_g_) Te noton of beng s so unvers l t t t tr nscens ll ctu l
n concev ble etermn te moes of beng: t embr ces nfnte beng n
ll moes of fnte beng. In oter wors t s _not tself generc, but
tr nscenent l noton_. Wer t n ll, even te west n gest
gener , t s not tself genus. A genus s etermn ble nto ts speces
by te ton of fferences wc le outse te concept of te genus
tself; beng, s we  ve seen, s not n ts w y etermn ble nto ts
moes.
2. IN WHAT SENSE ARE ALL THINGS THAT EXIST OR CAN EXIST SAID TO BE REAL
OR TO HAVE BEING?A generc concept c n be prec te _unvoc lly_,
_.e._ n te s me sense, of ts suborn te speces. Tese l tter ffer
from one noter by c r cterstcs wc le outse te concept of te
genus, wle tey ll gree n re lzng te generc concept tself: tey
o not of course re lze t n te s me w y,(53) but s suc t s re lly
n truly n e c of tem n s prec te n te s me sense of e c. But
te c r cterstcs wc fferent te ll gener n speces from one
noter, n from te common noton of beng, n wc tey ll gree, re
l ewse _beng_. T t n wc tey ffer s beng, s well s t t n
wc tey gree. _Hence we o not prec te _beng_ unvoc lly of ts
v rous moes._ Wen we s y of te v rous cl sses of tngs wc m e up
our experence t t tey re re l (or re ltes, or bengs), we o
not pply ts prec te n ltogeter te s me sense to te sever l
cl sses; for s pple to e c cl ss t connotes te wole content of
e c, not merely te p rt n wc ts grees wt, but lso te p rt n
wc t ffers from, te oters. Nor yet o we pply te concept of
beng n tot lly fferent sense to e c sep r te etermn te moe of
beng. Wen we prec te beng of ts moes _te prec ton s not
merely equvoc l_. Te concept expresse by te prec te-term beng s
not tot lly fferent s pple to e c subject-moe; for n ll c ses
l e t mples eter ctu l exstence or some rel ton tereto. It only
rem ns, terefore, t t we must reg r te noton of beng, wen
prec te of ts sever l moes, _ s p rtly te s me n p rtly
fferent_; n ts s w t we me n wen we s y t t _te concept of
beng s n logc l, t t beng s prec te n logc lly of ts v rous
moes_.
An logc l prec ton s of two ns:
term or concept m y be ffrme
of v rety of subjects eter by n logy _of ttrbuton_ or by n logy
_of proporton_. We m y, for nst nce, spe not only of m n s
e lty, but lso of s foo, s counten nce, s occup ton, s

comp nonsp, etc., s e lty. Now e lt s foun re lly only n te

m n, but t s _ ttrbute_ to te oter tngs owng to some extrnsc
but re l connexon wc tey  ve wt s e lt, weter s c use, or
effect, or nc ton, of te l tter. Ts s n logy of ttrbuton; te
subject of wc te prec te s properly n prm rly ffrme beng
nown s te prm ry n logue or _ n logum prnceps_, tose to wc t s
tr nsferre beng c lle te _ n log t _. It unerles te fgures of
speec nown s metynomy n synecoce. Now on ccount of te v rous
rel tons t t exst between te fferent moes of beng, rel tons of
c use n effect, wole n p rt, me ns n en, groun n consequence,
etc.rel tons wc consttute te _orers_ of exstng n possble
tngs, te _pysc l_ n te _met pysc l_ orersbeng s of course
prec te of ts moes by _ n logy of ttrbuton_; n n suc
prec ton nfnte beng s te prm ry n logue for fnte bengs, n
te subst nce-moe of beng for ll ccent-moes of beng.
In smuc, owever, s beng s not merely ttrbute to tese moes
extrnsc lly, but belongs to ll of tem ntrnsc lly, t s lso
prec te of tem by _ n logy of proporton_. Ts l tter sort of n logy
s b se on sml rty of rel tons. For ex mple, te ct of unerst nng
be rs rel ton to te mn sml r to t t wc te ct of seeng be rs
to te eye, n ence we s y of te mn t t t sees tngs wen t
unerst ns tem. Or, g n, we spe of ver nt v lley n te sunsne
s smlng, bec use ts ppe r nce be rs
rel ton to te v lley
sml r to t t wc
smle be rs to te um n counten nce. Or g n, we
spe of te p rce e rt s trstng for te r ns, or of te evout
soul s trstng for Go, bec use tese rel tons re recognze s
sml r to t t of
trsty person tow rs te rn for wc e
trsts. In ll suc c ses te n logc l concept mples not nee te
s me ttrbute (fferently re lze) n ll te n logues ( s n unvoc l
prec ton) but r ter
sml rty n te rel ton or proporton n
wc e c n logue emboes or re lzes some ttrbute or ttrbutes
pecul r to tself. Seeng s to te eye s unerst nng s to te mn;
smlng s to te counten nce s te ple sng ppe r nce of ts n tur l
fe tures s to te v lley. R n s to te p rce e rt, n Go s to te
evout soul, s rn s to te trsty person. It wll be note t t n
ll suc c ses te n logc l concept s ffrme prm rly n properly
of some one tng (te _ n logum prnceps_), n of te oter only
secon rly, n rel tvely to te former.
Now, f we reflect on te m nner n wc beng s ffrme of ts v rous
moes (_e.g._ of te nfnte n te fnte; or of subst nce n
ccent; or of sprtu l n corpore l subst nces; or of qu nttes, or
qu ltes, or c uses, etc.) we c n see _frstly_ t t ltoug tese
ffer from one noter _by ll t t e c of tem s, by te wole beng
of e c_, yet tere s n ll-perv ng sml rty between te rel tons
wc tese moes be r e c to ts own exstence. All  ve, or c n  ve,
ctu l exstence: e c ccorng to te gr e of perfecton of ts own
re lty. If we conceve nfnte beng s te c use of ll fnte bengs,
ten te former exsts n
m nner ppropr te to ts ll-perfect re lty,
n fnte bengs n m nner proporton te to ter lmte re ltes;
n so of te v rous moes of fnte beng mong temselves. Moreover, we
c n see _seconly_, s wll be expl ne more fully below,(54) t t beng
s ffrme of te fnte by vrtue of ts epenence on te nfnte, n
of ccent by vrtue of ts epenence on subst nce.(55) Beng or re lty
s terefore prec te of ts moes by _ n logy of proporton_.(56)
Is concept, wen pple n ts w y, one, or s t re lly m nfol? It
s not smply one, for ts woul yel unvoc l prec ton; nor s t
smply m nfol, for ts woul gve equvoc l prec ton. Beng,

consere n ts v gue, mperfect, n equ te sense, s nvolvng some

common or sml r proporton or rel ton to exstence n ll ts
n logues, s one; consere s representng cle rly n equ tely w t
s tus sml rly rel te to e c of te n logues, t s m nfol.
An logy of proporton s te b ss of te fgure of speec nown s
met por. It woul be mst e, owever, to nfer from ts t t w t s
tus n logc lly prec te of
number of tngs belongs ntrnsc lly
n properly only to one of tem, beng tr nsferre by mere extrnsc
enomn ton to te oters; n t t terefore t oes not express ny
genune nowlege on our p rt bout te n ture of tese oter tngs. It
oes gve us re l nowlege bout tem. Met por s not equvoc ton; but
per ps more usu lly t s unerstoo not to gve us re l nowlege
bec use t s unerstoo to be b se on resembl nces t t re merely
_f ncful_, not re l. Stll, no m tter ow slener n remote be te
proporton l resembl nce on wc te n logc l use of l ngu ge s b se,
n so f r fort s t  s suc
_re l_ b ss t gves us re l nsgt
nto te n ture of te n logues. An f we est te to escrbe suc
use of l ngu ge s met porc l, ts s only bec use met por per ps
too commonly connotes cert n tr nsferre n mproper extenson of te
me nng of terms, b se upon _purely f ncful_ resembl nce.
All our l ngu ge s prm rly n _properly_ expressve of concepts
erve from te sensble ppe r nces of m ter l re ltes. As pple to
te supr sensble, ntellgble spects of tese re ltes, suc s
subst nce n c use, or to sprtu l re ltes, suc s te um n soul n
Go, t s n logc l n noter sense; not s oppose to unvoc l, but s
oppose to _proper_. T t s, t expresses concepts wc re not forme
rectly from te presence of te tngs wc tey sgnfy, but re
g tere from oter tngs to wc te l tter re necess rly rel te n
v rety of w ys.(57) Conserng te orgn of our nowlege, te
m ter l, te sensble, te penomen l, comes frst n orer, n mouls
our concepts n l ngu ge prm rly to ts own proper represent ton n
expresson; wle te sprtu l, te ntellgble, te subst nt l, comes
l ter, n must m e use of te concepts n l ngu ge tus lre y
moule.
If we conser, owever, not te orer n wc we get our nowlege, but
te orer of _re lty_ n te objects of our nowlege, beng or re lty
s prm rly n more properly prec te of te nfnte t n of te
fnte, of te Cre tor t n of te cre ture, of te sprtu l t n of te
m ter l, of subst nces t n of ter ccents n sensble
m nfest tons or penomen . Yet we o not prec te beng or re lty of
te fnte, or of cre tures, n mere tr nsferre, extrnsc, mproper
sense, s f tese were mere m nfest tons of te nfnte, or mere
effects of te Frst C use, to wc lone re lty woul properly belong.
For cre tures, fnte tngs, re n true n proper sense lso re l.
Duns Scotus n tose wo tn wt m conten t t te concept
of beng, erve s t s from our experence of fnte beng, f
pple only n logc lly to nfnte beng woul gve us no
genune nowlege bout te l tter. Tey m nt n t t wenever
unvers l concept s pple to te objects n wc t s
_re lze ntrnsc lly_, t s ffrme of tese objects
_unvoc lly_. Te noton of beng, n ts most mperfect,
n equ te, netermn te sense, s, tey s y, _one n te s me_
n so f r fort s t s pplc ble to te nfnte n te
fnte, n to ll te moes of te fnte; n t s terefore
prec te of ll unvoc lly.(58) But ltoug tey pply te

concept of beng unvoc lly to te nfnte n te fnte, _.e._

to Go n cre tures, tey mt t t te _re lty_ corresponng
to ts unvoc l concept s _tot lly fferent_ n Go n n
cre tures: t t Go ffers by _ ll t t He s_ from cre tures,
n tey by _ ll t t tey re_ from Hm. Wle, owever, Scotsts
emp sze te form l oneness or entty of te netermn te
common concept, followers of St. Tom s emp sze te f ct t t
te v rous moes of beng ffer tot lly, by ll t t e c of
tem s, from one noter; n, from ts r c l versty n te
moes of beng, tey nfer t t te common concept soul not be
reg re s _smply_ te s me, but only s _proporton lly_ te
s me, s expressve of _sml r rel ton_ of e c ntrnsc lly
fferent moe of re lty to ctu l exstence.
Tomsts l y stll gre ter stress, per ps, upon te secon
conser ton referre to bove, s re son for reg rng beng
s n n logc l concept wen ffrme of Cre tor n cre ture, or
of subst nce n ccent: te conser ton t t te fnte s
_epenent_ on te nfnte, n ccent on subst nce. If beng
s re lze n true n proper sense, n ntrnsc lly, s t
unoubtely s, n w tever s stngus ble from notngness,
wy not s y t t we soul ffrm beng or re lty of ll tngs
eter s genus n te strct sense, or else n some sense not
n logc l but proper, fter te m nner n wc we prec te
genus of ts speces n nvu ls?... Snce te object of our
unvers l e of beng s mtte to be re lly n ll tngs, we
c n evently bstr ct from w t s proper to subst nce n to
ccent, just s we bstr ct from w t s proper to pl nts n to
nm ls wen we ffrm of tese t t tey re lvng tngs.(59)
In reply to ts ffculty, F ter Kleutgen contnues,(60) we
s y n te frst pl ce t t te e of beng s n trut less
n logc l n more proper t n ny belongng to te frst sort of
n logy [_.e._ of ttrbuton], n t t terefore t ppro ces
more closely to generc concepts properly so c lle. At te s me
tme te fference wc sep r tes bot from te l tter concepts
rem ns. For n me pple to m ny tngs s n logc l f w t
t sgnfes s re lze _p r excellence_ n one, n n te
oters only suborn tely n epenently on t t. Hence t s
t t Arstotle reg rs prec ton s n logc l wen sometng s
ffrme of m ny tngs (1) eter bec use tese  ve cert n
rel ton to some one tng, (2) or bec use tey epen on some one
tng. In te former c se te tng sgnfe by te n me s
re lly n properly foun only n one sngle tng, n s
ffrme of ll te oters only n vrtue of some re l rel ton of
tese to te former, weter ts be (_ _) t t tese tngs
merely resemble t t sngle tng [met por], or (_b_) be r some
oter rel ton to t, suc s t t of effect to c use, etc.
[metonymy]. In te l tter c se te tng sgnfe by te n me s
re lly n e c of te tngs of wc t s ffrme; but t s n
one lone _p r excellence_, n n te oters only by epenng,
for ts very exstence n tem, on t t one. Now te object of te
term _beng_ s foun nee n ccents, _e.g._ n qu ntty,
colour, s pe; but cert nly t must be pple prm rly to
subst nce, n to ccents only epenently on te l tter: for
qu ntty, colour, s pe c n  ve beng only bec use te corpore l
subst nce possesses tese etermn tons. But ts s not t ll
te c se wt
genus n ts speces. Tese ffer from te
genus, not by ny suc epenence, but by te ton of some
spec l perfecton to te consttuents of te genus; for ex mple,

n te brute be st sensblty s e to veget tve lfe, n n

m n ntellgence s e to sensblty. Here tere s no
rel ton of epenence for exstence. Even f we consere um n
lfe s t t of wc lfe s prncp lly sserte, we coul not
s y t t pl nts n brute be sts so epene for ter lfe on te
lfe of m n t t we coul not ffrm lfe of tem except s
epenent on te lfe of m n: s we c nnot ttrbute beng to
ccents except by re son of ter epenence on subst nce. Hence
t s t t we c n conser p rt, n n tself, lfe n gener l,
n ttrbute ts to ll lvng tngs wtout rel tng t to ny
oter beng.(61)
It mgt stll be objecte t t te one sngle beng of wc we
m y ffrm lfe prm rly n prncp lly, ougt to be not um n
lfe, but bsolute lfe. An between ts vne lfe n te lfe
of ll oter bengs tere s rel ton of epenence, wc
re ces even to te very exstence of lfe n tese oter bengs.
In f ct ll lfe epens on te bsolute lfe, not nee n te
w y ccent epens on subst nce, but n m nner no less re l
n f r more excellent. Ts s entrely true; but w t re we to
conclue from t f not precsely ts, wc scol stcsm
te ces: t t te perfectons foun n te v rous speces of
cre tures c n be ffrme of tese n te s me sense (_unvoc_),
but t t tey c n be ffrme of Go n cre tures only
n logc lly?
From ll of wc we c n unerst n wy t s t t n reg r to
gener n speces te n logy s n te tngs but not n our
tougts, wle n reg r to subst nce n ccents t s bot n
te tngs n n our tougts: fference wc rests not
solely on our m nner of concevng tngs, nor _ fortor_ on
mere c prce or f ncy, but wc  s ts b ss n te very n ture
of te tngs temselves. For toug n te former c se tere s
cert n n logy n te tngs temselves, n smuc s te s me
n ture, t t of te genus, s re lze n te speces n fferent
w ys, stll, s we  ve seen, t t s not suffcent, wtout te
rel ton of epenence, to yel
b ss for n logy n our
tougts. For t s precsely bec use ccent, s etermn ton
of subst nce, presupposes ts l tter, t t beng c nnot be
ffrme of ccent except s epenent on subst nce.
Tese p r gr ps wll  ve sown wt suffcent cle rness wy we
soul reg r beng not s n unvoc l but s n n logc l
concept, wen referre to Go n cre tures, or to subst nce n
ccent. For te rest, te vergence between te Scotst n te
Tomst vews s not very mport nt, bec use Scotsts lso wll
eny t t beng s genus of wc te nfnte n te fnte
woul be speces; fnte n nfnte re not _fferent e_
super e to beng, n smuc s e c of tese ffers _by ts
wole re lty_, n not merely by
etermnng porton, from te
oter; t s owng to te lmt tons of our bstr ctve w y of
unerst nng re lty t t we  ve to conceve te nfnte by
frst concevng beng n te bstr ct, n ten ment lly
etermnng ts concept by noter, n mely, by te concept of
nfnte moe of beng(62); te nfnte, n w tever
perfectons we prec te form lly of te nfnte, tr nscen ll
_gener _, _speces_ n _fferent e_, bec use te stncton of
beng nto nfnte n fnte s pror to te stncton nto
gener , speces n fferent e; ts l tter stncton pplyng
only to fnte, not to nfnte beng.(63)

Te observ tons we  ve just been m ng n reg r to te n logy of

beng re of gre ter mport nce t n te begnner c n be expecte to
re lze. A proper pprec ton of te w y n wc beng or re lty s
conceve by te mn to ppert n to te  t of our experence, s
nspens ble to te efence of Tesm s g nst Agnostcsm n
P ntesm.
3. REAL BEING AND LOGICAL BEING.We m y next llustr te te noton of
beng by ppro cng t from noter st npontby ex mnng fun ment l
stncton wc m y be r wn between _re l beng_ (_ens re le_) n
_logc l beng_ (_ens r tons_).
We erve ll our nowlege, troug extern l n ntern l sense
percepton, from te om n of ctu lly exstng tngs, tese tngs
nclung our own selves n our own mns. We form, from te  t of
sense-conscousness, by n ntellectu l process proper, ment l
represent tons of n bstr ct n unvers l c r cter, wc reve l to us
p rt l spects n p ses of te n tures of tngs. We  ve no ntutve
ntellectu l nsgt nto tese n tures. It s only by bstr ctng ter
v rous spects, by comp rng tese n jugments, n re cng stll
furter spects by nferences, t t we progress n our nowlege of
tngsgr u lly, step by step, _scursv_, _scurreno_. All ts
mples reflecton on, n comp rson of, our own e s, our ment l vews
of tngs. It nvolves te processes of efnng n cl ssfyng,
ffrmng n enyng, bstr ctng n gener lzng, n lysng n
synteszng, comp rng n rel tng n v rety of w ys te objects
gr spe by our tougt. Now n ll tese complex functons, by wc lone
te mn c n _nterpret r ton lly_ w t s gven to t, by wc lone,
n oter wors, t c n now re lty, te mn necess rly n nevt bly
forms for tself ( n expresses n ntellgble l ngu ge)
seres of
concepts wc  ve for ter objects only te _moes_ n wc, n te
_rel tons_ by me ns of wc, t m es suc gr u l progress n ts
nterpret ton of w t s gven to t, n ts nowlege of te re l. Tese
concepts re c lle _secun e ntentones ments_concepts of te secon
orer, so to spe . An ter objects, te moes n mutu l rel tons of
our _prm e ntentones_ or rect concepts, re c lle _ent
r tons_logc l enttes. For ex mple, _ bstr ctness_ s moe wc
ffects not te re lty wc we ppreen ntellectu lly, but te concept
by wc we ppreen t. So, too, s te _unvers lty_ of concept, ts
communc blty or pplc blty to n nefnte multtue of sml r
re lteste _ntento unvers lt ts_, s t s c lle moe of
concept, not of te re ltes represente by te l tter. So, l ewse, s
te _ bsence_ of oter re lty t n t t represente by te concept, te
_rel tve notngness or non-beng_ by contr st wt wc te concept s
re lze s postve; n te _ bsolute notngness or non-beng_ wc s
te logc l correl tve of te concept of beng; n te st tc,
unc ngng self-entty of te object s conceve n te bstr ct.(64)
Tese re not moes of re lty _ s t s_ but _ s t s conceve_. Ag n,
te m nfol logc l rel tons wc we est bls between our
conceptsrel tons of (extensve or ntensve) entty or stncton,
ncluson or nerence, etc. re logc l enttes, _ent r tons_:
rel tons of genus, speces, fferent , proprum, ccens; te
ffrm tve or neg tve rel ton between prec te n subject n
jugment;(65) te mutu l rel tons of nteceent n consequent n
nference. Now ll tese logc l enttes, or _object secun e
ntentons ments_, re rel tons est blse by te mn tself between
ts own tougts; tey  ve, no oubt, foun ton n te re l objects of
tose tougts s well s n te consttuton n lmt tons of te mn

tself; but tey  ve temselves, n c n  ve, no oter beng t n t t

wc tey  ve s proucts of tougt. Ter sole beng conssts n
_beng tougt of_. Tey re necess ry cre tons or proucts of te
tougt-process s ts goes on n te um n mn. We see t t t s only
by me ns of tese rel tons we c n progress n unerst nng tngs. In
te tougt-process we c nnot elp brngng tem to lgt n tn ng
tem fter te m nner of re ltes, _per moum ents_. W tever we tn
we must tn troug te concept of beng; w tever we conceve we must
conceve s beng; but on reflecton we e sly see t t suc enttes s
notngness, neg ton or bsence or prv ton of beng,
unvers lty, prec te n, n gener l, ll rel tons est blse by
our own tougt between our own e s represent tve of re ltyc n  ve
temselves no re lty proper, no ctu l or possble exstence, oter t n
t t wc tey get from te mn n vrtue of ts m ng tem objects of
ts own tougt. Hence te scol stc efnton of logc l entty or
_ens r tons_ s t t wc  s objectve beng merely n te
ntellect: _llu quo  bet esse objectve t ntum n ntellectu, seu
...  quo r tone excogt tur ut ens, cum t men n se entt tem non
 be t_.(66) Of course te ment l process by wc we tn suc
enttes, te ment l st te n wc tey re el n conscousness, s
just s re l s ny oter ment l process or st te. But te entty wc s
tus el n conscousness  s n c n  ve no oter re lty t n w t t
 s by beng n object of tougt. An ts precsely s w t
stnguses t from _re l beng_, from _re lty_; for te l tter,
beses te e l exstence t  s n te mn wc tn s of t,  s, or
t le st c n  ve, re l exstence of ts own, nepenently ltogeter
of our tn ng bout t. We ssume ere, of coursew t s est blse
elsewere, s g nst te subjectve e lsm of penomensts n te
objectve e lsm of Ber eleyt t te _re lty_ of _ ctu l_ tngs oes
not consst n ter beng perceve or tougt of, t t ter _esse_ s
not _percp_, t t tey  ve re lty oter t n n nepenent of
ter ctu l presence to te tougt of ny um n mn. An even purely
possble tngs, even te cre tures of our own f ncy, te fctons of
f ble n rom nce, _coul_, bsolutely spe ng n wtout ny
contr cton,  ve n exstence n te ctu l orer, n ton to te
ment l exstence tey receve from tose wo f ncy tem. Suc enttes,
terefore, ffer from _ent r tons_; tey, too, re _re l_ bengs.
W t te re lty of purely possble tngs s we s ll scuss
l ter on. Actu lly exstng tngs t ll events we ssume to be
_gven_ to te nowng mn, not to be _cre te_ by te l tter.
Even n reg r to tese, owever, we must remember t t te mn
n nowng tem, n nterpretng tem, n see ng to penetr te te
n ture of tem, s not purely p ssve; t t re lty s nown to
usor, n oter wors, our nowlege of re ltys te prouct of
twofol f ctor: te subjectve wc s te mn, n te
objectve wc s te extr ment l re lty ctng on, n tus
reve lng tself to, te mn. Hence t s t t wen we come to
n lyse n et l our nowlege of te n ture of tngsor, n
oter wors, te n tures of tngs s reve le to our mnst
wll not be lw ys e sy to stngus n e c p rtcul r c se te
propertes, spects, rel tons, stnctons, etc., wc re
_re l_ (n te sense of beng tere n te re lty nepenently
of te conser ton of te mn) from tose t t re merely
_logc l_ (n te sense of beng prouce n super e to te
re lty by te ment l process tself).(67) Yet t s obvously
m tter of te very frst mport nce to etermne, s f r s m y be
possble, to w t extent our nowlege of re lty s not merely
ment l _nterpret ton_, but
ment l _constructon_, of te

l tter; n weter, f tere be

constructve or consttutve
f ctor n tougt, ts soul be reg re s nterferng wt te
v lty of tougt s represent tve of re lty. Ts problemof
te rel ton of te _ens r tons_ to te _ens re le_ n te
process of cognton s gven rse to scussons wc, n
moern tmes,  ve l rgely contrbute to te form ton of t t
spec l br nc of plosopc l enqury wc s c lle
Epstemology. But t must not be m gne t t ts very problem
w s not scusse, n very wely scusse, by plosopers long
before te problem of te v lty of nowlege ssume te
promnent pl ce t  s won for tself n moern plosopy. Even
moer te f ml rty wt scol stc plosopy wll en ble te
stuent to recognze ts problem, n v rety of p ses, n te
scussons of te meev l scoolmen concernng te concepts of
m tter n form, te smplcty n composton of bengs, n te
n ture of te v rous stnctonsweter logc l, vrtu l,
form l, or re lwc te mn eter nvents or etects n te
re ltes t ene vours to unerst n n expl n.
4. REAL BEING AND IDEAL BEING.Te l tter of tese expressons  s
multplcty of nre me nngs. We use t ere n te sense of beng
_ nown_, _.e._ to sgnfy te esse _ntenton le_, te ment l
presence, wc, n te scol stc teory of nowlege, n entty of
w tsoever n, weter re l or logc l, must  ve n te mn of te
nower n orer t t e be w re of t t entty. A mere logc l entty, s
we  ve seen,  s n c n  ve no oter moe of beng t n ts wc
conssts n beng n object of te mns w reness. All re l beng, too,
wen t becomes n object of ny n of um n cognton w tsoeverof
ntellectu l tougt, weter rect or reflex; of sense percepton,
weter extern l or ntern lmust obt n ts sort of ment l presence or
ment l exstence: tereby lone c n t become n objectum _cogntum_.
Only by suc ment l mrrorng, or reproucton, or reconstructon, c n
re lty become so rel te n connecte wt mn s to reve l tself to
mn. Uner ts pecul r rel ton wc we c ll cognton, te mn, s
we now from psycology n epstemology, s not p ssve: f re lty
reve le tself mme tely, s t s, to purely p ssve mn (were suc
concev ble), te exstence of error woul be un ccount ble; but te mn
s not p ssve: uner te nfluence of te re lty t forms te
ntellectu l concept (te _verbum ment le_), or te sense percept (te
_speces sensbls express _), n n troug wc, n by me ns of
wc, t tt ns to ts nowlege of te re l.
But pror (ontologc lly) to ts _ment l_ exstence, n s p rt l c use
of te l tter, tere s te _re l_ exstence or beng, wc re lty  s
nepenently of ts beng nown by ny nvu l um n mn. Re l beng,
ten, s stnguse ere from e l beng, s t t wc exsts or c n
exst extr ment lly, weter t s nown by te um n mn or not, _.e._
weter t exsts lso ment lly or not.
T t tere s suc re l beng, p rt from te tougt-beng
wereby te mn s consttute form lly nowng, s prove
elsewere; s lso t t ts _esse ntenton le_  s moes wc
c nnot be ttrbute to te _esse re le_. We merely note tese
ponts ere n orer to nc te te errors nvolve n te
opposte contentons. Our concepts re c r cterze by
bstr ctness, by
consequent st tc mmut blty, by
plur lty
often resultng from purely ment l stnctons, by unvers lty
wc tr nscens tose stnctons n unfes te v rety of ll

suborn te concepts n te west concept of _beng_. Now f, for

ex mple, we ttrbute te unfyng ment l moe of unvers lty to
re l beng, we must r w te p ntestc concluson t t ll re l
beng s one: te logc l outcome of extreme re lsm. If, g n,
we tr nsfer purely ment l stnctons to te unty of te
Absolute or Supreme Beng, tus m ng tem re l, we tereby eny
nfnte perfecton to te most perfect beng concev ble: n
error of wc some c tolc plosopers of te l ter mle ges
 ve been ccuse wt some foun ton. If, fn lly, we entfy
te _esse re le_ wt te _esse ntenton le_, n ts wt te
tougt-process tself, we fn ourselves t te st rtng-pont of
Hegel n monsm.(68)
5. FUNDAMENTAL DISTINCTIONS IN REAL BEING.Le vng logc l n e l beng
se, n fxng our ttenton exclusvely on re l beng, we m y nc te
ere few of te most fun ment l stnctons wc experence en bles
us to recognze n our stuy of te unvers l orer of tngs.
(_ _) _Possble or Potent l Beng n Actu l Beng._Te frst of tese
stnctons s t t between possblty n ctu lty, between t t wc
c n be n t t wc ctu lly s. For proper unerst nng of ts
stncton, wc wll be e lt wt presently, t s necess ry to note
ere te followng vsons of _ ctu l_ beng, wc wll be stue n
et l l ter on.
(_b_) _Infnte Beng n Fnte Bengs._All people  ve suffcently
cle r noton of Infnte Beng, or Infntely Perfect Beng: toug not
ll plosopers re gree s to ow precsely we get ts noton, or
weter tere ctu lly exsts suc
beng, or weter f suc beng oes
exst we c n tt n to
cert n nowlege of suc exstence. By nfnte
beng we me n beng possessng ll concev ble perfectons n te most
perfect concev ble m nner; n by fnte bengs ll suc bengs s  ve
ctu lly ny concev ble lmt ton to ter perfecton. About tese
nomn l efntons tere s no spute; n scol stcsm entfes
ter respectve objects wt _Go_ n _cre tures_.
(_c_) _Necess ry Beng n Contngent Bengs._Necess ry beng we conceve
s t t beng wc exsts of necessty: beng wc f conceve t ll
c nnot be conceve s non-exstent: beng n te very concept of wc s
essent lly nvolve te concept of ctu l exstence: so t t te ttempt
to conceve suc beng s non-exstent woul be n ttempt to conceve
w t woul be self-contr ctory. Contngent beng, on te oter  n, s
beng wc s conceve not to exst of necessty: beng wc m y be
conceve s not ctu lly exstent: beng n te concept of wc s not
nvolve te concept of ctu l exstence. Te s me observ tons pply to
ts stncton s to te preceng one. It s obvous t t ny beng
wc we reg r s ctu l we must reg r eter s necess ry or s
contngent; n, seconly, t t necess ry beng must be consere s
bsolutely nepenent, s  vng ts ctu l exstence _from tself_, by
ts own n ture; wle contngent beng must be consere s epenent for
ts ctu l exstence on some beng _oter_ t n tself. Hence necess ry
beng s terme _Ens se_, contngent beng _Ens b lo_.
(__) _Absolute Beng n Rel tve Bengs._In moern plosopy te terms
bsolute n rel tve, s pple to beng, correspon rougly wt
te terms Go n cre tures n te us ge of testc plosopers. But
te former p r of terms s re lly of wer pplc ton t n te l tter.
Te term _ bsolute_ me ns, etymologc lly, t t wc s loose,
unfettere, seng ge or free from bons (_ bsolutum_, _ b-solvere_,

_solvo_ = _se-luo_, from ): ha, heefoe, hh 

o bou
d up h
a
yh
g el
e, hh 


ome
e

e
elf-
uff
g, 
depe
de
; hle
he _elave_ 
ha hh 


ome ay bou
d up h
omeh
g el
e,
a
d hh 

o fa
o
elf-
uff
g o 
depe
de
. Tha, heefoe, 

_o
ologally_ ab
olue hh 


ome
e

e
elf-
uff
g,

depe
de
 of ohe h
g
, _

ex
e
e_; hle he o
ologally
elave 
ha hh depe
d


ome eal ay fo 
ex
e
e o

omeh
g el
e. Aga
, ha 
_logally_ ab
olue hh _a
be
o
eved a
d k
o
by u
hou efee
e o a
yh
g el
e_; hle he
logally elave 
ha hh e a
o
eve a
d k
o o
ly hough ou
k
oledge of
omeh
g el
e. A
d

e e u
ually
ame h
g
aod
g o
he ay 
hh e o
eve hem, e egad a
ab
olue a
y be
g hh

_by 
elf_ a
d _of 
elf_ ha hh e o
eve  o be, o ha
hh 

ame mple
; a
d a
elave a
y be
g hh 
ha 

ame
mple
o
ly _
vue of
ome elao
_ o
omeh
g el
e.(69) Thu
, a
ma

a _ma
_ ab
oluely, hle he 
a _fe
d_ o
ly elavely o
ohe
.
I 
obvou
ha he pmay a
d ge
eal mea

g of he em
ab
olue
a
d elave a
be appled a
d exe
ded 
a vaey of ay
. Fo


a
e, _all_ be
g may be
ad o be elave _o he k
o
g m
d_,

he
e

e ha all k
oledge 
volve
a a

e
de
al elao
of he
k
o
obje o he k
o
g
ubje. I
h
de
 a
d mo
 mpope

e

e eve
God Hm
elf 
elave,
o hoeve a
be
g, bu a
k
o
.
Aga
, he
e apply he
ame abue o a vaey of h
g
e may
ee
ha  
fou
d 
o
e of hem 
he mo
 pefe ma

e o
evable, o
a lea
 
a fulle a
d hghe degee ha
 
fou
d 
he ohe
; a
d
ha  
fou
d 
he
e ohe
o
ly h
ome
o of
ubod
ao
o,
a
d depe
de
e o
, he fome: e he

ay ha  belo
g
o h

_pmaly_ o _ab
oluely_, a
d o he ohe
o
ly _
eo
daly_ o
_elavely_. Th

a le

mpope applao
of he em
ha

he
peed
g a
e. Wha e have e
peally o emembe hee 
ha hee ae
ma
y dffee
 k
d
of depe
de
e o
ubod
ao
, all alke gv
g 
e
o he
ame u
age.
He
e, apply
g he em
ab
olue a
d elave o he pedae be
g
o eal o ealy,  
obvou

he f
 plae ha he
_poe
al_ a

uh a
be alled be
g, o ealy o
ly 
elao

o he _aual_. I 
he aual ha 
be

g _
mple_, _pa
exelle
e_; he poe
al 

o o
ly 
elao
o h
.(70) Aga
,
_
ub
a
e
_ may be emed be
g
ab
oluely, hle _ade

_ ae be
g

o
ly elavely, beau
e of he depe
de
e o

ub
a
e
; hough h

elao

que dffee
 fom he elao
of poe
al o aual
be
g. F
ally all f
e, o

ge
 eale
, aual a
d po

ble, ae
ha hey ae o
ly beau
e of he depe
de
e o
he I
f
e a
d
Nee

ay Be
g: a
d he
e he fome ae elave a
d he lae
ab
olue; hough hee aga
he elao

dffee
 fom ha of
ade
 o
ub
a
e, o of poe
al o aual.
S
e he ode of be
g 
lude
all ode
, a
d

e a be
g 

_ab
oluely_
uh-o-
uh 
a
y ode o
ly he
ha be
g ealze


all 
ful
e

a
d puy
uh-o-
uh ealy,  follo
ha he be
g
hh ealze

all 
ful
e

he ealy of _be
g_ 
he Ab
olue
Be
g 
he hghe
 po

ble
e

e of h
em. Th
o
ep of Ab
olue
Be
g 
he he
 a
d mo
 ompehe

ve of all po

ble o
ep
: 

he vey a
he

of ha ohe o
ep of be
g 
ge
eal hh

ommo
o eveyh
g a
d d

gu
hed o
ly fom
oh
g
e

. I

lude


elf all aual a
d po

ble mode
a
d gade
a
d
pefeo

of f
e h
g
, apa fom he lmao

, embody
g all
of hem 
he o
e hghe
 a
d he
 o
ep of ha hh make
all of

hem eal a
d aual, _vz._ he o
ep of Aualy o Aual Realy

elf.
Hegel a
d h
folloe
have 
volved hem
elve

a pa
he

phlo
ophy by
egle
g o d

gu
h beee
ho
e o oally
dffee
 o
ep
.(71) A
mla eo ha
al
o e
uled fom
falue o d

gu
h beee
he vaou
mode

hh be
g
ha 
elave may be depe
de
 o
be
g ha 
ab
olue. God

he Ab
olue Be
g; eaue
ae elave. So oo 

ub
a
e
ab
olue be
g, ompaed h ade

a

he
g a
d ex

g


ub
a
e. Bu God 

o heefoe o be o
eved a
he o
e
all-pevad
g
ub
a
e, of hh all f
e h
g
, all
phe
ome
a, ould be o
ly ade
al ma
fe
ao

.

CHAPTER II. BECOMING AND ITS IMPLICATIONS.

6. THE STATIC AND THE CHANGING.The h
g
e
ee aou
d u
, he h
g

hh make up he mmedae daa of ou expee
e,
o o
ly _ae_ o
_ex
_; hey al
o _beome_, o _ome_ 
o aual ex
e
e; hey
_ha
ge_; hey pa

ou of aual ex
e
e. The ab
a
oo
of be
g
epe
e


obje o he m
d 
a
a, pema
e
, ha
gele

,

elf-de
al o
do
; bu f h
o
do
ee a
adequae
epe
e
ao
of ealy ha
ge ould be u
eal, ould be o
ly a

llu
o
. Th

ha he Elea phlo
ophe
of a
e
 Geee
beleved, d

gu
h
g meely beee
be
g a
d
oh
g
e

. Bu hey
ee m
ake
; fo ha
ge 
h
g

oo obvou
ly eal o be elm
aed
by all
g  a
llu
o
: eve
f  ee a
llu
o
, h
llu
o
a
lea
 ould have o be aou
ed fo. I
ode, heefoe, o u
de
a
d
ealy e mu
 employ
o meely he
oo
of be
g (
omeh
g
_
a_), bu al
o he
oo
of beom
g, ha
ge, poe

, appea
g a
d
d
appea
g (
omeh
g _k
e_, a
d
omeh
g _dy
am_). I
do
g
o,
hoeve, e mu

o fall 
o he eo of he oppo
e exeme fom he
Elea
by egad
g ha
ge a
he adequae epe
e
ao
of ealy.
Th

ha Healu
a
d he lae Io
a

dd: hold
g ha
oh
g
_
_, ha all _beome
_ ( ), t t c nge s ll re lty, t t te
st ble, te perm nent, s non-exstent, unre l, n lluson. Ts too s
f lse; for c nge woul be unntellgble wtout t le st n bng
_l w_ of c nge, perm nent _prncple_ of some sort; wc, n turn,
nvolves te re lty of some sort of bng, st ble, perm nent beng.
We must tenwt Arstotle, s g nst bot of tose one-se
conceptonsol to te re lty bot of beng n of becomng; n procee
to see ow te st ble n te c ngng c n bot be re l.
To convnce ourselves t t tey re bot re l, very lttle reflecton s
neee. We  ve ctu l experence of bot tose elements of re lty n our
conscousness n memory of our own selves. Every um n nvu l n te
enjoyment of s ment l f cultes nows mself s n bng,
self-entc l beng, yet s const ntly unergong re l c nges; so t t
trougout s lfe e s re lly te s me beng, toug just s cert nly
e re lly c nges. In extern l n ture, too, we observe on te one  n
nnumer ble processes of growt n ec y, of moton n nter cton; n
on te oter  n sml rly ll-perv ng element of s meness or
entty m ll ts never-enng c nge.

7. THE POTENTIAL AND THE ACTUAL. (_ _) POSSIBILITY, ABSOLUTE, RELATIVE,

AND ADEQUATE.It s from our experence of ctu lty n c nge t t we
erve not only our noton of tempor l ur ton, but lso our noton of
_potent l beng_ or _possblty_, s stnct from t t of _ ctu l
beng_ or _ ctu lty_. It s from our experence of w t ctu lly exsts
t t we re ble to etermne w t c n, n w t c nnot exst. We now
from experence w t gol s, n w t tower s; n t t t s
ntrnsc lly possble for golen tower to exst, t t suc n object of
tougt nvolves no contr cton, t t terefore ts exstence s not
mpossble, even toug t m y never ctu lly exst s f ct. Sml rly,
we now from experence w t squ re s, n w t crcle s; n t t
t s ntrnsc lly mpossble for squ re crcle to exst, t t suc n
object of tougt nvolves contr cton, t t terefore not only s
suc n object never ctu lly exstent n f ct, but t t t s n no sense
re l, n no w y possble.
Tus, _ntrnsc_ (or _objectve_, _ bsolute_, _logc l_, _met pysc l_)
possblty s te mere non-repugn nce of n object of tougt to ctu l
exstence. Any beng or object of tougt t t s concev ble n ts w y,
t t c n be conceve s c p ble of ctu lly exstng, s c lle
ntrnsc lly (or objectvely, bsolutely, logc lly, met pysc lly)
possble beng. Te bsence of suc ntrnsc c p blty of ctu l
exstence gves us te noton of te ntrnsc lly (objectvely,
bsolutely, logc lly, met pysc lly) mpossble. We s ll return to
tese notons g n. Tey re necess ry ere for te unerst nng of re l
c nge n te ctu l unverse.
Fxng our ttenton now upon te re l c nges wc c r cterze te  t
of our experence, let us nqure w t contons re necess ry n orer
t t n ntrnsc lly possble object of tougt become ere n now n
ctu l beng. It m tters not weter we select n ex mple from te om n
of org nc n ture, of norg nc n ture, or of rtweter t be n o , or
n ceberg, or st tue. In orer t t tere be ere n now n ctu l
o -tree, t s necess ry not only (1) t t suc n object be
ntrnsc lly possble, but (2) t t tere  ve been pl nte ere n
ctu l corn, _.e._ n ctu l beng  vng n t subjectvely n re lly
te p ssve potent lty of evelopng nto n ctu l o -tree, n (3)
t t tere be n te ctu l tngs roun te corn ctve powers or
forces c p ble of so nfluencng te l tent, p ssve potent lty of te
corn s gr u lly to evolve te o -tree terefrom. So, too, for te (1)
ntrnsc lly possble ceberg, tere re neee (2) w ter c p ble of
becomng ce, n (3) n tur l powers or forces c p ble of formng t nto
ce n settng ts rft n te oce n. An for te (1) ntrnsc lly
possble st tue tere re neee (2) te bloc of m rble or oter m ter l
c p ble of becomng
st tue, n (3) te sculptor  vng te power to
moul ts m ter l nto n ctu l st tue.
In orer, terefore, t t
tng wc s not now ctu l, but only
ntrnsc lly or bsolutely possble, become ctu l, tere must ctu lly
exst some beng or bengs enowe wt te _ ctve power or potency_ of
m ng ts possble tng ctu l. Te l tter s ten s  to be
_rel tvely, extrnsc lly_ possblen rel ton to suc beng or bengs.
An obvously tng m y be possble rel tvely to te power of one
beng, n not possble rel tvely to lesser power of noter beng: te
st tue t t s ntrnsc lly possble n te bloc of m rble, m y be
extrnsc lly possble rel tvely to te s lle sculptor, but not
rel tvely to te uns lle person wo s not sculptor.
Furtermore, rel tvely to te s me gent or gents, te proucton of

gven effect, te ong of gven tng, s s  to be _pysc lly_

possble f t c n be brougt bout by suc gents ctng ccorng to te
orn ry course of n ture; f, n oter wors tey  ve te pysc l power
to o t. Oterwse t s s  to be pysc lly mpossble, even toug
met pysc lly or ntrnsc lly possble, _e.g._ t s pysc lly
mpossble for e  person to come to lfe g n. A tng s s  to be
_mor lly_ possble, n reference to free n responsble gents, f tey
c n o t wtout unre son ble nconvenence; oterwse t s consere
s mor lly mpossble, even toug t be bot pysc lly n
met pysc lly possble: s often  ppens n reg r to te fulflment of
ones oblg tons.
T t wc s _bot ntrnsc lly n extrnsc lly possble_ s s  to
be _ equ tely possble_. W tever s ntrnsc lly possble s lso
extrnsc lly possble n rel ton to Go, wo s _Almgty_,
_Omnpotent_.
8. (_b_) SUBJECTIVE POTENTIA, ACTIVE AND PASSIVE.Furtermore, we
conceve te Infnte Beng, Almgty Go, s c p ble of _cre tng_, or
proucng ctu l beng _from notngness_, _.e._ wtout ny ctu lly
pre-exstng m ter l out of wose p ssve potent lty te ctu l beng
woul be evelope. Cre tve power or ctvty oes not nee ny
pre-exstng subject on wc to exercse ts nfluence, ny subject n
wose _p ssve potent lty_ te tng to be cre te s nteceently
mplct.
But ll oter power, ll ctvty of cre te c uses, oes requre some
suc ctu lly exstng subject. If we ex mne te ctvtes of te
gences t t f ll wtn our rect experence, weter n extern l
n ture or n our own selves, we s ll fn t t n no c se oes ter
oper tve nfluence or c us lty exten beyon te proucton of c nges
n exstng beng, or tt n to te proucton of new ctu l beng out of
notngness. Te forces of n ture c nnot prouce n o wtout n corn,
or n ceberg wtout w ter; nor c n te sculptor prouce st tue except
from some pre-exstng m ter l.
Te _n tur l_ p ssve potent lty of tngs s, moreover, lmte
n reference to te ctve powers of te cre te unverse. Tese,
for ex mple, c n euce lfe from te p ssve potent lty of
norg nc m tter, but only by ssml tng ts m tter nto
lvng org nsm: tey c nnot restore lfe to um n corpse; yet
te l tter  s n t te c p cty to be restore to lfe by te
rect nfluence of te Autor of N ture. Ts spec l n
supern tur l potent lty n cre te tngs, uner te nfluence
of Omnpotence, s nown s _potent obeent ls_.(72)
Ts conser ton wll elp us to re lze t t ll re lty wc s
prouce by c nge, n subject to c nge, s essent lly mxture of
_becomng_ n _beng_, of _potent l_ n _ ctu l_. Te re lty of suc
beng s not _tot smul_. Only mmut ble beng, wose ur ton s
_etern l_,  s ts re lty _tot smul_: t lone s _purely ctu l_, te
_Actus Purus_; n ts ur ton s one etern l _now_, wtout
begnnng, en, or successon. But mut ble beng, wose ur ton n ctu l
exstence s me sure by _tme_, s ctu lze only successvely: ts
ctu lty t ny p rtcul r nst nt oes not emboy te wole of ts
re lty: ts l tter nclues lso _w s_ n _wll be_; te tng
w s _potent lly_ w t t now s _ ctu lly_, n t wll become ctu lly
sometng wc t now s only potent lly; nor s ll we  ve unerstoo

even moer tely te n ture or essence of ny mut ble beng n o -tree,

for ex mpleuntl we  ve gr spe te f ct t t te wole re lty of ts
n ture embr ces more t n w t we fn of t ctu lly exstng t ny
gven nst nt of ts exstence. In oter wors, we  ve to be r n mn
t t te re lty of suc
beng s not pure ctu lty but
mxture of
potent l n ctu l: t t t s n _ ctus non-purus_, or n _ ctus
mxtus_.
We  ve to note well t t te _potent l beng_ of tng s sometng
_re l_t t t s not merely
_mous loquen_, or
_mous
ntellgen_. Te o s n te corn n some true n re l sense: te
potent lty of te o s sometng re l n te corn: f t were not so,
f t were notng re l n te corn, we coul s y wt equ l trut t t
m n or orse or ouse s potent lly n te corn; or, g n wt
equ l trut, t t te o s potent lly n must r-see, or
gr n of
corn, or
pebble, or
rop of w ter. Terefore te o s _re lly_ n
te cornnot ctu lly but potent lly, _potent p ssv _.
Te o -tree s lso re lly n tose _ ctve_ forces of n ture wose
nfluence on te corn evelop te l tter nto n ctu l o -tree: t s
n tose c uses not ctu lly, of course, but _vrtu lly_, for tey possess
n temselves te _oper tve power__potent ctv sve oper tv _to
euce te o -tree out of te corn. Tese two potent l contons of
bengn te ctve c uses wc prouce t, n n te pre-exstng
ctu l tng or tngs from wc t s prouce re c lle e c
re l or
subjectve potency, _potent re ls_, or _potent subjectv _, n
stncton from te mere logc l or objectve possblty of suc
beng.
An just s te p ssve potent lty of te st tue s sometng re l n
te bloc of m rble, toug stnct from te ctu lty of te st tue n
from te process by wc ts s ctu lze, so s te ctve power of
m ng te st tue sometng re l n te sculptor, toug stnct from te
oper ton by wc e m es te st tue. If n gents _power_ to ct, to
prouce c nge, were not re lty n te gent, re lty stnct from
te _ cton_ of te l tter; or f bengs c p cty to unergo c nge,
n tereby to become sometng oter, were not
re lty stnct from
te process of c nge, n from te ctu l result of ts processt woul
follow not only t t te ctu l lone s re l, n te merely possble or
potent l unre l, but lso t t no c nge c n be re l, t t notng c n
re lly become, n notng re lly s ppe r.(73)
9. (_c_) ACTUALITY: ITS RELATION TO POTENTIALITY.It s from our
experence of c nge n te worl t t we erve our notons of te
potent l n te ctu l, of ctve power n p ssve potent lty. Te
term ct  s prm rly te s me me nng s cton, oper ton, t t
process by wc
c nge s wrougt. But te L tn wor _ ctus_ (Gr.
, ) me ns r ter t t wc s ceve by te _ cto_,
t t wc s te correl tve n complement of te p ssve potent lty,
te ctu lty of ts l tter: t t by wc potent l beng s renere
form lly ctu l, n, by w y of consequence, ts ctu l beng tself.
_Potent ctv _ n ts correl tve _ ctus_ mgt, per ps, be
ppropr tely renere by _power_ (_potest s gen_) n _ cton_ or
_oper ton_; _potent p ssv _ n ts correl tve _ ctus_, by
_potent lty_ n _ ctu lty_ respectvely.
In tese correl tves, te noton unerlyng te term ctu l s
m nfestly te noton of sometng complete, ceve, perfecte s
comp re wt t t of sometng ncomplete, mperfect, etermn ble, wc
s te noton of te potent l. Hence te notons of _potent _ n

_ ctus_  ve been extene wely beyon ter prm ry sgnfc ton of

power to ct n te exercse of ts power. Suc p rs of correl tves s
te etermn ble n te etermne, te perfectble n te perfecte,
te unevelope or less evelope n te more evelope, te generc n
te specfc, re ll conceve uner te spect of ts west rel ton
of te potent l to te ctu l. An snce we c n stngus successve
st ges n ny process of evelopment, or n orer of logc l sequence
mong te contents of our concept of ny concrete re lty, t follows t t
w t wll be conceve s n _ ctus_ n one rel ton wll be conceve s
_potent _ n noter. Tus, te sposton of ny f culty s, for
ex mple, te scentfc  bt n te ntellects n _ ctus_ or perfecton
of te f culty reg re s _potent _; but t s tself _potent _
wc s ctu lze n te _oper ton_ of ctu lly stuyng. Ts
llustr tes te stncton commonly r wn between n _ ctus prmus_ n
n _ ctus secunus_ n ny p rtcul r orer or lne of re lty: te
_ ctus prmus_ s t t wc presupposes no pror ctu lty n te s me
orer; te _ ctus secunus_ s t t wc oes presuppose noter. Te ct
of nowng s n _ ctus secunus_ wc presupposes te cogntve f culty
s n _ ctus prmus_: te f culty beng te _frst_ or fun ment l
equpment of te soul n rel ton to nowlege. Hence te cl s s  to
 ve nowlege _n ctu prmo_ s  vng te f culty of re son; n te
stuent to  ve nowlege _n ctu secuno_ s exercsng ts f culty.
Te _ ctus_ or perfectng prncples of wc we  ve spo en so f r re
ll conceve s presupposng n exstng subject on wc tey supervene.
Tey re terefore _ ccents_ s stnct from _subst nt l consttutve_
prncples of ts subject; n tey re terefore c lle _ ccent l_
ctu ltes, _ ctus_ _ ccent les_. But te ctu l exstence of
beng
s lso conceve s te complement n correl tve of ts essence: s
t t wc m es te l tter ctu l, tus tr nsferrng t from te st te of
mere possblty. Hence exstence lso s c lle n _ ctus_ or ctu lty:
te _ ctus_ _exstent ls_, to stngus t from te exstng tngs
ctvtes n oter subsequently cqure c r cters. In reference to
tese exstence s frst ctu lty_Esse est ctus prmus_; _Prus
est esse qu m gere_: Exstence s te frst ctu lty; Acton
presupposes exstencewle e c of tese n reference to exstence, s
secon ctu lty, n _ ctus secunus_.
Wen, furtermore, we procee to ex mne te consttutve prncples
essent l to ny beng n te concrete, we m y be ble to stngus
between prncples wc re etermn ble, p ssve n persstent
trougout ll essent l c nge of t t beng, n oters wc re
etermnng, specfyng, fferent tng prncples. In w ter, for
ex mple, we m y stngus te p ssve unerlyng prncple wc
perssts trougout te ecomposton of w ter nto oxygen n yrogen,
from te ctve specfyng prncple wc gves t t substr tum ts
specfc n ture s w ter. Te former or m ter l prncple (,
_m ter _) s _potent l_, comp re wt te l tter or form l prncple
(, , , _form _, _speces_, _ ctus_) s _ ctu l_. Te
concept of _ ctus_ s tus pple to te essence tself: te _ ctus_
_essent ls_ or _form ls_ of
tng s t t wc we conceve to be
te ultm te, completng n etermnng prncple of te essence or
n ture of t t tng. In reference to ts s well s te oter
consttutve prncples of te tng, te ctu l exstence of te tng s
secon ctu lty, n _ ctus secunus_.
In f ct ll te consttutve prncples of te essence of ny exstng
tng, n ll te propertes n ttrbutes nvolve n te essence or
necess rly connecte wt te essence, must ll l e be conceve s
logc lly nteceent to te exstent l _ ctus_ wereby tey re

consttute sometng n te ctu l orer, n not mere possble objects
of our tougt. An from ts pont of vew te exstence of tng s
c lle te ultm te ctu lz ton of ts essence. Hence te scol stc
porsm: _Esse est ultmus ctus re_.
Te term _ ctus_ m y esgn te t t complement of re lty by wc
potent l beng s m e ctu l (_ ctus_ _ ctu ns_), or ts ctu l beng
tself (_ ctus_ _smplcter ctus_). In te l tter sense we  ve
lre y stnguse te Beng t t s mmut ble, te Beng of Go, s
te _Actus Purus_, from te beng of ll mut ble tngs, wc l tter
beng s necess rly
mxture of potent l n ctu l, n _ ctus mxtus_.
Now f te essences of corpore l tngs re composte, f tey re
consttute by te unon of some etermnng, form tve prncple wt
etermn ble, p ssve prncpleof form wt m tter, n scol stc
termnologywe m y c ll tese form tve prncples _ ctus_
_nform ntes_; n f tese c nnot ctu lly exst except n unon wt
m ter l prncple tey m y be c lle ctus _non-subsstentes_: _e.g._,
te form tve prncple or _form subst nt ls_ of w ter, or te vt l
prncple of pl nt. If, on te oter  n, tere exst essences wc,
beng smple, o not ctu lze ny m ter l, etermn ble prncple, but
subsst nepenently of ny suc, tey re c lle _ ctus_
_non-nform ntes_, or _ ctus_ _subsstentes_. Suc, for ex mple, re
Go, n pure sprts wose exstence s nown from revel ton. Fn lly,
tere m y be n of ctu l essence wc, toug t n tur lly
ctu lzes m ter l prncple _e f cto_, c n neverteless contnue to
subsst wtout ts l tter: suc n ctu l beng woul be t once n
_ ctus nform ns_ n n _ ctus subsstens_; n suc, n f ct, s te
um n soul.
Trougout ll stnctons between te potent l n te ctu l tere
runs te concepton of _te ctu l s sometng more perfect t n te
potent l_. Tere s n te ctu l sometng postve n re l over n
bove w t s n te potent l. Ts s n ultm te f ct n our n lyss;
n ts mport nce wll be re lze wen we come to pply te notons we
 ve been expl nng to te stuy of c nge.
Te noton of gr es of perfecton n tngs s one wt wc everyone s
f ml r. We n tur lly conceve some bengs s ger upon te sc le of
re lty t n oters; s  vng more re lty, so to spe not
necess rly, of course, n te lter l sense of sze or qu nttyt n
oters; s beng more perfect, nobler, of gre ter wort, v lue, gnty,
excellence, t n oters. Tus we reg r te nfnte s more perfect t n
te fnte, sprtu l bengs s nobler t n m ter l bengs, m n s
ger orer of beng t n te brute be st, ts g n s surp ssng te
wole veget ble ngom, te lowest form of lfe s ger on te sc le of
beng t n norg nc m tter, te subst nce-moe of beng s superor to
ll ccent-moes, te ctu lze st te of beng s more perfect t n
ts potent l st te, _.e._ s exstng n ts m ter l, effcent n
e l or exempl r c uses. Te grouns n sgnfc nce of ts ment l
pprec ton of rel tve v lues n tngs must be scusse elsewere. We
refer to t ere n orer to pont out noter scol stc porsm,
ccorng to wc te ger tng s n te sc le of ctu l beng, n
te more perfect t s ccorngly, te more effcent t wll lso be s
prncple of cton, te more powerful s c use n te proucton of
c nges n oter tngs, te more oper tve n ctu lzng ter p ssve
potent ltes; n conversely, te less ctu l
tng s, n terefore
te more mperfect, te gre ter ts p ssve c p cty wll be to unergo
te nfluence of gences t t re ctu l n oper tve roun t. As
p ssve potent lty, s ys St. Tom s,(74) s te m r of potent l

beng, so ctve power s te m r of ctu l beng. For tng cts, n

so f r s t s ctu l; but s cte on, so f r s t s potent l. Our
nowlege of te n ture of tngs s n f ct exclusvely b se on our
nowlege of ter ctvtes: we  ve no oter ey to te nowlege of
w t tng s t n our nowlege of w t t oes: _Oper r sequtur
esse_: _Qu ls est oper to t ls est n tur _Actng follows beng:
Conuct s te ey to n ture.
A beng t t s ctve or oper tve n te proucton of c nge s s 
to be te effcent c use of te c nge, te l tter beng terme te
effect. Now te gre ter te c nge, _.e._ te ger n more perfect be
te gr e of re lty t t s ctu lze n te c nge, te ger too n
te sc le of beng must be te effcent c use of t t c nge. Tere must
be proporton n egree of perfecton or re lty between effect n
c use. Te former c nnot excee n ctu l perfecton te ctve power, n
terefore te ctu l beng, of te l tter. Ts s so bec use we conceve
te effect s beng prouce or ctu lze _troug te oper tve
nfluence_ of te c use, n _wt re l epenence_ on ts l tter; n t
s nconcev ble t t c use soul  ve power to ctu lze oter beng,
stnct from tself, wc woul be of ger gr e of excellence t n
tself. Te n ture of effcent c us lty, of te nfluence by wc te
c use s rel te to ts effect, s not e sy to etermne; t wll be
scusse t subsequent st ge of our nvestg tons (c. x.); but
w tever t be, lttle reflecton soul convnce us of te trut of te
prncple just st te: t t n effect c nnot be more perfect t n ts
c use. Te mev l scol stcs emboe ts trut n te formul : _Nemo
 t quo non  bet_ formul wc we must not nterpret n te more
restrcte n lter l sense of te wors _gvng_ n _ vng_, lest we
be met wt te obvous objecton t t t s by no me ns necess ry for
boy to  ve bl c eye mself n orer to gve one to s negbour!
W t te formul me ns s t t n gent c nnot gve to, or prouce n, ny
potent l subject, receptve of ts c us l nfluence, n ctu lty wc
t oes not tself possess vrtu lly, or n ts ctve power: t t no
ctu lty surp ssng n excellence te ctu l perfecton of te c use
tself c n be foun tus vrtu lly n te ctve power of te l tter.
Tere s no queston of te c use or gent tr nsferrng boly s t were
p rt of ts own ctu lty to te subject wc s unergong c nge(75);
nor wll suc crue m gn ton m ges elp us to unerst n w t re l
c nge, uner te nfluence of effcent c us lty, nvolves.(76) An
n lyss of c nge wll en ble us to pprec te more fully te re l
ffculty of expl nng t, n te futlty of ny ttempt to ccount
for t wtout mttng te re l, objectve v lty of te notons of
ctu l n potent l beng, of ctve powers or forces n p ssve
potent ltes n te tngs t t re subject to c nge.
10. ANALYSIS OF CHANGE._C nge_ (_Mut to_, _Motus_, , )
is 
e f hse simpes 
eps whih a

 be defi
ed. We ma desribe
i, hwever, as _he ra
sii
f a bei
 frm 
e sae  a
her_. If

e hi
 e
ire disappeared a
d a
her were sbsied fr i, we
shd
 reard he frmer as havi
 bee
ha
ed i
 he aer. Whe


e hi
 is p i
he pae f a
her, eah,
 db, 
deres a
ha
e f pae, b
eiher is ha
ed i
 he her. S, as, if we
were  
eive a hi
 as abse easi
  exis, as apsi
 i


hi

ess a a ive
i
sa
, a
d a
her as mi
 i
 exise
e 
f
hi

ess a he same i
sa
 (a
d i
he same pae), we shd


sider his dbe eve
 as 
sii
 a rea ha
e f he frmer
hi
 i
 he aer. A
d ahh r _se
ses_ a

 esif 
a
hi
 be
d _seqe
e_ i
se
se phe
me
a, r _reas
_ dees i

rea ha
e smehi
 her ha
a a sbsii
f hi
s fr 
e
a
her, r 
i
s a essai
s a
d i
epi
s f exise
e i

hi
s. N db, if we 
eive he whe phe
me
a r perepibe

iverse a
d a he bei
s whih 
sie his 
iverse as esse
ia

i
e
, a
d herefre depe
de
 fr heir reai a
d heir aa
exise
e 
a Spreme, Neessar Bei
 wh reaed a
d 
serves hem,
wh a a
 ime ma ease  
serve a
 f hem, a
d prde her a
d

ew bei
s _ f
hi

ess_, he
sh abse essai
s a
d
i
epi
s f exise
e i
he wrd wd
 be impssibe. Gd mih
_a

ihiae_, _i.e._ ease  

serve i
exise
e, his r ha

i
e
 bei
 a a
 i
sa
, a
d a a
 i
sa
 _reae_ a
ew

i
e
 bei
, _i.e._ prde i i
is ai frm
 pre-exisi

maeria. B here is
 reas
 sppse ha his is wha is

sa
 aki
 pae i
Nare: ha a ha
e is simp a series f
a

ihiai
s a
d reai
s. O
he 
rar, he mdes f bei
 whih
appear a
d disappear i
rea ha
e, i
he ra
sii
f a
hi
 frm

e sae  a rea differe
 sae f bei
, d
 appear _de
v_,
_ex
ihi_, as abse bei

i
s  f
hi

ess; r disappear
_aier_, _i

ihim_, as abse e
di
s r apses f reai i


hi

ess. The rea ha
es whih ake pae i
Nare are de  he
perai
f
ara ases. These ases, bei
 fi
ie i
heir peraive
pwers, a

 reae, _i.e._ prde

ew bei
 frm
hi

ess. The
a
, hwever, wih he 
rre
e f he Om
ipe
 Bei
, mdif
exisi
 mdes f bei
, _i.e._ make aa wha was 
 pe
ia i

hese aer. The

i
f ha
e is
 verified i
he 
epi
f
sessive a

ihiai
s a
d reai
s; fr here is i
vved i
he
frmer 
ep
 mere he
i
f a rea differe
e bewee
he w
_aa_ saes, ha befre a
d ha afer he ha
e, b as he

i
f sme _pe
ia_ reai persisi
 hrh he ha
e,
smehi
 apabe f bei
 aa s a
d s befre he ha
e a
d
aa herwise afer he ha
e. Fr rea ha
e, herefre, we
reqire (1) w psiive a
d rea differe
 saes f he same bei
, a
_ermi
s a q_ a
d a _ermi
s ad qem_; a
d (2) a rea press f
ra
sii
whereb smehi
 pe
ia bemes aa. I
reai
here
is
 rea a
d psiive _ermi
s a q_; i
a

ihiai
here is
 rea
a
d psiive _ermi
s ad qem_; hese herefre are
 ha
es i
he
prper se
se f he erm. Smeimes, , ha
e is affirmed, b pre
exri
si de
mi
ai
, f a hi
 i
whih here is
 rea ha
e, b

 a reai
 sme her rea ha
i
 hi
. I
his se
se whe
a

bje 
k
w
r 
hh f bemes he aa bje f smebds
hh r 
ii
, i is said  ha
e, hh he ra
sii
frm

k
w
 k
w
i
vves
 rea ha
e f sae i
he bje, b

 i
he k
wi
 sbje. If hh were i
a
 re se
se

siive f reai, as ma
 mder
phisphers 
e
d, he ha
e
i
he bje wd f rse be rea.
Si
e, herefre, ha
e 
siss i
his, ha a hi
 whih is aa
i
a ive
sae eases  be aa sh a
d bei
s  be aa i

a
her sae, i is bvis ha here persiss hrh he press
sme reai whih is i
isef pe
ia a
d i
differe
  eiher aa
sae; a
d ha, mrever, smehi
 whih was aa disappears, whie
sme
ew aai appears, i
his persisi
 pe
iai. The abidi

pe
ia pri
ipe is aed he _maer_ r _sbje_ f he ha
e; he
ra
sie
 aaizi
 pri
ipes are aed _frms_. N a hese frms
whih preede r res frm ha
e are
eessari psiive e
iies i

hemseves: he ma be mere _privai

s_ f her frms (_privai_,
):
 a ha
es res i
he aqisii
f a
ew deree f
psiive aa bei
; sme res i
ss f perfei
r aai.
Si, eve
i
hese ases, he sae haraerized b he ess perfe
deree f aai has a deermi
ae aa rade f bei
 whih is
prper  isef, a
d whih, as sh, is
 f
d aa, b 

pe
ia, i
he sae haraerized b he mre perfe deree f

aai. Whe
, he
, a bei
 ha
es frm a mre perfe  a ess
perfe sae, he aai f his ess perfe sae a

 be
adeqae a
ed fr b seeki
 i i
he a
eede
 a
d mre perfe
sae: i is
 i
his aer sae _aa_, b 
 _pe
ia_;

r d we a
 fr i b sai
 ha i is eqivae
 i
he
reaer aai f he aer sae: he w aaizi
 pri
ipes are
rea disi
, a
d
eiher is wh r eve
paria he her. The
si
ifia
e f his 
siderai
wi appear prese
 i


ei

wih he shasi axim: _idqid mver ab ai mver_.

Mea
whie we ms ard aai
s 
eivi
 he pe
ia r maeria
far i
ha
e as a sr f aa b hidde
re f reai whih
isef persiss 
ha
ed hrh; a
d he frmaive r aaizi

fars as sperfiia adr
i
 his sbsram b 
sa
 repai


e a
her. Sh a sbsii
f imai
ai
imaes fr i
eea
hh wi
 hep, b raher hi
der, a arae a
asis. I is

he pe
ia r maeria far i
hi
s ha ha
es,
r e he
aaizi
 r frma fars, b he hi
s hemseves; a
d if hi
s
are sbje  rea ha
e i is ma
ifes ha his fa a
be made
i
eiibe, if a a, 
 b i
eea a
asi
 he hi
s a
d
heir ha
es i
 
siive pri
ipes r fars whih are
r
hemseves hi
s r ha
es. Were we  arrive 
 a pri
ipes f
he aer sr, s far frm expai
i
 a
hi
 we wd rea 
 have
pshed bak he prbem a sep farher. I ma be ha

e f he
aemps e made b phisphers r sie
iss  ffer a
imae
expa
ai
f ha
e is e
ire saisfar,he shasi expa
ai

wi be rada i

ed i
hese paes,b i wi be f adva
ae a
eas  re
ize he shrmi
s f heries ha are erai

i
adeqae.
We are
w i
a psii
 sae a
d expai
he impra
 shasi
aphrism embdi
 wha has bee
aed he Pri
ipe f Cha
e
(_Pri
ipim Ms_): _idqid mver, ab ai mver_: Whaever

deres ha
e is ha
ed b smehi
 ese. The erm _ms_ is here
ake
i
he wide se
se f a
 rea ra
sii
frm pe
iai 
aai, as is evide
 frm he aer
aive saeme
s f he same
pri
ipe: _Nihi pes seipsm redere e pe
ia i
am_: Nhi

a
rede isef frm pe
iai  aai, r, aai
, _Pe
ia,
qa ais,
eqi per semeipsam ad am redi, sed redir ab ai
pri
ipi i
a_: The pe
ia as sh a

 be reded b isef 
he aa, b 
 b sme her aread aa pri
ipe.(77) This
asseri
, rih 
dersd, is sef-evide
 re; fr he sae f
passive pe
iai, as sh, i
vves he abse
e f he rreaive
aai i
he pe
ia sbje; a
d si
e he aa, as sh,
i
vves a perfei
whih is
 i
he pe
ia, he aer a



fer p
isef his perfei
:
hi
 a
be he adeqae pri
ipe
r sre f a perfei
whih is
 i
his pri
ipe r sre: _
em
da qd

habe_.
We have aread a
iipaed he bjei
arisi
 frm he 
siderai

ha he sae resi

 frm a ha
e is smeimes i
is ai ess
perfe ha
he sae whih exised prir  he ha
e. Eve
i
sh
ases here ress frm he ha
e a
ew aai whih was
 i
he
prir sae, a
d whih a

 be 
eived as a mere par r reside f
he aer, r rearded as eqivae
 
ai
ed i
he aer. Eve

ra
i
, as we ms, ha he
e res f sh a ha
e is a ss f
aai r perfei
i
he sbje f ha
e, si here is awas a
ai
whih is
 a
ed fr b he ss; here is awas a
ew aa
sae whih, as sh, was
 i
he rii
a sae.

A mre bvis bjei

 he pri
ipe arises frm he 
siderai
f
via ai
; b i is based 
a mis
dersa
di
 f he pri
ipe 
der
disssi
. Livi
 hi
s, i is bjeed, mve hemseves: heir _via_
ai
is sp
a
es a
d imma
e
: rii
ai
 wihi
hemseves, i has
is erm  wihi
hemseves, resi
 i
heir rada devepme
,
rwh, i
rease f aai a
d perfei
. Therefre i wd appear
ha he mve a
d perfe hemseves; a
d he
e he s-aed pri
ipe
f ha
e is
 re 
iversa.
I
rep  a his we admi ha via ai
is imma
e
, remai
i

wihi
he ae
  perfe he aer; as ha i is sp
a
es,
i
asmh as whe
he ae
 is aa exerisi
 via f
i
s i
eed

 be aa 
deri
 he asa i
fe
e f a
 her reaed
ae
, r aa depe
de
 
a
 sh ae
. B i ms,
everheess,
i
sh ai
, be depe
de
 
, a
d i
fe
ed b, _sme aa bei

her ha
isef_. A
d he reas
is bvis: If b sh ai
i
i
reases is w
aa perfei
, a
d bemes aa her ha
i
was befre sh ai
, he
i a

 have ive
isef he aai f
his perfei
, whih i pssessed befre 
 pe
ia. N db, i
is
 mere passive pe
ia i
reard  sh aa perfei
s, as
is he ase i


-via ha
e whih ress i
he sbje frm he
ra
siive ai
f sme side ase p
he aer. The ivi
 hi

has he aive pwer f asi
 r prdi
 i
isef hese aa
perfei
s: here is i
erai
bewee
is via pars: hrh 
e
ra
r fa i as p
a
her, hs edi
 a
aai, a
ew
perfei
, i
his her, a
d hs devepi
 a
d perfei
 is w

bei
. B eve

sidered as aive i a

 be he adeqae ase f

he aai aqired hrh he ha
e. If his aai is smehi

_rea_ ver a
d abve he reai f is aive a
d passive pe
ia
pri
ipes, he
i remai
s re ha ha
e impies he i
fe
e f a

aa bei
 her ha
he sbje ha
ed: _id qid mver, ab ai
mver_.
The qesi
here arises,
 
 i
refere
e  via ae
s,
b  _a fi
ie, reaed ases_: Des he aive ase f
ha
e (eher wih he passive pe
iai f he sbje f
ha
e, wheher his sbje be he ae
 isef as i
imma
e

aivi, r smehi
 her ha
he ae
 as i
ra
siive
aivi),des his aive pwer a
 _adeqae_ fr he
ew
aai eded i
he ha
e? I bvis des
; fr he
aai aqired i
he ha
e is, as sh, a
ew e
i, a
ew
perfei
, i
sme deree psiive srpassi
 he a reai
f he mbi
ed aive pwers a
d passive pe
iaiies whih i
repaes. I
her wrds, if he aai resi
 frm he
ha
e is
  be f
d i
he immediae aive a
d passive
a
eede
s f he ha
e, he
we are i
eviab referred, fr a

adeqae expa
ai
f his aai,  sme aa bei
 abve
a
d be
d hese a
eede
s. A
d  wha sr f aa bei
 are
we referred? T a bei
 i
whih he aai f he effe
resides 
 i
he same wa as i resides i
he immediae aive
a
d passive a
eede
s f he ha
e, ha is _pe
ia_? N;
fr his wd be seess, mere pshi
 he diffi 
e sep
farher bak. We are bied raher  i
fer he exise
e f a

Aa Bei
 i
whm he aai f he said effe resides
_aa_:
 frma, f rse, as i exiss i
isef whe

i is prded hrh he ha

e; b emi
e
, _emi
e
er_, i

sh a wa ha is aaizai

side Himsef a
d 
der His
i
fe
e des
 i
vve i
Him a
 ss f perfei
, a

i
rease f perfei
, r a
 ma

er f ha
e whasever. We are

mpeed i
his wa  i
fer, frm he exise
e f ha
e i

he 
iverse f r dire experie
e, he exise
e f a
ra
se
de
 Immvabe Prime Mver, a _Primm Mve
s Immbie_.
A he aive ases r pri
ipes f ha
e whih fa 
der r

ie i
he 
iverse f dire experie
e are hemseves sbje
 ha
e. N
e f hem ases ha
e i
a
 her hi
 wih
isef 
deri
 ha
e. The aive pwer f fi
ie ases is
isef fi
ie. B edi
 he pe
iai f her hi
s i

aai he rada se p heir w
e
er; he dimi
ish
a
d se heir aive pwer f prdi
 effes: his be
s 
he ver
are f fi
ie ases as sh. Mrever, he are
hemseves passive as we as aive; i
erai
is 
iversa
am
 he fi
ie ases whih 
sie he 
iverse f r
dire experie
e: he a aike have passive pe
iai a
d

der ha
e. Nw, if a
 
e fi
ie ase i
his ssem a


adeqae a
 fr he
ew aai evved frm he
pe
ia i
a
 si
e press f ha
e,
eiher a
he whe
ssem adeqae a
 fr i. Wha is re f hem
disribive is re f hem ake
a eher whe
here is
qesi
f wha be
s  heir
are; a
d he fa ha heir
aive pwers a
d passive pe
iaiies _fa shr_ f he
aai f he effes we aribe  hem is a fa ha
apperai
s  heir ver
are as fi
ie hi
s. The phe
me


f 
i
s ha
e i
he 
iverse i
vves he 
i
s
appeara
e f _
ew aa bei
_. T a
 fr his 
sa

sream f aai we are f
eessi arried be
d he ssem
f fi
ie, ha
i
 bei
 isef; we are fred  i
fer he
exise
e f a sre a
d pri
ipe whih ms isef be pre
aa a
d exemp frm a ha
ea Bei
 wh a
ase a he
aai ha ress frm ha
e wih si
 r ai
i
 r
ha
i
 i
a
 wa Himsef, bease He pssesses a fi
ie
aai i
Himsef i
a speremi
e
 ma

er whih ra
se
ds a
he effrs f fi
ie hma
i
eie
e  mprehe
d r
haraerize i
a
 adeqae r psiive ma

er. The shasis

expressed his i
he simpe aphrism: _Om
e
vm e
s es a De_.
A
d i is he reaizai
f his prf
d rh ha 
deries
heir eahi
 
he
eessi f he Divi
e _C
rss_, _i.e._
he i
fe
e f he I
fi
ie Firs Case r Prime Mver
permeai
 he effiie
 f a fi
ie r reaed ases. Here,
fr exampe, is a brief ree
 saeme
 f ha dri
e:
If we ms admi a asa i
fe
e f hese hi
s [f dire
experie
e] 

e a
her, he
a ser exami
ai
wi

vi
e s ha a fi
ie hi
 a

ever be he adeqae ase f
a
 effe, b is awas, meaphsia rearded, 
 a
par-ase, ever
eedi
  be mpeed b a
her ase. Ever
effe isa eas 
der 
e aspe, a eas as a

effesmehi

ew, smehi
 ha was
 here befre. Eve

were he effe 

ai
ed, wheher frma r vira, i
he
ase, i is erai

 ide
ia wih his aer, fr if i
were here wd be
 asai,
hi
 wd happe
. I
a
asi
 a
d happe
i
, smehi
 whih was herefre 

pssibe, bemes rea a
d aa. B hi
s a

 deermi
e
hemseves  i
fe
e hers, r  reeive he i
fe
e f
hers, si
e he are
 depe
de
 i
heir bei
 

e
a
her. He
e he
eessar i
fere
e ha a bei
, a
happe
i
, a ha
e, reqires he 
rre
e f a
Abse
Pri
ipe f bei
. Whe
w hi
s a 
eah her he Abse
Bei
 ms wrk i
a
d wih hem, he same Abse Bei
 i

bh reae hem  eah her, a

d sppeme
 heir
ara

i
sffiie
.
Sh is he prf
d eahi
 ab he Divi
e C
rss wih
ever reare.... Gd wrks i
a a
d wih a. He permeaes a
reai, everwhere; here is
 bei
 be
d Him r i
depe
de

f His 
servi
 a
d 
rri
 pwer. Js as reares are
brh i
 bei
 
 hrh Gds m
ipe
e, a
d f
hemseves have
 i
depe
de
 reai, s d he
eed he
sef-same ever-prese
, a-ssai
i
 pwer  
i
e i
his
bei
 a
d devep i b heir aivi. Ever eve
 i
Nare is a
ra
sir, passi
 phe
me

, s b
d p wih 
dii
s a
d
irmsa
es ha i ms disappear  ive pae  sme her.
Hw d a mde f bei
 s i
mpee dishare is f
i
i

exise
e wih he 
rre
e f he Firs Case?(78)
We have see

w ha _i
he rea rder_ he pe
ia presppses he
aa; fr he pe
ia a

 aaize isef, b a

be aaized

 b he ai
f sme aread aa bei
. Nr a
we avid his

seqe
e b sppsi
 he pe
ia bei
  have had
 aa
bei

i
 i
ime, b  be eer
a i
press f aaizai
; fr
eve
s, i ms be eer
a aaized _b sme her aa bei
_a
psii
whih Arise a
d sme shasis admi  be pssibe.
Wheher, he
, we 
eive he aaizai
as bei

i
 i
ime r as
preedi
 frm a eer
i, i is sef-
radir  sppse he
pe
ia as apabe f aaizi
 isef.
I is ikewise re ha he aa preedes he pssibe _i
he rder f
r k
wede_. The 
ep f a hi
 as pssibe presppses he 
ep
f ha hi
 as aa; fr he pssibe is 
dersd  be pssibe

 b is i
eiibe reai
 aa exise
e. This is evide

re f exri
si pssibii; b r k
wede eve
f he i
ri
si
pssibii f a hi
 a

 be he firs k
wede we pssess i
he
rder f ime. Or firs k
wede is f he aa; fr he mi
ds firs

iive a ms have fr bje eiher isef r smehi

 isef.
B i k
ws isef as a 
sis ai
 a
d herefre aa bei
.
A
d i mes  k
w hi
s her ha
isef 
 b he fa ha sh
her hi
s a p
i eiher immediae r mediae hrh
se
se-
sis
ess; s ha i
ever hphesis is firs k
w
bje is
smehi
 aa.(79)
The priri f he aa as mpared wih he pe
ia i
he
rea rder, sess a prf f he exise
e f Gd i
he ma

er
i
diaed abve. I as affrds a refai
f Heeia
m
ism.
The 
epi
f he wrd, i
di
 a he phe
me
a f mi
d
a
d maer, as he rada sef-ma
ifesai
r evi
f a
pe
ia bei
 eer
a aaizi
 isef, is a
sef-
radir 
epi
. Shasis rih mai
ai
ha
he reaiies frm whih we derive r firs ms absra a
d
ra
se
de
a
i
f bei
 i
e
era, are aa reaiies.
Heeia
s seize 
he bje f his
i
, ide
if i wih
pre hh, praim i he se reai, a
d e
dw i wih he
pwer f bemi
 aa everhi
. I is ma
ifes, herefre,
ha he e
dw pre pe
ia bei
 wih he pwer f
aaizi
 isef.
Nr a
he fair avid his hare b pi
i
  ha
ahh heir sari
-pi
 is
 aa bei
 (wih whih he
shasi phisph f bei
 mme
es), e
eiher is i

pssibe r pe
ia bei
, b bei
 whih has
eiher f hese
deermi
ai
s, bei
 whih absras frm bh, ike he rea
bei
 f he shasis (7, 13). Fr hh rea bei
 a
be _a

bje f absra hma

hh_ wih eiher f he prediaes
exise
 r

-exise
, e i a

 be a
hi
 _i
he
rea rder_ wih eiher f hem. There i ms be eiher
aa exise
 r ese mere pe
ia. B Heeia
s aim
abse i
deermi
ae bei
  be _as sh_ smehi
 i
he
rea rder; a
d hh he r  disi
ish i frm pe
ia
bei
 he
everheess hi
k f i as pe
ia bei
, fr he
disi
 a
d repeaed deare ha i a
beme a hi
s,
a
d des beme a hi
s, a
d is 
sa
, eer
a
ra
sfrmi
 isef b a
i
er
a diaei press i
 he
phe
me
a whih 
sie he wrds f mi
d a
d maer.
C
rasi
 i wih he absra i
er bei
 whih he 
eive
 be he bje f he radii
a meaphsis, he e
dw
i
deermi
ae bei
 wih he aive pwer f prdi
, a
d he
passive pe
iai f bemi
, aa everhi
. Ths, i

rder  shw _a priri_ hw his i

deermi
ae bei
 ms evve
isef b i
er
a ia
eessi i
 he wrd f r dire
a
d immediae experie
e, he sppse i  be sbje  ha
e
a
d  be a he same ime sef-aaizi
, i
dire ppsii

 he axim ha pe

ia reai, reai whih is sbje 
ha
e, a

 aaize isef: _idqid mver ab ai

mvear pre_.
11. KINDS OF CHANGE.Fwi
 Arise,(80) we ma re
ize a brad a
d
ear disi
i
bewee
fr rea asses f ha
e (,
_mua_) n  nmna  u
n
 xnc: ca can (
, , _a_); uanav can ( ,
, _ame
ai ve dimi
i_); qaiaive ha
e ( ,
, _aleao_); a
d
ub
a
al ha
ge ( ,
). T  m a accdna, _.._ d n ac  ac 


nc 
ub
anc   n a 
cand;  u 


ub
ana, a can  

nc. Sub
ana can 
add a
a n
ac n
ananu
y, a

n a
 cndn bu abu by 
accdna can
adn u   bcm
nauay ncmab w
 

nc  nau  
ubjc. T accdna can
, n  
and, a add a
a n ac aduay, a
azn and nvvn a

ucc

n 
a
 cndn
n 
ubjc. T
 can
,

cay wn y a  ac n ca n
, a y
d
cbd a
mvmn  mn (_mu
_, _m_). By mvmn  mn
n 
c
n
 w  man any can wc a 
ac
aduay 
ucc

vy n a ca n. I 
ny n a wd and
m
n
 a 
 m
a
mm
ad  acvy 
wa
v nd, vn 
ua bn
. In 

n
 w
a 
u
, vn
, c., a
mvmn
 
u, _mu
anma_;  
Gd a
 Pm Mv v n mn,  _Pmum Mvn

m n mu_.
W ca can n maa n
, a
a
 w uanav can,
w and dmnun  uany (ma

and vum), vyn 
cy
ama. Fm  a
 m
, mv, w nd b n
cnc and

y  cncn  ma a
cm
d , and dv
b n,
uma ac
, m
v

u
d  adm  n u a
dv
n, and nc cad _am
_ (-, ). Fom he day
of
Gea
aom
m me
have aemped o
ho ha all ha
ge 
he U
ve
e

ulmaely eduble o ha
ge
of plae, ode,
paal aa
geme

a
d olloao
, of ho
e hypoheal aom fao
. I ha
lke
e
bee
ommo
ly a

umed ha ha
ge 
ma



olely due o ha
ge 
he


umbe of ho
e aom
, a
d ha
ge 
volume (of he
ame ma

) o he
elave de

y o lo
e
e

h hh he aom
aggegae ogehe;
hough
ome have helda
d  
ea
ly
o 
o
evableha exaly
he
ame maeal e
y, a
aom le u

ay, may be apable of _eal_
o
ao
a
d expa

o
, a
d
o of _eal_ ha
ge of volume: a
d


fom he _appae
_ o
ao
a
d expa

o
of bode
, a ha
ge hh 


uppo
ed o be due o ha
ge of de

y, _.e._ o deea
e o 
ea
e 

he dme

o

of he poe
o 
e
e
beee
he
malle o

ue

pa
o moleule
. Hoeve h
may be, he aemp
o edue all ha
ge

phy
al
aue o mee _meha
al_ ha
ge _.e._ o
paal moo


of he ma

e
(_mola_ moo

), he moleule
(_moleula_ moo

), a
d
he aom
o ohe ulmae ompo
e

of mae (hehe vbaoy,
u
dulaoy, oaoy o a

lao
al moo

), have
eve bee

a
faoy.
Qualave ha
ge 
de ha
maeal ha
ge, fo  
lude
ha
ge



pual be
g
, _.e._ 
be
g
hh ae ou
de he aegoy of
qua
y a
d have a mode of ex
e
e alogehe dffee
 fom he
exe

o
al,
paal ex
e
e hh haaeze
mae. Whe
, fo


a
e, he huma
m
d aque
k
oledge,  u
degoe
qualave
ha
ge. Bu mae, oo, ha
quale
, a
d 

ubje o qualave
ha
ge. I 
e
doed h _ave_ quale
, _.e._ h poe
, foe
,
e
ege
, heeby  a

o meely pefom meha
al ok by podu
g
loal ha
ge

he d
buo
of 
ma

houghou
pae, bu al
o
podue phy
al a
d hemal ha
ge
hh
eem a lea
 o be dffee


he
aue fom mee meha
al ha
ge
. I 
lke
e e
doed h
_pa

ve_ quale
hh appea o he
e

e
o be of vaou
k
d
,
dffe
g fom o
e a
ohe a
d fom he meha
al o qua
ave
haae

of
ze,
hape, moo
, e
, e. Whle he
e lae ae
alled pmay quale
of bode
beau
e o
eved o be moe
fu
dame
al a
d moe lo
ely 
hee
 
he eal a
d objeve
aue of
maeo ommo

e

ble
(_
e

bla ommu
a_), beau
e peepble
by moe ha
o
e of ou exe
al
e

e
he fome ae alled
eo
day
quale
, beau
e o
eved o be le

haae
 of he eal a
d
objeve
aue of mae, a
d moe lagely
ubjeve podu
of ou
o

e
e
 og
ve avyo pope
e

ble
(_
e

bla
popa_), beau
e eah of hem 
appehe
ded by o
ly o
e of ou exe
al

e

e
: olou,
ou
d, a
e, odou, empeaue, maeal
ae o
exue (_e.g._ ough
e

, lqudy,
of
e

, e.). No abou all he
e
peeved quale
a
d he ha
ge
he que
o
ha
bee
a
ed: Ae
hey, a

uh, _.e._ a
peeved by u
, eally 
he maeal h
g
o
bode
hh make up he phy
al u
ve
e, a
d eally dffee
 
he
e
bode
fom he qua
ave fao
a
d moo

of he lae? O, a


uh, ae hey
o ahe paally o holly
ubjeve
phe
ome
apodu
, a lea
 
pa, of ou o

e

e peepo
,
ae

of ou o
o

ou

e

, hav
g
oh
g eally oe
po
d
g o hem 

he exe
al mae of he u
ve
e beyo
d he qua
ave, meha
al
fao
a
d moo

heeby mae a
upo
ou faule
of
e

e
og
o
a
d podue
he
e
ae
of o

ou

e


u
? Th

a
que
o
of he f
 mpoa
e, he
oluo
of hh belo
g
o
Ep
emology. A
ole ould
o allo ha he objeve maeal
u
ve
e a
be de
uded, 
he ay ju

ugge
ed, of quale
a
d
qualave ha
ge; a
d
hola
 phlo
ophe
have alay
held he
ame
ge
eal ve. Wha e have o
oe hee, hoeve, 
egad o he
que
o


mply h
, ha eve
f he old of mae ee hu


mplfed by a

fe
g all qualave ha
ge o he
ubjeve doma

of o

ou

e

, he ealy of qualave ha
ge a
d all he poblem

a

g fom  ould
ll pe

. To a

fe qualave ha
ge fom
obje o
ubje, fom mae o m
d, 
ea
ly
omeh
g vey
dffee
 fom expla

g  a
eduble o qua
ave o meha
al

ha
ge. The
mplfao
hu
effeed ould be moe appae
 ha
eal:
 ould be
mplfy
g he old of mae by a

fe
g 
omplexy
o he old of m
d. Th
o

deao

o
e hh 

omeme
lo


gh of by
e


ho adva
e meha
al hypohe
e
a
ulmae
expla
ao

of he
aue a
d ave
of he phy
al u
ve
e.
If all maeal h
g
a
d poe

e
ould be ulmaely a
aly
ed 
o
o
fguao

a
d loal moo

of
pae-oupy
g aom
, homoge
eou


aue a
d dffe
g o
ly 

ze a
d
hape, he
eah of he
e ulmae
aom fao
ould be 
elf exemp fom 


 ha
ge a
o 
o

e

e
e a
d 
dvdualy. I
h
hypohe

hee ould be eally
o

uh h
g a
_
ub
a
al_ ha
ge. The olleo
of aom
ould fom a

mmuable oe of maeal ealy, holly
mple a

d eve aual. Suh a

hypohe

, hoeve, 
uely 

adequae a
a
expla
ao
of he fa

of lfe a
d o

ou

e

. A
d eve
a
a
aou
 of he poe

e
of he

oga
 u
ve
e  e
ou
e


upeable dffule
. The ommo

belef of me
ha
alay
bee
ha eve

h
doma
of ealy hee
ae fu
dame
ally dffee
 _k
d
_ of mae, k
d
hh dffe fom o
e
a
ohe
o meely 
he
hape a
d
ze a
d o
fguao
a
d aa
geme

of he ulmae _aual_ o

ue

, bu eve

he vey
ub
a
e o

aue of he
e o

ue

; a
d ha hee ae
ome maeal ha
ge

hh affe he aual
ub
a
e 
elf of he mae hh u
degoe

hem. Th
belef
hola

, aga
follo
g A
ole, hold o be a
oe belef, a
d o
e hh 
ell gou
ded 
ea
o
. A
d h
belef

u

volve
he ve ha evey ype of aual maeal
e
yhehe meely 
oga
, o e
doed h lfe, o eve
alled h
a hghe,
pual mode of be
g a

he a
e of ma
hm
elf

_e

e
ally ompo
e_, e

e
ally a
y
he

of _poe
al_ a
d
_aual_ p
ple
of be
g, a
d heefoe apable of _
ub
a
al_
ha
ge. The aually ex

g maeal be
g
hola

de
be a

_maea
eu
da_, he  A
;  uy na
ac, wc 
acuazd n 
 a acua nd  ma,
y d
cb a
_maa ma_,   A
; 
acuazn,
cyn, mav nc, y d
na a
_ma

ub
ana
_ (). A
d si
e he pre pe
ia pri
ipe a


aa exis exep as aaized b sme frmaive pri
ipe, a
sbsa
ia ha
e r ra
sii
frm 
e sbsa
ia pe  a
her is

eessari bh a _rrpi_ a

d a _e
erai_. Tha is, i i
vves he
aa disappeara
e f 
e sbsa
ia frm a
d he aa appeara
e f
a
her. He
e he shasi aphrism reardi
 sbsa
ia ha
e:
_Crrpi 
is es e
erai aeris_: he rrpi
r desri
f

e ki
d f maeria hi
 i
vves he e
erai
f a
her ki
d.
The 
eps f _maeria prima_ a
d _frma sbsa
iais_ are 
eps

f phe
me
a e
iies dire aessibe  he se
ses r he
imai
ai
, b f pri
ipes whih a
be reahed 
 mediae a
d b
i
ee prper. The a

 be pired i
he imai
ai
, whih a


 aai
 he se
sibe. We ma hep rseves  rasp hem
i
eea b he a
a f he shapeess bk f marbe a
d he
fire eded herefrm b he spr, b his is 
 a
a
a: js
as he sae ress frm he 
i
f a
_aide
a_ frm wih a

exisi
 maer, s his maer isef, he sbsa
e _marbe_, is
mpsed f a _sbsa
ia_ frm a
d a primrdia, _pe
ia_ maer. B
here he a
a eases.
Frhermre, whe
we 
sider ha he prper a
d primar bjes f he
hma
i
ee isef are rprea hi
s r bdies, a
d ha hese
bdies aa exis i

are 
 as mpsie sbsa
es, sbje 
esse
ia r sbsa
ia ha
e, we sha reaize wh i is ha he

ep f _maeria prima_ espeia, bei
 a mediae a
d
eaive


ep, is s diffi  rasp; fr, as he shasis desribe i,
ra
sai
 Arises frma, i is i
isef _
eqe qid,
eqe
qa
m,
eqe qae,
eqe aiqid erm qibs e
s deermi
ar_.(81)
B i is hrh i
eea 
eps a
e, a
d
 hrh imai
ai

imaes, ha we ma hpe  a

ase he
are a
d presses eve
f he
wrd f rprea reai; a
d, as S. Thmas we bserves, i was
bease he a
ie
 Greek amiss did
 rise abve he eve f
hi
ki
 i
imai
ai
imaes ha he faied  re
ize he
exise
e, r expai
he
are, f sbsa
ia ha
e i
he maeria

iverse(82): a
bservai
whih appies wih eqa fre  hse
sie
iss a
d phisphers f r w
ime wh wd fai
rede a
phsia presses  mere meha
ia ha
e.
Thse, he
, are he pri
ipa ki
ds f ha
e, as a
ased b Arise
a
d he shasis. We ma
e, fi
a, ha he disi
i
bewee

_imma
e
_ a
d _ra
siive_ aivi is as appied  ha
eha is, 
ha
e 
sidered as a press,
  he res f he ha
e,  ha
e
_i
fieri_,
 _i
fa esse_. Imma
e
 mveme
 r aivi (_mi_,
_ai imma
e
s_) is ha f whih he erm, he eded aai, remai
s
wihi
he ae
whih aer is herefre a 
e bh _ae
s_ a
d
_paie
s_. ia ai
is f his ki
d. Tra
siive mveme
 r aivi,

he her ha
d (_mi_, _ai ra
sie
s_), is ha f whih he erm
is sme aai eded i
a bei
 her ha
he ae
. The _paie
s_ is
here rea disi
 frm he _ae
s_; a
d i is i
he frmer,
 i
he
aer, ha he ha
e akes pae: _ai fi i
pass_. A ha
e i

he i
ra
i 
iverse is f his sr (101).

CHAPTER III. EXISTENCE AND ESSENCE.

12. EXISTENCE.I
he preedi
 hapers we exami
ed reai i
isef a
d
i
is reai
 ha
e r bemi
. We have
w  exami
e i i

reai
 is aa exise
e a
d  is i
ri
si pssibii (7,
_a_).
_Exisi
_ r _bei
_ (i
he pariipia se
se: esse, _exisere_,
) s smple, nefn ble noton. A beng s s  to exst wen t
s not merely possble but ctu l, wen t s not merely potent l n ts
ctve n p ssve c uses but  s become ctu l troug tose c uses
(_exstere_: _ex-ssto_: _ex-st re_: to st n fort, stnct from ts
c uses); or, f t  ve no c uses, wen t smply s (_esse_),n wc
sense Go, te Necess ry, purely Actu l Beng, smply _s_. Tus,
exstence mples te noton of ctu lty, n s conceve s t t by
wc ny tng or essence _s, stnct from notngness, n te ctu l
orer_.(83) Or, g n, t s _te ctu lty of ny tng or essence_.
About ny concev ble beng we m y s two stnct questons: (_ _) W t
s t? n (_b_) Does suc
beng ctu lly exst? Te nswer to te
former gves us te _essence_, w t s presente to te mn troug te
concept; te nswer to te l tter nforms us bout te ctu l _exstence_
of te beng or essence n queston.
To te mn of ny nvu l m n te re l exstence ( s lso te re l
essence) of ny beng w tsoever, not exceptng s own, c n be nown only
troug ts e l presence n s mn, troug te concept or percept
wereby t becomes for m nown object, n _objectum cogntum_. But
ts ctu l presence of nown beng to te nowng mn must not be

confoune wt te re l exstence of suc beng (4). Re l beng oes not

get ts re l exstence n our mns or from our mns. Our cognton oes
not prouce, but only scovers, ctu lly exstng re lty. Te l tter, by
ctng on te mn, engeners teren te cognton of tself. Now ll our
nowlege comes troug te senses; n sense cognton s excte n us
by te rect cton of m ter l or penomen l beng on our sense
f cultes. But troug sense cognton te mn s ble to tt n to
nowlege bot of te possblty n of te ctu l exstence of
supr sensble or sprtu l re ltes. Hence we c nnot escrbe exstence
s te power wc m ter l re ltes  ve to excte n us nowlege of
temselves. Ter exstence s pror to ts ctvty: _prus est esse
qu m gere_. Nor c n we lmt exstence to m ter l re ltes; for f
tere re sprtu l re ltes tese too  ve exstence, toug ts
exstence c n be scerne only by ntellect, n not by sense.
13. ESSENCE.In ny exstng tng we c n stngus _w t te tng s_,
ts _essence_, from ts ctu l _exstence_. If we bstr ct from te ctu l
exstence of tng, not conserng weter t ctu lly exsts or not,
n fx our ttenton merely on _w t te tng s_, we re tn ng of
ts _re l essence_. If we postvely exclue te noton of ctu l
exstence from our concept of te essence, n tn of te l tter s not
ctu lly exstng, we re conserng t form lly s _possble essence_.
Tere s no beng, even te Necess ry Beng, wose essence we c nnot tn
of n te former w y, _.e._ _wtout nclung_ n our concept te noton
of ctu l exstence; but we c nnot wtout error _postvely exclue_ te
noton of ctu l exstence from our concept of te Necess ry Beng, or
tn of te l tter s _merely possble_ essence.
T en n ts west sense, te essence of tng (, _e

enti _,
, _quo qu est_, _qut s_) me ns _t t by wc
tng s
w t t s_: _ quo res est  quo est_: t t wc gves us te nswer
to te queston, W t s ts tng? _Qu est  ec res?_
.(84) Nw  cu
 any ndvdua n 
wa  
ju
 c
y by
a  ay a 
n ; bu w av n dc  nuv
ncua n
 n 
ay; w und
and  ny by d
;
w x  m vau
n
 vw, ab
acn and nazn
aa a
c
  a
w cma  w  n
and
 
ca

y and dn : _a umana 

na
um ua
 vnau_, a


ca
c

ay:  uman mnd un
, a
 w, a  

nc

 nau
 n
. Und
andn  ndvdua daum 
n

xnc (wa A
 cad ,  , and 

ca
c
_c a ud_,  _
ub
ana ma_), _.._ 
ndvdua,
Sca
, 
 und  vau
 cnc  bn, n aduay und
 m and m dmna cnc

ub
anc, ca, vn,

nn, ana,  nay m
 cmx cnc  
_
c

nma_, x

d by 
w
 ca

-nam, man, and xcy

 n  dnn  

cc nau a
a ana anma. N
d
u a
n a  az a by acn 
cnc  
_
cc_ 

nc  nau   ndvdua, Sca
,  a
n y
a
d a  ay wby  ndvdua 
wa  
. I a

acd wa  a
n cmmn w a  ndvdua
 
ca

,
wa 


na  m _a
a man_;  a
d
nu
d 
m 
unanay
d
mn wc ma 
m _
acua ndvdua_  

ca

, and wc ma 


cc 

nc 
_ndvdua 

nc_
(_

na_ _ama_,  _ndvdua_); and  a
a
 d
nu
d



nc m 
 accdna and v vayn abu
wc a
n 

na  m a
a man, and m 
 wc a n 

na 
m a
Sca
. I 
ny  unamd ndvdua 

nc, a
x
n
_c  nunc_, a 
_cnc_. A  mnd
nc and
cc

nan
 _.._  Sca
a
a ca
ub
anc, a

vn bn, a
nn bn, a ana anmaa _ab
ac_, and a
m  

nad ua, nn  m xau
n 
nwab ay. Bu
 
ny n
 a a
 mnd 
ab  
n cnc ndvdua
n
by
uc ab
ac cnc
, a  can aan  _ncua_
nwd   nau  ay. Hnc  
a by  m


nc,
my and _
n add_, w away
man  

nc a
a
d
by ab
ac nc 
cc cnc
(, _speies_), a
d as hs
apabe f defi
ii
(, _rai rei_). The esse
e, sas S.
Thmas, is ha b whih he hi
 is 
sied i
is prper e
s r
speies, a
d whih we si
if b he defi
ii
whih saes wha he
hi
 is.(85) Ths 
dersd, he esse
e is absra, a
d ives he
speifi r e
eri pe  whih he i
divida hi
 be
s; b we ma
as mea
b esse
e, he 
ree esse
e, he i
divida pers
r hi

(_pers
a_, _sppsim_, _res i
divida_). The reai
s bewee
he
bjes f hse w 
eps f esse
e wi be exami
ed aer.
Si
e he speifi esse
e is 
eived as he ms f
dame
a reai i

he hi
, a
d as he sea a
d sre f a he prperies a
d aiviies
f he hi
, i is smeimes defi
ed r desribed, i
arda
e wih
his
i
f i, as he primar 
siive f he hi
 a
d he sre
f a he prperies f he hi
. C
eived as he f
dai
f a he
prperies f he hi
 i is smeimes aed _sbsa
e_ (,
_
ub
t nti _). Reg rded
the
urce  the thing
ctivitie
, nd the
principe  it
grwth r devepment, it i
c ed the _n ture_  the
thing (, _
ara_, frm , _
a
o_).(86)
S
e ha make
a h
g ha hh  
, by he
ame fa dffee
ae

h
h
g fom evey ohe h
g, he e

e
e 
ghly o
eved a

ha hh gve
he h
g 
haae
 be
g, heeby mak
g 
off fom all ohe be
g. I
ealy, of ou
e, eah 
dvdual be
g 

d

 by all ha  
fom evey ohe. Bu

e e ge ou

elleual k
oledge of h
g
by ab
a
g, ompa
g, ge
ealz
g,
a
d la

fy
g paal a
pe
of hem, e appehe
d pa of he
mpefely ga
ped ab
a e

e
e of eah 
dvdual a
ommo
o ohe
la

e
(ge
e), a
d pa a
peula o ha la


elf
(dffee
al); a
d hu
e dffee
ae la

e
of h
g
by ha 

o
ly pa of he e

e
e, by ha e all he _dffee
a_ of eah
la

, _d

gu
h
g me
ally_ beee
 a
d he ge
e eleme
: hh
o ae eally _o
e_, eally de
al, 
evey 
dvdual of he
pee

hu
def
ed a
d la

fed.
Bu 
he A
oela
a
d
hola
 ve of he o

uo
of a
y
_opoeal_ h
g, hee 
a da
ge of ak
g ha 
eally o
ly pa of
he e

e
e of
uh a h
g fo he hole e

e
e. Aod
g o h
ve
all opoeal
ub
a
e 
e

e
ally ompo
e, o

ued by o
eally d

,
ub
a
al p
ple
, pmal mae ( ,
_m ter prm _) n subst nt l form (, ) und
ub
anay,
a
na and acua nc
,  m n cm
 nau 


nc. Nw  nd, 
c
, 
cc y,  wc a bdy
bn
_.._, a 
, an a , d, wa, c.dnd
un 

ub
ana m wc acuaz
 ma  na nc. In

a a
 ca 

nc 
nwn  u
a a  
nwn u 
m, wc 
 nc  a  caac
c 
and
acv
 a acua nd  bdy. Hnc  
u naua a
 , ,  _ma
ub
ana
_  a bdy
ud n b
d  a

cc 

nc   bdy, u  cu
 


nc   bdy ay ncud
 maa a
w a
 ma
ac.
W may  a  

nc  any bn m w n
 vw. I w

cn
d  a
 
cncvd acuay  x
 n  bn, w ca 

 _y
ca 

nc_. I w cn
d  a  mann n wc  

andd and dnd by u nc
u nc and
dnan cnc
, w ca   _may
ca 

nc_. Tu
, 


nc  man cncvd by  w dnn cnc
, ana anma,

 may
ca 

nc;  

nc  man a
nwn  b cm
d 
 w ay d
nc
ub
ana nc
,
u and bdy, 

y
ca 

nc. Und
d n 
way b a n and 
am 

nc
cn
dd m dn n
 vwa
x
n n  acua d,
and a
cncvd by  mnd.(87)
T y
ca 

nc  any bn, und
d a
 cn
uv
nc  nc
m wc a 

n, 

_
m_  _cm
_ accdn a
 
und
d  cn

  n

uc cn
uv nc,   
u m 
ub
ana unn 
w cn
uv nc
, a maa and a ma. Tu
,  

nc 
Gd,  

nc  a uy
ua bn,  

nc   uman

u, a y
cay
m;  

nc  man,  

nc
 a
ca bn
, a y
cay cm
.
Accdn  u md  cncvn, dnn and ca

yn 

nc
by
man
  ab
ac nc and dna ad
 bn wc w
and n m, a 

nc
, vn y
cay
m 

nc
, a
cncvd a
cay and may
cay cm
. Mv w
a and
n   nc and dna ac
a
maa and ma

cvy, a  anay   cm
n  ca 
y
cay cm
 

nc
m  unn  w ay d
nc
nc
, ma and m;  anay cn

n n 
, a a

ma 
 ndmna nc wc 
dmnd and acuad by
m,
  _nc_ cnc 
 ndmna cnc wc 
mad
dn and
cc by a   _dna_.(88) Bu wn w n
  _nu
_  any ca 

nc a
maa, and 
_dna_ a
ma, w mu
 n cn
d 
 may
ca a

a
ay d
nc; wa
 y
ca a
 a ca
ub
anc
(
uc a
man) a ay d
nc. T nu
(anma), au a
may
ca a, x


 _w 

nc_ (man) n an ndmna
way; wa
 ma wc 
a y
ca a, d
n x


w 

nc  man, n d

u wc 
a
 a y
ca a, bu
ny b . N a   a

ud m  cnu
n 
u wby _nu
_ and _dna_ av bn add a
maa
and ma cn
uv
n  a
n
  
 x

n
.
14. CHARACTERISTICS OF ABSTRACT ESSENCES.Wn w cn
d  

nc

n
n a
acuay x
n, bu a
nn
cay 

b
ab
ac, may
ca 

nc
, w nd a wn a
bjc

u u y a anay
d n 
m
 cn
un
and
cmad  ad w m
v
and w n an y 
n
m
v
 u mnd
n 
 an
a
ndwd w can m 


ma ab caac
c
.
(_a_) In  
 ac, bn ab
ac, y 
n m
v
 
mnd a
bn wa y a ndndny  acua x
nc a any
acua m  ac. T nby 

mn aa m
any an  any acua m  ac. Bn nn
cay 

b,
y m x
 a any m  ac; bu a


b, y a u 
m and u  ac_dmazd_ and _dcazd_,  w may b
md  u

uc x

n
.(89)
(_b_) Fum,
nc  nc m

nn
 m, u
 ad  
n

and  manan, m acua azan


m
v
  cn
un ac
, and
nc  und
and
m 

b nn
cay 

b,   m nn
c ncmaby  
cn
un ac
,  cncv
m  b caab  ndny
ad acuazan
uu m and
acun




m

ca a
n   cnay, a
 d
n  ca
   Nc

ay
Bn, and (accdn 
m 

) n  ca
  uy
mmaa bn
 u

. Ta 

ay  _unv
az
_ m,
and

m  b caab  x
n a any and vy cncvab m
and ac. T
an  

ac 
n  y  b cnundd
w  _mmn
y_  _ub uy_  Gd. Bu  c
ndn
an  m 

mm
d
cbd a
_ny_; and   


d
cbd  mu
 b cauy d
nu
d m  _
v_ ny
 Gd,  Immuab Bn. T d
nu
  m  a  

u
uay d
cbd a
_nav_ ny,
ndnc  


b 

nc  acua x
nc a any acua n  m.
Bu aa m 
an wc w cncv  a
avn 
x
nc n  d  acua ay, can w,  d w, 
mu
 w cncv  a
n 
 an nn
c 

by _m
a ny_, n 
n
 a  _nv ban_  b
nn
cay 

b, and w nv ca
  b
? Mu
 w
abu   a _
v_ ny, n  cu
  acuay
 x
nc, bu  _da_ bn, a
an bjc  u  an
Enay Ex
n Mnd? Wa 


u
d na 

by
  

b 

nc? I
 nn acua:  

b a


uc 
nn acua. Bu 
 anyn a? Ha
 ny da
bn_

 da_  _nnna_? And a
 
ny n and
m  uman mnd,  ndndny   uman mnd? And a

ndndny   _acua_ 

nc
m wc  uman mnd

 daa  
u,
 a w mu
 a
cb   an
_na_ da bn? T 
 u
n
w
a un

ny.
(_c_) Tdy, 

nc
cn
dd aa m  acua x
nc, and
cmad w  wn cn
uv ac
 w n an, va
  mnd an
wc  mnd

 b _nc

ay_, and wc 
mua
 
 n _nc

ay_ judmn
,judmn
_n maa
nc

aa_. By vu   nc  dny an ab
ac 

nc 

_nc

ay_ wa  
, wa  mnd cncv
  b, wa  mnd
cncv
a

dnn. Man, a
an bjc  u, 

_nc

ay_ a ana anma, w  acuay x

 n. And 
 
u  a
x
n,  cann a 
am m b u  a

nn-x
n,by  nc  cnadcn. An x
n man 

nc

ay an x
n man,by  nc  dny. T
 ca
nc
a d n  nau  ay, w acua 


b, cn
dd a
an _bjc  u_. T 
u
a nc

ay
an bwn any cmx bjc  u and ac   cn
un
ac
n wc  mnd can anay
 . And,
may,  
a
nc

ay nav ana an  xcu
nbwn any bjc 
u and anyn wc  mnd

 b ncmab w a
bjc a
a w,  w any  
cn
un ac
.
Aan,  mnd

nc

ay an
bwn ab
ac 

nc

cmad w n an. Fv and
vn a _nc

ay_ wv.
Wav bn
 x
 acuay _mu
_ av a cau
. Cnnn bn,

uc x

, 
_nc

ay_ dndn  
x
nc n
m 
acuay x
n bn. I na bn 
acuazd  _mu
_ b
acuazd by acua bn. T  n an
 a an a

_nc

ay_  ua  w  an
. And
 n.

Bu 
 ab
ac 

nc 
aa m a mna anay

 ,
aa m a cma
n   w 
cn
un ac
 w 


nc
n any
n
 _nc

ay_? T 
n u
n  
acua
x
nc, bu ny  
 a
an bjc  u. Nw u u
d
n
m  dmand _nc

ay_,  av a _nc

ay_ cnnxn
w, any acua bjc  wc w d _d ac_ n . Wa w d
n  
dmnd by u xnc  _acua_ n
. And 
n
wc w cncv  b 

b, by  xc
  u a
n
un  daa  u
n

, mmy and manan, a dmnd a

 nau and numb by u xnc  acua n
, vn au
y m
v
can and d a

bynd  dman  acuay xncd
n
. T ny nc

ay bjc  u 
ay n na: 
 xc
   uncn  u nc

ay dmand
an bjc, and

bjc mu
 b ay 
m
. Tu, a
w
aw, bn
w
acua ay. W n un 
, u and
n  
undan
 
 nc

ay an
and judmn
aady d
. Cn
dn, mv,  acua daa  xnc, u u can
n m 
  acua x
nc  n Bn W mu
 x
 by a
nc

y  H
E

nc.
Bu, um, mu
 a 
d
 can acuay n ,


b_ n 
am
n
 n
mu
 b cncvd a
nay

a un 
ny.



b 

nc
wc  mnd

b cncvd a
_nc

ay
wc  

u
d a y


b? T 
u
n, , w

(_d_) Fnay, 

b 

nc
aa   mnd a
_mmuab_, and

cn
 uny _ndv
b_. T
man

my a  an
wc w

ab
 bwn m and  cn
uv ac
a n ny
nc

ay bu mmuab: a  any cn
uv ac  an 

nc 

cncvd a
mvd m ,  any nw ac a
addd, w av n
n  na 

nc bu
m  

nc. I anma 
a bn


nay mbdyn  w bjcv cnc
 an
m and

nn, n n mvn  w av n n  

nc
anma. S, , by addn  

m  mn cmab w
m, _.._ ana, w av n n  

nc anma, bu 


nc man. Hnc 

b 

nc
av bn  nd  numb
,
na
muc a
 w add anyn , 
ubac anyn m, any vn
numb, w av nw n n  na numb bu an.(90) T
,
, 
ny an x

n   aw
 dny and cnadcn.
W m a
, wv, w, aa m anay

and cma
n
 an ab
ac bjc  u w 
cn
uv n

ac
,
uc a 

b 

nc 
n 
 _mmuaby_


b. T


ma   u
n w w can  mu

cncv
uc a 

b 

nc a
nay and nc

ay


b.
15. GROUNDS OF THOSE CHARACTERISTICS.In cn
dn  und

a
n
  vau
caac
c
ju
 numad  may b w 
c a wn w
a   _nn
c 

by_  a 

b


nc w cncv  a a

mn cmx, wc w mnay

v n 
cn
uv n
 ac
 nc
, 
 

 a cmab. I y a w nunc  

nc nn
cay



b,  n w nunc  nn
cay m

b. F u mnd
,
ab
nc  nna ncmaby n  cnn  u cnc  any
bjc 
 
  
nn
c 

by. Wav u



 w cn
d caab  x
n. Bu wa abu  

by 
 n
,  ac
,  nc
m
v
, wby w dn 



nc
, and by  unn  wc w cncv 
 

nc
 b
cn
ud? Hw d w nw a 
 ab
ac nc
 ac
n
n  wc can acuay x
 an,
nc a a ab
accan n
can cmbnan
m _

b_ bjc
 u? W can nw 

ny bcau
 w av  xncd
uc bjc
a
acua,  bcau

w n  

by m bjc
acuay xncd. And

may u nwd  wa 
m

b 
ba
d un u xnc
  acua. Snc, mv, u xnc   acua 
n and
ab, w may  n u judmn
a
 wa 

nc
a, and wa
a n, nn
cay 

b.(91)
I nw w a
u
v
wa nb a
n can w a

n  
caac
c
ju
 ndcad a
bnn  

b 

nc
, w mu

x u ann 
  a n  undamna ac a  uman
nc away
and

bjc _n an ab
ac cndn_. I
cnma
 

nc aa m  x
nc n wc  

nc 


ubjc  ccum
anc
 m and ac and can;  a




nc n a
ac cndn a

my dnca w 
 and d
nc
m a 
; 

 

nc a
ndn  x
nc a any
ac  m; cn n n  acuazan  


nc n 
x
n d  n
,  and
 

nc a
caab 
ndn acuazan
(xc n ca

w 


m a
n 
 cnay), _.._  _unv
az
_  

nc; cman  w

cn
un n
 mn
, and w 
   

nc
, 


and am
can an
( dny  dv
y,
cmaby  ncmaby, bwn 
 n
 mn
) a

dn d _nc

ay_ and _mmuaby_, and ndndny  
acua mbdmn  
 n
 mn
n any bjc x
n a any
acua ac  m. A 
 au
  an
bwn 
cn
un
 ab
ac, 

b 

nc
,
m
 a  b ad uay
accund  by  ac a  nc and

 

nc
_n
 ab
ac_:  daa n wc  and
m bn vn  
u
n
 xnc. Wa may b nd m  ac a 
uman nc a

w  ab
ac u, 
an
u
n(92). Bu ann a  d
and 

nc
n 
mann,
w
m  av n 
ac a
ucn xanan   au
ju

d .
W av, wv, aady
u
d  u
n
abu  ay 

 

b 

nc
. I
 

by,
 a a
nwn  u
,
xand by u xnc  acua n
? O mu
 w n m a

nay, nc

ay and mmuaby 

b? Fm  mann n wc w
mu
 and m, can w n anyn abu  ay  an
Ena, Immuab, Nc

ay Innc, n w
 Tu and E

nc
an 
 

nc
, a
andd by u mnd
, can nd  uma
und and xanan? T
 a  u
n
w mu
 nw ndavu 
xamn.
16. POSSIBLE ESSENCES AS SUCH ARE SOMETHING DISTINCT FROM MERE LOGICAL
BEING, AND FROM NOTHINGNESS.T av bn 

w av d
a  acua an 
a, and ny w  
acua; a a uy
(nn
cay) 

b 

nc a

uc 
nn a; a  acua
an 


b; a  uy 

b a

uc 
m

b. T

vw 
ba
d n  nu
a

umn a wav 
 bcm

acua 

,  bcm

, by
m
  unnb aa
c

nc

y. Aa m  ac a  
ncmab w can u

 
m,
uc a
 Dvn Omnnc and Fdm n can,  a

nvv
 dna  a a bcmn  can, and  a

n a
a acuay 
na;   anyn bcm
acua,  wa

vu
y  

b  m

b;  m

b,  cud nv
bcm acua;  

b, n a


b  wa

mn dn
m  m

b,  m ab
u nnn

. Mv, 
nn
cay 

b 
caab  bcmn acua, and may b
acuazd   x


m acua bn w w  acuaz ;
bu ab
u nnn

, n  wd
,  nn
cay
m

bcann b acuazd, vn by Omnnc;  


b 

nc a

uc 

mn 
v  a, a
d
nc m
nnn

. Fnay, nn
cay 

b 

nc
can b cay
d
nu
d m n an by  mnd; bu  nan wc 

u nn-ny  nnn

cann b
 d
nu
d. I 

ca a 

b 

nc
a n
m u
n

mn 
v 
a. Fm wc  w
a nnn

, n 
c
n
, 
n
 m ab
nc  nan  acuay, bu a
  ab
nc 
nan  a 
v  a
mn wc 
nn
c


by; n  wd
a nnn

n 
c
n
 man

nn
c m

by.
Evn 
 w d  nn ju
 jcda  uy 

b


nc a

uc a
n ay n any cncvab
n
wud 
umaby
adm a  
an bjc  uman u a a vn
; y wud
accd    bn  a
m  uman mnd wc n
. I
wud  b an _n
an
_ accdn  
vw, avn ny
 da bn wc cn


n 
bn cn
ud and cnmad
by  uman mnd. Ta  a
 da bn,  _

 da_  _


nnna_, wc cn


n 
bn cnmad by  uman mnd
a
an bjc  u, n n w dny. Bu a  cn w

w, 
y, a 
da bn 

mn m an  da
bn  an _n
an
_,  a m ca ny; and,
cndy, a
a 

b 

nc mu
 av
m  da bn an a wc  a

n  ndvdua uman mnd.
T 

b 

nc 
n a m ca ny;   a cann
b cncvd a
caab  x
n aa m  uman mnd, n 
wd  acua x
nc
(3), wa
 m can b, and 
n ac,
cncvd a
caab 
uc x
nc. I
da bn n  uman mnd

, ,
mn  an a  a m ca ny.
T da bn wc  a
n  uman mnd a
an bjc  u 

undubdy dvd m  mnd
nwd  acua n
. W n
  

nc
 acuay xncd a
aa m  acua
x
nc. Tu
ab
acd, w anay
 m, cma m, a
n m
m. By 
 c


w can n my aan  a nwd  
acua x
nc   a
abv and bynd and u
d  u
wn dc and mmda nuna xnc, bu w can a
 m
cnc
 muud
 a
 

nc
a
nn
cay 

b,
u
vn 
 a an da x
nc n u wn mnd
. H, n,
 u
n a

: I

 ny da bn a can b a
cbd 

uc 

nc
? In  wd
, a 

nc
nn
cay 

b bcau

_w n _ m a
nn
cay 

b? O 
 n a  ca

a w n m  b nn
cay 

b bcau
 y a
nn
cay 

b? D
u u cn
u,  d
 n a
my d
cv,  nn
c 

by? D
 a 
u m,
 
 n a 
u
d by, u u-acvy? T
cnd
anav
u
d n ac  
 u
n

 u n. A
u
u 
n 
uc   acuay, n 
 
uc 

 nn
c 

by. S

m 
 _duc ad ab
udum_ 

 
y wc wud duc a _acuay_ xncd by 
ndvdua mnd  a

,  nmna, 
-man
an
,  
ndvdua mnd 
 a
 n and ny acuay. And n 

ab
ud

 
y wc wud accd  a _nn
cay 

b_
a
n bn  an  da bn wc y av a

u-bjc
  ndvdua uman mnd. T
udy   _acua_
wd  dc xnc ad
 maa and
nc n u  
cncu
n a  
n
m u
n
 a man
an  mnd 
nnc: n, wv,  
wn mnd, wc 

 ny a vy
ny m n  ay   acua wd, bu  n Sum
Innc. And n 

am Innc  wd  

b 

nc

 w b und  av 
na and undamna da bn.
17. POSSIBLE ESSENCES HAVE, BESIDES IDEAL BEING, NO OTHER SORT OF BEING OR
REALITY PROPER AND INTRINSIC TO THEMSELVES.B n un u n
 mann n wc w aan  a nwd  
Innc, and 
 da bn  

b 

nc
n 
Innc, w may a

w, abv and bynd
uc da bn, 

b 

nc
av n
a
m a ny
m bn  ay  and nn
c 
m
v
; n ndd  acua bn wc y 



wn acuazd
n m, bu y
m nd  _nn
c_ ay a
d
nc m 
_xn
c_ da bn,  _

 nnna_, wc cn


my n

a y a bjc
 u 
n a

uc  a Sum
Innc  Mnd.
Sm w mdva
ca
c
(93) cnndd a 

b 

nc
av
m a ny n ndd  x
nc y may cv by can 
ducn n m, bu an nn
c 

na bn wc, by can 
ducn, may b an
d   d  acua x
nc
, and
wc, wn acua x
nc ca

( y v cv ),

cnnu
mmuab and ncub: wa 
 w
cad  _




na_, a
d
nc m  _

 x
na_, cncvn   b
nmda bwn  a n  n and and m da  ca
bn n  , and nc can  _

 dmnuum_  _
cundum
ud_. Examnn  u
n m 
andn  
m, 
 au


m  av u a
nc Gd und
and

 

nc
a


b
m a ny, and
nc 
nwd mu
 av a

m 
bjc
mn a and 
v, 
 

nc
mu
 av
m a and
 nn
c bn m a ny: w
 y wud b
my
nnn

, and nnn

cann b  m   Dvn
Innc. Bu  bvu
y 
a u 

b 

nc
a


uc a _nn acua_ y mu
 b d
nu
d a
a
, caab
 acuay x
n, m _ab
u nnn

_; and a a
u

d
nu
d m ab
u nnn

y a ay and 
vy
nb   Dvn Mnd, a
ndd y a vn   uman
mnd. T b nb y nd n av acua bn. Ty mu
, n
dub, b caab  avn acua bn, n d  b und
d a

a
:  
c
y n 
und
d caaby a 
ay cn


,   a ncud
n ny wa acuay x

bu
wav 
caab  acua x
nc. Wav 

d  ab
u
nnn


a; and 
man
y ncud
n ny  acua bu
wav 
nn
cay 

b.
Ra
 

nc
wc av n acua bn av ny da bn;
and da bn man

my 
nc n
m mnd a
an bjc 
u. Sca
c 

nay(94) d a 

b 

nc

a

uc av n  bn an 
; a b and un
uc 

nc

acuay x
 y av  m
v
and n m
v
n bn xc
 da bn wc y av a
bjc
  Dvn Innc and

 vua bn y av n  Dvn Omnnc wc may a any

m v m acua x
nc. On cnvncn a
n  
vw 

 cn
dan a  

b 

nc
a

uc ad m a ny
any  and nn
c bn n m
v
, Gd cud n ca n
anna. F n a y



nc
, n bcmn acua, wud n
b ducd _x n_, na
muc a
b bcmn acua y wud n
m
v
and m a ny av ad  wn  a bn; and
a ca
n  b acua y wud
 an 
. Bu can 

 ducn  _ w ay_  acua bn m nnn

;
and 
 m

b   acua bn 
my ducd m an


nc aady a, _.._ avn an na 
v ay  

wn. T
am 
u  annan. T y  nay x
n
uncad _ma_ 
n 

ncmab w  dcn  can
an 
y  nay a and uncad m
 

nc
.
Aan, wa cud 

u
d 
v and  ay  


b 

nc b? I  
anyn d
nc m  m da bn

uc an 

nc, a
 
a

umd  b,  mu
 a a b _acua_
bn 
m
, wc wud aany av  b acuazd aan n
d  av acua x
nc! Fnay, 

u
d na ay,
  

b 

nc
, cann b anyn uncad. F wav 

uncad 
Gd; and
nc  


u
d  a



b 

nc
a a mad acua, and cn
u  x
n
cad unv
,  a wud b n 
vw an acuazan  
Dvn E

nc 
,wc 
an
m u and
m. And n can


u
d na ay,   

b 

nc
, b anyn
cad. F
uc can wud b na and nc

ay; wa
Gd

cav acvy 
admd by a
ca
c
 b 

nay ;
and au y a n ad a
 w can m a
ny (_ca ab an_) 


b, y a ad a  

n a ac.
P

b 

nc
a

uc a  nn acua. Fum, a


uc y av n m
v
n 
v bn. Bu y a n 
una. Ty a 
vy nb a
caab  acua x
nc,
and  a
d
nc m ca n
 _na an
_ wc
a n caab 
uc x
nc. Ty a 
n a
bjc
 u
 mnd; and 
m mnd  an  ndvdua uman mnd. Abu 

da bn wc y av n 
Mnd w av nw n  nx ac 
n u.
18. INFERENCES FROM OUR KNOWLEDGE OF POSSIBLE ESSENCES.W av
ad
a an maa
udy   _acua_ wd w ad   cncu
n
a  
dndn n a Sum Innc; and w av
u
d a
n 
Sum Innc a
 

b 

nc
a

uc av 
may da bn (16, 17). Wn  x
nc  Gd a
bn

ab
da
 may b 
ab
d by vau
n
 aumnm
_acua_ n
, w can cay
, a
w b nd u 
ny,
a n  Dvn E

nc a 

b 

nc
av  uma
uc
  

by. Bu many
ca
c 

cnnd a 
nau and 
 

b 

nc
, a
andd by  uman
mnd, un
 a d
nc and cncu
v aumn   x
nc  a
Sum Uncad Innc.(95) O
dny  vady 
uc a
n  a
nn, cnndn a  
ba
d n m
an
n and
m
nan  
 caac
c
.
A adm a  
n uman u a ma 


nc



b: y a nb   uman mnd bcau
 y a


b, n _vc v
a_.(96) F  uman mnd  mmda


uc and und   nn
c 

by and

caac
c

 ac a y a vn   n _acua_
xnc w  a
 w  cn
dn m _aa m
 acua x
nc_.
Bu (1) a y n ndndn  xncd acuay, n 


an   uman mnd,
 a w a cd  n m m
 ay  a Sum Ena Mnd n wc y av na
da bn?
(2) I
n any 

b 

nc (_.._ wa,  a an)

 nc

ay wa  
a vn   nv dd and nv w
x
, nay vn w  n uman   n mnd 
cncv ,  wud
 b wa  
(_.._ a cmca
cmund  xyn and ydn,  a an cna
-
dd u)
 a  mu
 b
m Nc

ay
Ex
n Innc n and m wc  a

nc

ay
u a
a 

b 

nc?(97) T
 

nc
, a
nwn  u
,
a
 a m bn undd n,  xand by,  n

u acua xnc, a w a ad  a a

undd n  m. D w n cn
d 

b 

nc
a

 y
and xma
 wc acua n
mu
 cnm
n d  b acua, n d  x
 a a?(98)
(3) Fnay,  an
wc w and a
bann bwn
m, w
  b nc

ay and mmuab an
. Ty mbdy
nc

ay u
wc a  u mnd

andad
 a
u. Suc nc

ay u
cann b undd  n 
cnnn uman mnd,  n  cnnn and muab acuay
  n
 u mmda xnc. T w can and
mu
 n m m  ay  a Nc

ay, Immuab Bn,
 w
 

nc y mu
 b man
.
I, n, 
da d  nn
cay 

b 

nc


cay and ncay    cnnn acuazan

 any  m (vn u  b 
  m _n  d
 u nwd_, wc 
ba
d n _acua xnc_), 
mu
 b  w
 ncay   a cnnn acua

(ncudn u wn mnd
)
m _Nc

ay Innc_ n wc

d  

b 

nc
a

da bn.
19. CRITICAL ANALYSIS OF THOSE INFERENCES.T vady  
na n  aumn ndcad n  cdn aaa
a

bn
u
y u
nd. Amn  cc
m
 wn
n
av bn ud(99):
(1) _Acua_ n
un
  ba

 aab 

 x
nc  Gd Sum, Nc

ay, Ena, Omn
cn,
and Omnn Bn. Bu w a  n un w a mnd
wc a
n y
 anay
d acua bn a

 w 
nvv

cncu
n,  a mnd wc ab
ac
a
m  vdnc un
d by acua n
 
cncu
n,
can v  x
nc 
uc a bn m 
aa
cn
dan  

b 

nc
,  abu
and
an
. Nw  
n vdn a 
uc a mnd 

b


nc
va m
v
a
avn _na_ da bn. Suc a
mnd 
, n dub, cn
cu
a  
n 
  cau
 
 

by. Bu 

a acua n
_u
_ 
ab
ac caac  
wn u accun
ucny  a
 au
a
 nw
m. T  u
n: I
n 

da bn _na_?  can ny an
w: Ta w dnd n

w  wd  acua n
can b
wn  nvv 
x
nc  an Ena Innc. Un 

vd w
cann
ay w 

b 

nc
av any da bn 
an a wc y av n uman mnd
.
(2) T acua n
m wc w  u cnc
 

b


nc
d n x
 _nc

ay_. Bu, and  x
nc,
w nw m m a can 

nc
a _d ac_ 

b.
Ty a n _nc

ay_ vn  u
a


b, any m an
acua n
a nc

ay vn  u
a
acua. O cu
,
wn y a u  a a, y a, a
bjc
 u,
nc

ay and mmuaby dnca w m
v
, and ad
 n an a
muuay cmab  ncmab, c. Bu

nc

y  an
, yca a
 
and cnnn
n  mna c


 anay

and cma
n, nvvd a


n  vy nau  bn and u, and x

d a
 

n  nc
 dny and cnadcn, 
ju
 a
u
 acua cnnn 

nc
a
 

b 

nc
;(100) and 


mn vy dn m 
  nc

y camd 


b 

nc
by  cnnn a y mu
 b cncvd a

avn da bn _nc

ay_. T da bn y av n 
uman mnd 
cany n nc

ay:  uman mnd m nv
av cncvd 
 

b 

nc
.
Bu mu
  uman mnd cncv a 

b 

nc a
avn
_
m_ da bn _nc

ay_? N; un

a mnd a
aady
cnvncd 
, m a
udy  _acua_ n
, a an
Ena, Nc

ay, Omn
cn Innc x

:  wc, 
cu
,
uc 

nc
wud b nay and nc

ay 
n
a
bjc
 u. I  uman mnd ad aady acd 

cnvcn  cud n
 a vn   w n uman
nc, n
wud
 b u n an   Dvn
Inc. Bu  b nc
w, _ m

b_,
cncvd a
nn-x
n u wud 

 n n.(101)
Su
, , a  a
n y acd 
cnvcn,
 ab
ac
a m  x
nc  Gd a
nwn m
_acua_ n
; and n, u, man
 acua n


xnc and a uman nc
and n nc

wa
v nd a
nn-x
n: mu
 
 cncv 

b
n
a


b? N; 

by and m

by, u and
a
y w nw av ca
d  av any mann. A
uc
amd ab
acn  mnd wud av b  ny wa
Bam
d
cb
a
 aby

 nn. And Bam

 n

ayn a  mnd 
unab  ab
ac a x
nc. Bu
 a
n   naby 
n, a
Bam
cnnd
, bcau

wn  a
mvd acua n
and n mnd


man
n
   a
y
m  d  

b 

nc

wc c
  n and 
  x
nc  an Ena,
Nc

ay Mnd a

uc and und  a d. T a
n
a 
bcau
  mnd

a  nwn _acua_ n
,
m wc   a 
nn
 

b 

nc
,
nc

ay my, a
 ny nb und  
acuay,  x
nc  a Nc

ay Bn, n w

Innc y mu
 av bn cnand day, and n w

Omnnc y mu
 av bn cnand vuay, m a
ny. Fm cnnn _acuay_, a
nwn  ,  mnd
can au   na acuay  Nc

ay Bn, and  
m

by   a
a  ab
u nnn

,   an
d  uy 

b n
aa m a acuay.

(3) O cu
, w  mnd a
u
u u  uma

mcan
  acuay  xncd n
 n, nc
 a
u and xncd 
 n
 cann by any
 ban
  mmy  m m 

nc: y a 

 a
bjc
 
u vn wn  ab
ac
m 
acua x
nc. Bu , w  a
n y
n a 
acuay m
 x
nc  a Nc

ay, Omn
cn and
Omnn Bn,  ab
ac
n ny m  acua
x
nc bu m  x
nc  a n mnd
(

ncudd), n n a
a,
 a a

nwd 
, 
wud b n acua n da n 

b bn. N can 
ac a an da d  

b n

 


n 

wn u m
ad  n cncudn a
uc an da d
ay 


n  y

 a
mad. F  nw
a

da d
 


 

my bcau
 
cann n 
 away. I

a  m a   cud
cvy n 
 away, 
da d wud av 
d
aa w , avn nn
 a a
 nw

acua  

b. Mc a

m a
 ma
n 
vy
n. Fm  ac,  w
, a 
 ab
ac 

nc
,
a
d by u ab
acv u m  dawn  u a
n,
av wn
 ama  u
, w a
y cm   un m a

-x
n acy
 md
 u u
and  n
;
y m a und  dca
by wc w a n  ab 
nn  daa  u xnc. S, , 
ycay nc

ay an

ab
d by ab
ac u
bwn m w cm  ad a
a
  na
y
m 
nc
, ndwd w a
  
av w,  wc
cad n
and nnc
mu
 cnm. Bu y av
ay n
uc -x
nc. T na -x
nc  



nc-y
, wc Pa cad  nb wd, 
, a
d he
uppo
ed ee
al leg
lave poe of he
elao

, ae a
o of me
al opal llu
o
. Tho
e ab
a
e

e
e
, a
d he p
ple
ba
ed upo
hem, ae he podu
of
ou me
al avy ok
g o
he daa of ou aual expee
e.
Whe
e e
e o
he doma
of _
peulave efleo
_ ... hey
ae hee befoe u
; ... bu e mu

o foge ha efleo


_o

eque
_ o
he
po
a
eou
hough-avy hhby ok
g
ab
avely o
he aual daa of
e

ble, o

ge
,
ha
geable, empoal eale

e hem up hee.... We k
o fom
p
yhology ho ho
e deal, ab
a e

e
e-ype
ae fomed....
Bu beau
e e have
o aual memoy of he fomao
, hh 


o apd a
paally o e
ape o

ou

e



po
a
eou

hough, e ae
aually po
e o mag
e ha hey ae
o he
podu of ou o
me
al ao
o
he daa of aual expee
e,
bu ha hey ex
 
u
, o ahe above u
, a
d 
depe
de
ly
of u
. We a
heefoe u
de
a
d he p
yhologal llu
o

u
de hh Plao oe
uh pa

age
a
he follo
g: Bu f
a
yo
e
hould ell me hy a
yh
g 
beauful, ehe beau
e 
ha
a bloom
g, flod olou, o fgue, o a
yh
g el
e of he
k
d, I d
m

all ohe ea
o

, fo I am o
fou
ded by hem
all; bu I
mply, holly, a
d pehap

avely, o
f
e my
elf o
h
, ha
oh
g el
e au
e
 o be beauful, exep ehe
he pe
e
e o ommu
ao
of ha ab
a beauy, by haeve
mea

a
d 
haeve ay ommu
aed; fo I a

o ye affm
h ea
y, bu o
ly ha by mea

of beauy all beauful
h
g
beome beauful ( ). F 

aa
 m 
a
 an
w  v b  my
 and 
,
and adn  
I n a I
a nv a [n

].... And a by manud a n
bcm a, and

a n
a; and by n



n
bcm


.(102) S. Auu
n
dcn n  nvaab aw

numb
, n  mmuab nc
 w
dm, and n u
nay, daw

n
an m 
Panc
da
m.(103)
Bu 
Panc dcn, abun   ab
ac 

nc

cncvd by u u a ay ndndn b  u u
and   acua
n
 daa m wc dcy  ndcy w
dv u cnc
 m, 
jcd a
un
und by
ca
c

nay. Wn w av vd m acua n
a Gd x

,
and 
 Inn and F Ca   acua wd  u
dc xnc, w can  cu
 cn
d  Dvn Inc
a
cnman m a ny  Dvn E

nc, and a


n n  na acy
 da
 a acua and


b 

nc
. W may u
ad  Dvn Mnd a

na , o _mu
du

ellgbl
_. Th
, of ou
e,


o Plao
hough;  
ha S. Augu

e
ub
ued fo
Plao

m, a
d vey popely. Bu e mu

o 
fe, fom h

uh, ha he
e o
emplae po

ble e

e
e
, h all he
haae

e may dee 
hem, e ae o
empla
g h

_mu
du

ellgbl
_ hh 
he Dv
e M
d. Th
a
he
eo of he o
olog

. They 
feed ha

e po

ble
e

e
e
, a
k
o
by he huma
m
d, have deal be
g

depe
de
ly of he lae a
d of all aual o

ge
 ealy,
he huma
m
d 
o
empla
g hem ha
eally a

uo
of
hem a
hey ae
ee
by he Dv
e I
elle I
elf 
he Dv
e
E

e
e;
o ha, 
he od
of Gobe, he _Pmum
O
ologum_, he Dv
e Be
g Hm
elf, 
al
o he _pmum
logum_, o f
 ealy appehe
ded by huma
hough.(104)
No ho
e auho
ho hold ha he deal ode of po

ble
e

e
e
o
emplaed by he huma
m
d 

ee
by he lae, a


o o
emplaed, o have
ome be
g,
ome deal be
g, eally

depe
de
 of he huma
m
d 
elf, a
d of he aual o

ge

h
g
fom hh hey adm ha he huma
m
d deve


k
oledge of
uh e

e
e
,he
e auho
_do
o hold_, bu
_de
y_, ha h

depe
de
 deal be
g, hh hey lam fo
he
e e

e
e
, 
_a
yh
g Dv
e_, ha  
he Dv
e
E

e
e a

ee
by he Dv
e I
elle o be mable _ad
exa_.(105) He
e hey a

o faly be haged h he eo of

o
olog
m.
Re
ou

g Plao
exaggeaed eal
m, a
d hold
g ha ou
k
oledge of he deal ode of po

ble e

e
e

deved by
ou m
d fom 
o

deao
of _aual_ h
g
, hey ye hold
ha h
deal ode 

ee
o have
ome
o of be
g o
ealy 
depe
de
 boh of he m
d a
d of aual h
g
.(106)
Th


o ea
y o u
de
a
d. Whe
e a
k, I
h

uppo
ed

depe
de
 be
g (o ealy, o po

bly) of po

ble
e

e
e
he deal be
g hey have 
he Dv
e m
d?e ae old
ha  

o;(107) bu ha  

omeh
g fom hh e a

_
fe, by ea
o

g_, h
ee
al,
ee

ay, a
d mmuable
deal be
g of he
e
ame e

e
e

he Dv
e M
d.
The o

deao

uged 
he foego
g paagaph
ll,
hoeve, have
ho
ha he valdy of h
l
e of ea
o

g
fom po

ble e

e
e
o he ealy of a
Ee
al, Dv
e,
Immuable I
ellge
e 
by
o mea

evde
 o fee fom

dffule
. Of ou
e, he

he ex
e
e of God ha
bee
poved
fom aual h
g
, he o
epo
of he Dv
e I
ellge
e a
d
E

e
e a
he ulmae
oue of all po

ble ealy,
o le


ha
of all aual ealy, ll be fou
d o
hed a gea deal of

e lgh upo
he 


 po

bly of po

ble e

e
e
.
S
e, hoeve, ou k
oledge of he Dv
e 
meely a
alogal,
a
d

e God

uo
of po

ble e

e
e
, a
mao

of
H
o
Dv
e E

e
e, ompleely a

e
d
ou ompehe

o
,
a
d 
oally dffee
 fom ou ab
ave k
oledge of
uh
e

e
e
, ou o
epo
of he ma

e 
hh he
e e

e
e
ae
elaed o he Dv
e Naue a
d he Dv
e Abue
, mu
 be
deem
ed afe he a
alogy of he ma

e 
hh ou o
m
d

ae elaed o he
e e

e
e
.
20. ESSENCES ARE INTRINSICALLY POSSIBLE, NOT BECAUSE GOD CAN MAKE THEM
EXIST ACTUALLY; NOR YET BECAUSE HE FREELY WILLS THEM TO BE POSSIBLE; NOR
BECAUSE HE UNDERSTANDS THEM AS POSSIBLE; BUT BECAUSE THEY ARE MODES IN
WHICH THE DIINE ESSENCE IS IMITABLE _ad exa_.(_a_) The ulmae
oue
of he _ex

_ po

bly of all o

ge
 eale

he Dv
e
Om
poe
e: ju
 a
he poxmae
oue of he ex

 po

bly of
a
aue 
he poe of he
ulpo o edue  fom he blok of ood
o mable. Bu ju
 a
he poe of he
ulpo pe
uppo
e
he
_


_ po

bly of he
aue,
o doe
he Dv
e Om
poe
e
pe
uppo
e he 


 po

bly of all po

ble h
g
. I 

o, a

Wllam of Okam ( 1347), a
hola
 of he deade
 peod,
eo
eou
ly hough, beau
e God a
eae h
g
ha
uh h
g
ae



ally po

ble, bu ahe beau
e hey ae 


ally po

ble
He a
eae hem.
(_b_) No le

eo
eou

he _volu
a
_ heoy of De
ae
,
aod
g o hh po

ble e

e
e
ae 


ally po

ble beau
e
God feely lled hem o be po

ble.(108) The _aualy_ of all eaed
h
g
depe
d
, of ou
e, o
he fee ll of God o eae hem; bu
ha po

ble e

e
e
ae ha hey ae, a
d ae elaed o eah ohe

ee

aly a
hey ae, beau
e God ha
lled hem o be
uh, 

ab
oluely 
edble. De
ae

eem
o have bee
beayed 
o h


a
ge eo by a fal
e
oo
of ha 
equ
e fo he ab
olue
feedom a
d 
depe
de
e of he Dv
e Wll: a
f h
dema
ded ha God

hould be fee o ll, _e.g._ ha o _plu
_ o be fve, o ha he
ad of a le be u
equal, o ha eaue
be 
depe
de
 of Hm
elf,
o ha bla
phemy be a vuou
a! The 


 po

bly of e

e
e


_
o_ depe
de
 o
he Fee Wll of God; he aualzao
of po

ble
e

e
e

; bu God a
ll o aualze o
ly
uh e

e
e
a
He
ee
,
fom ompehe
d
g H
o
Dv
e E

e
e, o be 


ally po

ble.
Bu  deogae


o ay fom he
upemay of he Dv
e Wll o
o
eve 
fee volo
a
hu
o

eque
 o
, a
d llum
ed by, he
Dv
e K
oledge; heea
 

ompable h he 
dom a
d
a
y
of God, a
ell a

o
evable o he huma
m
d, ha he
ee

ay
la
of hough a
d be
g
uh a
he p
ple
of o
ado
a
d
de
y, he p
ple of au
aly, he f
 p
ple
of he moal
ode
hould be ha hey ae
mply beau
e God ha
feely lled hem o
be
o, a
d mgh heefoe have bee
ohe
e.
Fom he fa ha e have
o de 
uo
of he Dv
e
Be
g,
ome phlo
ophe
have o
luded ha all
peulao
o

he elao
of God o he old of ou de expee
e 

ee

aly bae
a
d fule

. Th

a pha
e of ag
o

m;
a
d, lke all eo,  
he exaggeao
of a uh: he uh

be
g ha hle e may eah eal k
oledge abou he Dv
e
Naue a
d abue
by
uh
peulao
, e a
do
o o
ly o

o
do
ha e ae guded by a
aloge
da
fom God

eao
, a
d emembe ha ou o
ep
, a
appled o God, ae
a
alogal (2).
We a
k
o God o
ly by a
alogy h o

ge
 a
d f
e
be
g
, a
d o

eque
ly he eale
a
d la
of he o

ge

a
d f
e old mu

ee

aly
eve a
ou em of ompa
o
.
Bu, amo
g f
e eale
, e
ee a
e

e
al
ubod
ao
of
he ex

ally po

ble o he 
ellgble, of h
o he



ally po

ble, a
d of h
aga
o he e

e
al ype
hh 
pe
uppo
ed by ou hough. Theefoe, _a pa_, e mu

o

de he om
poe
 ll of God, hh 
he f
 a
d
u
ve
al au
e of all [o

ge
] ex
e
e
, a
u
de he
deo
of he Dv
e Om

e
e, a
d h

u
a
hav
g
fo 
obje he Dv
e E

e
e a
d 
 he e

e
al ype

ho
e 


 po

bly 
gou
ded o
he
ee

ay
mably of he Dv
e Be
g.
Whe
, heefoe, 
defe
e of h
po
o
, De
ae
ague

ha I
God ll
g a
d k
o
g ae o
e a
d he
ame; he ea
o

hy He k
o
a
yh
g 
beau
e He ll
, a
d fo h
ea
o

o
ly a
 be ue: _Ex ho p
o quod Deu
alqud vel, deo
og
o
, e deo a
um al
e
e
 vea_he 
o
ly
o
fu

g he 

ue. We mgh, 
deed, eo he agume
: I

God ll
g a
d k
o
g ae o
e a
d he
ame; he ea
o
hy He
ll
a
yh
g 
beau
e He k
o
, a
d fo h
ea
o
o
ly
a
 be good: _Ex ho p
o quod alqud og
o
, deo vul, e
deo a
um al
e
e
 bo
a_, bu boh 
fee
e
ae equally
u
aa
ed. Fo, hough ll
g a
d k
o
g ae ea
ly o
e a
d
he
ame _
God_, h
o
e a
d he
ame h
g 
fomally a
d fo
ou m
d

ehe ll
o 
elle, bu a ealy a

e
d
g
ll a
d 
elle, a
ub
a
e 
f
ely above a
y
ub
a
e

k
o
o u
: , _
per

t nt _,
the F ther
of the
Chrch nd the Doctor
of the Schoo
c  t. Bt of th

tr n
cendent

t nce we h ve no nttve nowedge. We m
t
therefore ether  ndon  ttempt
to fnd ot nythng ot
t, or e
e pprehend t nd de
gn te t fter the n ogy of
wh t we now from drect experence ot cre ted fe nd mnd.
And
n cre tre
w 
not dentc  wth nteect, nor
ether of the
e wth the n tre of the eng th t po

e

e
them;

o wh t we conceve n God nder the concept of w, we m
t not
dentfy n thoght wth wh t we conceve n Hm nder the concept
of nteect, nor m y we wth mpnty confond ether n or
thoght wth the N tre or E

ence of the Dvne Beng.(109)
(_c_) Pho
opher
who deny the v dty of  the rgment
dv nced y
the
t
n proof of the ex
tence of tr n
cendent Spreme Beng,
d
tnct from the word of drect hm n experence, ende vor to ccont
n v ro
w y
for the ntrn
c po

ty of 
tr ct e

ence
.
Agno
tc
ether deny to the
e  tter ny re ty wh t
oever (16), or e
e
dec re the proem of ther re ty n
oe. Mon
t
of the m ter 
t
typewho try to redce  mnd to m tter nd t
mere mech nc  energe

(11)tre t the qe
ton n
t more n deq te nd n
t
f ctory
m nner; whe the dvoc te
of de 
tc mon
m,  e Hege nd h

foower
, refer 
to the
ppo
ed Imm nent Mnd of the nver
e for n
tm te exp n ton of  ntrn
c po

ty. Cert ny th
m
t
h ve t
tm te
orce n
ome mnd; nd t 
not n referrng 
to n

Etern  Mnd th t the
e pho
opher
err, t n ther concepton of the

re ton of th
mnd to the word of drect ct  experence. It 
not,
however, wth
ch theore
we re concerned j
t now, t ony wth
theore
pt forw rd y the
t
. And mong the
e  tter t 

rpr
ng
to fnd
ome few(110) who m nt n th t the ntrn
c po

ty of

tr ct e

ence
depend
tm tey nd exc
vey on the
e e

ence

them
eve
, rre
pectve of thng
ct y experenced y the hm n mnd,
rre
pectve of the hm n mnd t
ef, nd rre
pectve of the Dvne Mnd
nd the Dvne N tre.
A
to th
vew, we h ve re dy
een (19) th t f we 
tr ct from 
hm n mnd
, nd from  ct  thng
th t c n e drecty experenced
y
ch mnd
, we re f ce to f ce ether wth the tern tve of 
ote
nothngne

wheren the tre nd the f 
e, the po

e nd the
mpo

e, ce
e to h ve ny ntege me nng, or e
e wth the
tern tve of Spreme, Etern , Nece

ry, Omn
cent nd Omnpotent
Beng, who
e ct  ex
tence h
een, or c n e, nferred from the
ct  d t of hm n experence. Now the the
t, who dmt
the ex
tence
of
ch Beng, c nnot f  to
ee th t po

e e

ence
m
t h ve ther
prm ry de  eng n the Dvne Inteect, nd the tm te
orce of
ther ntrn
c po

ty n the Dvne E

ence It
ef. For, nowng
th t God c n ct ze ntrn
c y po

e e

ence
y the cre tve
ct, whch 
ntegent nd free, he w nder
t nd th t the
e e

ence

h ve ther de  eng n the Dvne Inteect; th t the Dvne Inteect

ee
ther ntrn
c po

ty y contemp tng the Dvne E

ence

the Uncre ted Prototype nd Exemp r of  ntrn
c y po

e thng
;
nd th t the
e  tter re ntrn
c y po

e prec
ey ec 
e they
re po

e dmr ton
or mt ton
of the Dvne N tre.
(_d_) Bt re we to conceve th t e

ence
re ntrn
c y po

e
prec
ey ec 
e the Dvne Inteect, y nder
t ndng them, m e
them
ntrn
c y po

e? Or
hod we r ther conceve ther ntrn
c
po

ty
ntecedent to th
ct y whch the Dvne Inteect
nder
t nd
them, nd
dependent ony on the Dvne E

ence It
ef,
o
th t e

ence
wod e ntrn
c y po

e
mpy ec 
e the Dvne
E

ence 
wh t t 
, nd ec 
e they re po

e mt ton
or
expre

on
of t? Here
cho
tc
re not greed.
Some(111) hod th t the ntrn
c po

ty of e

ence

_form y_
con
ttted y the ct wherey the Dvne Inteect, contemp tng the
Dvne E

ence, nder
t nd
the  tter to e ndefntey mt e _ d
extr _;
o th t
the ct ty of thng
re
t
from the _F t_ of the
Dvne W, nd
ther extrn
c po

ty 
gronded n the Dvne
Omnpotence,
o ther ntrn
c po

ty 
gronded n the Dvne
Inteect. The  tter, y nder
t ndng the Dvne E

ence, wod not
merey gve n de  eng to the ntrn
c po

ty of e

ence
, t
wod m e tho
e e

ence
_form y_ po

e, they eng ony _vrt y_
po

e n the Dvne E

ence con
dered ntecedenty to th
ct of the
Dvne Inteect. Or, r ther,

ome Scot
t
exp n the m tter,(112)
th
de  eng whch po

e e

ence
h ve from the Dvne Inteect 

not
extrn
c to them
the de  eng they h ve from the hm n
nteect, t 
r ther the very fr
t eng they c n e
d _form y_
to h ve, nd 

omehow ntrn
c to them fter the n ogy of the eng
whch mere ogc  entte
, _ent r ton
_, derve from the hm n mnd:
whch eng 
ntrn
c to the
e entte
nd 
n f ct the ony eng
they h ve or c n h ve.
Other
(113) hod th t whe, no dot, po

e e

ence
h ve de  eng
n the Dvne Inteect from the f ct th t they re oject
of the Dvne
Knowedge, yet we m
t not conceve the
e e

ence

dervng ther

ntrn
c po

ty from the Dvne Inteect. For nteect

ch

pre
ppo
e
t
oject. J
t, therefore,
po

e e

ence
re not
ntrn
c y po

e ec 
e they re nder
tood y, nd h ve de 
eng n, the hm n mnd,
o nether re they ntrn
c y po

e
ec 
e they re nder
tood y, nd h ve de  eng n, the Dvne Mnd.
In order to e nder
tood ct y, n order to h ve de  eng, n order
to e oject
of thoght, they m
t e ntege; nd n order to e
ntege they m
t e ntrn
c y po

e. Therefore they re
form y con
ttted
ntrn
c y po

e e

ence
, not y the f ct
th t they re nder
tood y the Dvne Inteect, t y the f ct th t
ntecedenty to th
ct (n or w y of concevng the m tter: for there

_re y_ no prorty of ct
or ttrte
n God) they re re dy
po

e mt ton
of the Dvne E

ence It
ef.
Th
vew
eem
prefer e
eng more n ccord nce wth the n ogy of
wh t t e
p ce n the hm n mnd. The
pec tve nteect n m n doe

not con
ttte, t pre
ppo
e
t
oject. Now, whe _ ct _ thng
re
the oject
of God
_pr ctc 
cence_the _
cent v
on
_, whch
re che
wh t 
freey decreed y the Dvne W,_po

e_ thng
re
the oject
of God
_
pec tve_
cencethe _
cent
mpc

ntegent e_, whch 
not,  e the former, prodctve of t
oject,
t r ther contemp tve of oject
pre
ented to t y nd n the Dvne
E

ence.
Why, then, tm tey w the noton

q re nd crce not co e
ce

o
to form one oject of thoght for the hm n mnd, whe the noton

eq ter  nd tr nge w
o co e
ce? Bec 
e the E

ence of God,
the Nece

ry Beng, the Fr
t Re ty, nd the Sorce of  contngent
re ty, fford
no 

for the former

po

e expre

on or
mt ton of It
ef; n other word
, ec 
e Beng 
not expre

e y
nothngne

, nd

q re crce 
nothngne

: whe the Dvne
E

ence doe
fford 

for the  tter; ec 
e Nece

ry Beng 
n

ome ntege w y mt ted, expre

ed, m nfe
ted, y wh tever h
ny
eng to d
tng
h t from nothngne

, nd n eq ter  tr nge
h

ch eng nd 
not nothngne

.
It 
h rdy nece

ry to dd th t when we conceve the Dvne E

ence,
contemp ted y the Dvne Inteect,
cont nng n t
ef the
exemp r
or prototype
of  po

e thng
, we re not to nder
t nd
the Dvne E

ence
the _form _ exemp r of e ch, or, _ fortor_,

v
t coecton of
ch form y d
tnct exemp r
; t ony

_vrt y_ nd _eqv enty_ the exemp r of e ch nd . We re not to
conceve th t po

e e

ence
re
een y the Dvne Inteect m ged n
the Dvne E

ence _
n mrror_, t r ther _
n ther
preme

orce nd prncpe_:
o th t they re f nt nd f r off refecton
of
It, nd, when ct zed, ecome for 
the ony me n
we h ve, n th

pre
ent
t te, for re chng ny nowedge of the Dety: _vdem
nnc per

pecm_.(114)
21. DISTINCTION BETWEEN ESSENCE AND EXISTENCE IN ACTUALLY EXISTING
CONTINGENT OR CREATED BEINGS.P

ng now from the con
der ton of
po

e e

ence


ch, to the con
der ton of ct y ex
tng
e

ence
, we h ve to ex mne qe
ton whch h
gven r
e to
gre t
de  of controver
y, p rty on ccont of t
nherent dffcty, nd
p rty ec 
e of
mttde of mgte
r
ng from conf
on of
thoght: Wh t 
the n tre of the d
tncton etween e

ence nd
ex
tence n the ct y ex
tng thng
of or experence?
We h ve
een re dy th t the _concept
_ of e

ence nd ex
tence re
d
tnct from e ch other (12, 13); n other word
, th t n  c
e
there


t e
t _ogc _ d
tncton etween the e

ence nd the ex
tence

of ny eng. We m
t, however, d
tng
h etween cre ted or contngent
eng
nd the Uncre ted, Nece

ry, Sef-Ex
tent Beng. The  tter
ex
t
_e

ent y_, etern y, y H
own E

ence,
o th t n Hm
e

ence nd ex
tence re _re y dentc _. H
e

ence 
_form y_
H
Ex
tence; nd, therefore, n thn ng of H
E

ence we c nnot
po
tvey excde the noton of ex
tence or thn of Hm

non-ex
tent. The d
tncton etween e

ence nd ex
tence, whch we fnd
n or thoght
, 
, therefore, when pped to God, _prey ogc _
d
tncton, de
oey to or fnte hm n mode of thn ng, nd h vng
no grond or 

or re
on n the re ty whch 
the oject of or
thoght. On th
there 
compete n nmty mong
cho
tc
pho
opher
.
Bt whe we conceve th t God ct y ex
t
y th t wherey He 
God,
y H
E

ence It
ef, we do not conceve th t ny cre ted or contngent
eng ex
t
y th t wherey t 
wh t t 
, y t
e

ence. We do not,
for ex mpe, reg rd the e

ence of Socr te
, whether
pecfc or
ndvd  (th t wherey he 

_m n_, or th t wherey he 
_th
_ m n,
Socr te
),
th t wherey he ct y ex
t
. In other word
, the e

ence
of the ex
tng Socr te
, eng contngent e

ence, doe
not nece

ry
dem nd or mpy th t t ct y ex
t. Or concept of
ch n e

ence
doe
not ncde the note of ct  ex
tence. Therefore f we fnd
ch
n e

ence ct y ex
tng we con
der th
ct y ex
tng e

ence

c 
ed or prodced, nd con
erved n ex
tence, y
ome other eng,
_vz._ y the Nece

ry Beng:
o th t f t were not
o cre ted nd
con
erved t wod e pre po

ty nd nothng ct .(115) The
me
dfference etween the Nece

ry Beng nd contngent eng
w e
een
from con
derng ther ex
tence. The 
tr ct concept of ex
tence 

rendered defnte nd determn te y the e

ence whch t ct ze
. Now
every fnte e

ence 
of
ome p rtc r nd; nd t
ex
tence 

rendered determn te y the f ct th t t 
the ex
tence of
defnte
nd of e

ence. The ex
tence of contngent eng we conceve
the
ct ty of t
e

ence; nd t
e

ence

defnte potent ty of
ex
tence. Th
f we conceve ex
tence

perfecton t 
re
trcted
y the fnte n tre of the potent ty whch t ct ze
. Bt the
ex
tence of the Nece

ry Beng 
the pentde of ct ty, n
ex
tence not re
trcted y eng the ex
tence of ny e

ence th t 

determn te ec 
e fnte, t of n e

ence th t 
determn te y eng
ove  gener nd
pece
, y eng nfnte, y eng It
ef pre
ct ty, n no
en
e potent  t perfecty nd form y dentc  wth
ct  ex
tence. Whe, therefore, the e

ence of the Nece

ry Beng 

nece

ry ex
tng e

ence, th t of contngent eng 
not
nece

ry ex
tent, t 
conceved

potent ty whch h
een
_de f cto_ ct zed or m de ex
tent y the Nece

ry Beng, nd whch
m y g n ce
e to e ct y ex
tent.(116) On th
too there 

n nmty mong
cho
tc pho
opher
.
We d
tng
h ment y or ogc y etween the e

ence of n ct y
ex
tng contngent eng nd t
ex
tence; con
derng the former
the
potent  prncpe, n re ton to the  tter
the ct zng
prncpe, of the contngent ex
tng re ty. Bt 
the d
tncton
etween
ch n e

ence nd t
ex
tence
omethng more th n ogc 
d
tncton? I
t re  d
tncton? Th

the qe
ton n d
pte.
And n order to vod m
nder
t ndng, we m
t e ce r on the
e two
pont
: fr
ty, of wh t e

ence nd ex
tence 
there qe
ton? nd

econdy, wh t ex cty re we to nder
t nd y re  d
tncton n th

m tter?
22. STATE OF THE QUESTION.In the fr
t p ce, there 
no qe
ton here

of the re ton of _po

e_ e

ence

ch to ex
tence. The po

e
e

ence of contngent eng,

ch, h
no re ty ot
de the Dvne
E

ence, Inteect, W, nd Omnpotence. Before the word w
cre ted
the po

e e

ence
of  the eng
th t con
ttte t were cert ny
re y d
tnct from the ct  ex
tence of the
e eng
whch do
con
ttte the cre ted nver
e. On th
pont there c n e no dfference
of opnon. To contend th t t 
on the etern  re ty of the po

e
e

ence th t ct  ex
tence
pervene
, when
contngent eng egn

to ex
t, wod e eqv ent to contendng th t t 
the Dvne E

ence
th t ecome
ct  n the phenomen of or experence: whch 
the error
of P nthe
m.
Ag n, efore contngent thng come
nto ct  ex
tence t m y e
vrt y nd potent y n the ctve power
nd p

ve potent te

of other ct y ex
tng contngent thng
:
the o , for n
t nce, 

n the p

ve potent ty of the corn nd n the ctve power
of the
n tr  gence
wherey t 
evoved from the corn; or the
t te n
the oc of m re nd n the mnd nd rt
tc power of the
cptor.
Bt nether 
there ny qe
ton here of the re ton of
ch potent 
eng or e

ence

thng h
n t
c 
e
to the ct  ex
tence of
th
thng when ct y prodced. Wh tever eng or e

ence t h
n t

ctve nd p

ve c 
e

cert ny re y d
tnct from the ex
tence
whch the thng h
when t h
een ct y prodced. Nor 
there ny
dot or d
pte ot th
pont. At the
me tme mch controver
y 

de to m
nder
t ndng
r
ng from conf
on of thoght whch f 

to d
tng
h etween the e

ence
prey po

e, the e

ence

vrt y or potent y n t
c 
e
, nd the e

ence
ct y
ex
tng. It 
ot the d
tncton etween the  tter nd t
ex
tence
th t the whoe qe
ton 
r 
ed. And t m
t e orne n mnd th t th

e

ence, whether t 
re y d
tnct from t
ex
tence or not, 

t
ef po
tve re ty from the moment t 
cre ted or prodced. The
qe
ton 
whether the cre tve or prodctve ctwherey th
e

ence 

p ced ot
de t
c 
e
, nd 
now no onger merey po

e, or
merey vrt  or potent  n t
c 
e
, t
omethng re  _n
t
ef_h
for t
term _one re ty_, or _two re te
_, _vz._ the
e

ence
re 
jectve potent ty of ex
tence, nd the ex
tent 
ct or perfecton wherey t 
con
ttted ct y ex
tent.(117)
The qe
ton 
exc
vey concerned wth the e

ence whch eg n to
ex
t when the contngent eng c me nto ct  ex
tence, nd whch
ce
e
to ex
t when, or f, th
eng g n p

e
ot of ct 
ex
tence; nd the qe
ton 
whether th
e

ence whch ct y ex
t


re y d
tnct from the ex
tence wherey t ct y ex
t
. Fn y,
the qe
ton concern
the e

ence nd ex
tence of ny nd every ct 
contngent re ty, whether
ch re ty e

t nce or n ccdent. Of
cor
e t 
prm ry concerned wth the e

ence nd ex
tence of


t nce
; t t 
o ppe
to the e

ence nd ex
tence of ccdent

n
o f r
the
e  tter w e fond to e re y d
tnct from the


t nce
n whch they nhere, nd to h ve re ty proper to them
eve
.
23. THE THEORY OF DISTINCTIONS IN ITS APPLICATION TO THE QUESTION.In the
next p ce, wh t re we to nder
t nd y _re _ d
tncton n th

m tter? Amgty nd o
crty of thoght n reg rd to the theory of
_d
tncton
_, nd n reg rd to the ppc ton of the theory to the
pre
ent qe
ton, h
een pro y the mo
t ferte
orce of mch
tedo
nd frte

controver
y n th
connexon.
Antcp tng wh t w e con
dered more fy t
 ter
t ge (30), we
m
t note here the two m n c

e
of d
tncton whch, y refectng on
or thoght-proce

e
, we d
cover etween the oject
of or thoght. The

_re _ d
tncton 
th t whch ex
t
n thng
ndependenty of the

con
der ton of or mnd
; th t whch 
d
covered, t not m de, y the
mnd; th t whch 
gven to 
n nd wth the d t of or experence.
For ex mpe, the ct of thn ng 

re ty other th n, nd therefore
_re y_ d
tnct from, the mnd th t thn
; for the mnd per

t
fter
the ct of thn ng h
p

ed w y.
Oppo
ed to th

the ment  or ogc  d
tncton, whch 
the
d
tncton m de y the mnd t
ef etween two dfferent concept
of one
nd the
me re ty; whch 
not n the re ty ndependenty of or
thoght, t 
ntrodced nto t y or thoght, reg rdng the
me
re ty nder dfferent
pect
or from dfferent pont
of vew. The mnd
never m e

ch
d
tncton wthot
ome grond or re
on for dong
o.
Sometme
, however, th
re
on w e fond exc
vey n the mnd
t
efn the mt ton
of t
mode
of thoght nd not n the re ty
whch 
the m tter or oject of the thoght. The d
tncton 
then
d
to e _prey_ ogc  or ment . Sch d
tncton
re _ent r ton
_,
ogc  entte
. An ex mpe wod e the d
tncton etween the concept
m n nd the concept r ton  nm , or, n gener , etween ny
defn e oject of thoght nd t
defnton; the d
tncton,
therefore, etween the e

ence nd the ex
tence of the Nece

ry Beng 

prey ogc  d
tncton, for n defnton t 
the e

ence of the
thng we defne, nd ex
tence 
of the e

ence or defnton of the
Nece

ry Beng.
Sometme
, g n, the re
on for m ng ment  d
tncton w e fond
n the re ty t
ef. Wh t 
one nd the
me re ty pre
ent
dfferent

pect
to the mnd nd evo e
dfferent concept
of t
ef n the mnd:
thogh re y one, t 
vrt y m nfod; nd the d
tncton etween
the concept
of the
e v ro

pect

commony nown

_vrt _
d
tncton. For ex mpe, when we thn of ny ndvd  m n

r ton  nm , thogh or concept of nm  n tre 
d
tnct from
th t of r ton  n tre, we do not reg rd the
e n hm
two re te

co-ex
tng or comnng to form h
hm n n tre, t ony
two
d
tnct
pect
nder whch we vew the one re ty whch 
h
hm n
n tre. And we vew t nder the
e two
pect
ec 
e we h ve ct 
experence of n
t nce
n whch nm  n tre 
re y d
tnct nd

ep r ted from r ton ty, _e.g._, n the rte e
t. Or, g n,
nce
we c n recognze three gr de
of fe n m nveget tve,
entent, nd
r ton we conceve the one prncpe of fe, h

o,
vrt y
three prncpe
; nd
o we d
tng
h ment y or vrt y etween
three
o
n m n, thogh n re ty there 
ony one. Or, once more,
when we thn of the W
dom, the W, nd the Omnpotence of God, we now
th t thogh the
e concept
repre
ent dfferent
pect
of the Dety,
the
e
pect
re not d
tnct re te
n Hm; t th t ec 
e of H

nfnte perfecton nd nfnte
mpcty they re  ojectvey one
nd the
me
ef-dentc  re ty.
A vrt  d
tncton 

d to e _mperfect_ (th
ppro chng ne rer
to the n tre of prey ogc  d
tncton) when e ch of the concept

wherey we pprehend the
me re ty ony pre
cnd
_expcty_ from
wh t 
expre

ed y the other, thogh one of them 
fond on n y


to ncde _mpcty_ wh t 
expre

ed y the other. Sch 
the
d
tncton etween the _eng_ nd the _fe_ of ny vng thng; or the
d
tncton etween the
prt ty nd the mmort ty of the hm n

o; or the d
tncton etween _Infnte_ W
dom nd _Infnte_ Power:
the d
tncton etween the dvne ttrte
n gener . A vrt 
d
tncton 

d to e _perfect_ (th
ppro chng ne rer to the n tre
of re  d
tncton) when nether of the concept
ncde
ether

expcty or mpcty wh t 
expre

ed y the other. Sch, for

n
t nce, 
the d
tncton etween the prncpe of nteect  fe
nd the prncpe of nm  or
entent fe n m n; for not ony c n
the
e ex
t
ep r tey (the former wthot the  tter, _e.g._ n pre

prt
, the  tter wthot the former, _e.g._ n rte e
t
), t 
o
t w e fond th t y no n y

doe
ether concept n ny w y
nvove the other.(118)
Or ony oject n
ettng down the v ro
ex mpe
j
t gven 
to

tr te the gener 
cho
tc te chng on the doctrne of d
tncton.
In them
eve
they re not eyond d
pte, for the gener  doctrne of
d
tncton 
not e
y of ppc ton n det ; t they w e

ffcent for or pre
ent prpo
e. Pro y the gre te
t dffcty n
ppyng the gener  doctrne w e fond to e n d
crmn tng
etween vrt  d
tncton
e
pec y perfect vrt  d
tncton
nd
re  d
tncton
.(119) And th
dffcty w e pprec ted
t more
when we e rn th t re  d
tncton doe
not nece

ry nvove
_
ep r ty_ of the oject

o d
tng
hed. In other word
there m y
e, n compo
te ex
tng ndvd  eng, con
tttve f ctor
or
prncpe
, or ntegr  p rt
, e ch of whch 

po
tve re  entty,
re y d
tnct from the other
, nd yet nc p e of ex
tng
ep r tey
or n 
o ton from the other
. Sep r ty,
y
Mercer,(120) 

one of the
gn
of re  d
tncton; t t 
nether e

ent  to,
nor nece

ry property of the  tter. Two
ep r e thng
re of cor
e
re y d
tnct from e ch other; t two entte
m y e re y d
tnct
from e ch other wthot eng
ep r e or c p e of ex
tng p rt from
e ch other. Th
we eeve th t the nteect nd the w n m n re
re y d
tnct from e ch other, nd oth  e from the

t nce of the
hm n
o; yet they c nnot ex
t 
o ted from the
o. Therefore, even
thogh the oject
whch we pprehend
d
tnct, y me n
of d
tnct
concept
, e nder
tood to e
ch th t they c nnot ct y ex
t n

o ton from e ch other, t ony
nted n compo
te ndvd 
eng,
t f t c n e
hown th t e ch of them h
t
own proper
re ty ndependenty of or thoght,
o th t the d
tncton etween them

not the re
t of or thoght, or ntrodced y or thoght nto the
ndvd  thng or eng whch we re con
derng, then the d
tncton
m
t e reg rded
re . If, on the other h nd, t c n e
hown th t the
dfferent
pect
whch we pprehend n ny _d tm_ y me n
of d
tnct
concept
h ve not, p rt from the con
der ton of the mnd, p rt from
the n ytc ctvty of or own thoght, e ch t
own proper re ty, t
re ony d
tnct ment  vew
of wh t 
ojectvey one nd the
me
re ty, then the d
tncton m
t e reg rded
ogc , not re , nd
th
even thogh there m y e n the rchne

nd fne

of th t one
re ty comp r tvey to the mted c p cty of or mnd
,
we
n
the very con
ttton nd mode
of thoght of or mnd
them
eve
,
re
on or 

for, nd n exp n ton of, the _mtpcty of concept
_
wherey we tt n to n nder
t ndng of
ome _one re ty_.
24. SOLUTIONS OF THE QUESTION.Po
tponng frther con
der ton of the

ero
proem
on the v dty of nowedge nd t
re ton to re ty,
to whch tho
e refecton
nevt y gve r
e, et 
now retrn to the
m n qe
ton: the n tre of the d
tncton etween the e

ence nd the
ex
tence of ny ct y ex
tng contngent eng. We need not e

rpr
ed to fnd th t the gre te
t mnd
h ve een n e to re ch the

me
oton of th
qe
ton. For t 
t ph
e of the more gener 
met phy
c  proem t once oth ontoogc  nd ep
temoogc of the
n tre of re ty nd the re ton of the hm n mnd thereto. Nor w ny

ero
modern pho
opher who 
t  mndf of the we th of crrent
controver
  ter tre on th
very proem, or of the ende

v rety
of confctng opnon
mong contempor ry thn er
n reg rd to t, e

d
po
ed to rdce the medev  controver
e
on the doctrne of

d
tncton
pped to e

ence nd ex
tence. No dot there h
een
good de  of mere ver , nd perh p
trfng, rgment ton on the
m tter: t end
t
ef to the d ectc 
 of the controver
 
t
who t e

de
,
we
to the
ero
thoght of the open-mnded
nve
tg tor. It 
not, however, throgh dr wng dfferent conc
on

from the
me prem

e
th t confctng
oton
of the qe
ton h ve
een re ched, t r ther throgh fnd ment y dfferent tttde
n
reg rd to the prem

e
them
eve
whch dfferent pho
opher
profe

to
fnd n the common d t of ther experence. When we h ve once gr
ped
wh t pho
opher
me n y ogc  or re  d
tncton
pped to
the re ton etween e

ence nd ex
tence we
h  not get ny very
m ter 


t nce tow rd
the choce of
oton y con
derng t
ength the rgment
ddced on ether
de.(121)
Tho
e who eeve there 

re  d
tncton(122) etween the e

ence nd
the ex
tence of  ct y ex
tng contngent eng
me n y th
th t
the re  e

ence whch come
nto ct  ex
tence y cre ton, or y the
cton of cre ted c 
e
, 

re ty d
tnct from the ex
tence wherey
t ct y ex
t
. The ct y ex
tng e

ence 
the tot  term of the
cre tve or prodctve ct; t wh t we pprehend n t nder the concept
of _e

ence_ 
re y d
tnct from wh t we pprehend n t nder the
concept of _ex
tence_: the ex
tence eng
re  prncpe whch
_ ct ze
_ the e

ence, nd th
 tter eng t
ef nother re 
prncpe whch 
n t
ef po
tve,
jectve _potent ty_ of
ex
tence.(123) Nether, of cor
e, c n ct y ex
t wthot the other:
no ct  ex
tence except th t of
re  e

ence; no ex
tng e

ence
except y re
on of the ex
tence whch m e
t ct . Bt the
e two
re  prncpe
of ex
tng contngent eng, n
ep r e
they re nd
corre tve, re neverthee

d
tnct re te
d
tnct n the ojectve
order nd ndependenty of or thoght, nd form y ther non re y
_compo
te_ prodct: the ex
tng thng.
We mght ttempt to 
tr te th
y the n ogy of ody nd
t

h pe or coor. The ody t
ef 
re y d
tnct from t

ct 
h pe nd coor: t m y o
e them, nd yet rem n the
me
ody; nd t m y cqre other
h pe
nd coor
. At ny tme the
ody h
ct y
ome p rtc r
h pe nd coor; t th t y
whch t 
form y
o
h ped nd coored 

omethng re y
dfferent from the ody t
ef. Frthermore, efore the ody
_ ct y_ po

e

ed th
p rtc r
h pe nd coor, the
e were
n t _potent y_: th t 
to
y, there were then n the ody
the re , p

ve,
jectve potent te
of th
p rtc r

h pe nd coor. So too _th t y whch_ re  (contngent)
e

ence ct y ex
t
(_.e._ the ex
tent  _ ct_, ex
tence)

re y d
tnct from _th t whch_ ct y ex
t
(_.e._ the
e

ence, the _potent ty_ of th t ex
tent  ct). The n ogy

, however, t e
t ony h tng one. For whe t 

comp r tvey e
y to nder
t nd how the p

ve,
jectve
_potent ty_ of
h pe or coor c n e _
omethng re _ n the
_ re dy ct y ex
tng_ ody, t 
not
o e
y to nder
t nd
how the _potent ty of ex
tence_, _.e._ the re  e

ence, c n
e nythng th t 
t
ef re  nd re y d
tnct from the
ex
tence.(124) The o 
_re y_ n the corn, for the p

ve,

jectve potent ty of the o 
n the ct  corn; t 

th
potent ty nythng re y d
tnct from the corn? or

hod we not r ther
y th t the _ ct _ corn _
potent y_
the o , or _
_ the potent ty of the o ? At  event
even
f t 
re y d
tnct from the ct  corn, t 
n the

ct  corn. Bt 
t po

e to conceve

_re ,
jectve
potent ty_ whch _doe
not re
de n nythng ct _?(125) Now
f the re  e

ence 
re y d
tnct from t
ex
tence t m
t
e conceved

_re ,
jectve potent ty_ of ex
tence.
Yet t c nnot e conceved

potent ty _n_ nythng ct :
except ndeed n the ct y ex
tng e

ence whch 
the
compo
te re
t of t
non wth the ex
tent  ct. It 
not
re ,
jectve potent ty ntecedenty to the ex
tent 
ct, nd on whch the  tter 
,
t were,
permpo
ed:(126) n
t
ef, t 
, n f ct, nothng re  except
ct zed y the
 tter; t,
we h ve re dy o
erved, the proce

of
ct z ton, whether y drect cre ton or y the cton of
cre ted c 
e
, m
t e conceved
h vng for t
tot  term or
effect compo
te re ty re
tng from wh t we c n t e
t
mperfecty de
cre
the non of two corre tve, con-cre ted,
or co-prodced prncpe
of eng, potent  nd n ct ,
re y d
tnct from e ch other: th t wherey the thng _c n_
ex
t, the potent ty of ex
tence, the e

ence; nd th t
wherey the thng _doe
_ ex
t, the ct ty of e

ence, the
ex
tence. The de
crpton 
mperfect ec 
e the
e prncpe

re not con-cre ted or co-prodced
ep r tey; t, r ther, the
cre ton or prodcton of n ex
tng e

ence, the effcency y
whch t 
p ced ot
de t
c 
e
, h
one
nge, thogh
compo
te, term: the ct y ex
tng thng.
Th
vew, th
dvoc tng re  d
tncton etween e

ence nd
ex
tence, m y ovo
y e reg rded
n emph tc expre

on of the
ojectve v dty of nteect  nowedge. It mght e reg rded
n
ppc ton of the more gener  vew th t the ojectve concept
etween
whch the nteect d
tng
he
n t
nterpret ton of re ty
hod
e reg rded
repre
entng _d
tnct re te
_, except when the
d
tncton 

een to r
e not from the n tre of the oject t from
the n tre of the
ject, from the mt ton
nd mperfecton
of or
own mode
of thoght. Bt n the c
e of ny p rtc r (d
pted)
d
tncton, the _on
pro nd_
hod e r ther on the
de of tho
e
who contend th t
ch d
tncton 
ogc , nd not re . On the other
h nd, m ny pho
opher
who re no e

frmy convnced of the ojectve
v dty of nteect  nowedge o
erve th t t 
po

e to p
h
th
prncpe too f r, or r ther to err y exce

n t
ppc ton.
In
te d of p cng the rden of proof
oey on the
de of the ogc 
d
tncton, they wod p ce t r ther more on the
de of the re 
d
tnctonn conformty wth the m xm of method, _Ent non
nt
mtpc nd pr eter nece

t tem_. And they thn th t t 
n error y
exce

to hod the d
tncton etween e

ence nd ex
tence to e re .
Th
rng

to the
econd tern tve opnon: th t the d
tncton n
qe
ton 
not re , t ony vrt .(127)
Accordng to th
vew, the e

ence nd the ex
tence of ny ex
tng
contngent eng re one nd the
me re ty. There 
, however, n th



for the two d
tnct ojectve concept
of e

ence nd of
re ty
ex
tencewherey we pprehend t. For the contngent eng doe
not ex
t
nece

ry: we
ee
ch eng
comng nto ex
tence nd ce
ng to
ex
t: we c n therefore thn of _wh t they re_ wthot thn ng of them

_ ct y ex
tent_: n other word
, we c n thn of them
po

e,
nd of ther ex
tence
th t y whch they ecome ct . Th



ffcent re
on for d
tng
hng ment y, n the ex
tng eng, the
e

ence whch ex
t
nd the ex
tence y whch t ex
t
.(128) Bt when
we thn of the e

ence of n ct y ex
tng eng
ojectvey
po

e, or
potent  n t
c 
e
, we re no onger thn ng of t


nythng re  n t
ef, t ony of t
de  eng
n oject of

thoght n or mnd
, or of the de  eng t h
n the Dvne Mnd, or
of the potent  eng t h
n cre ted c 
e
, or of the vrt  eng
t h
n the Dvne Omnpotence, or of the tm te 

of t

po

ty n the Dvne E

ence. Bt  the
e mode
of eng we now
to e re y d
tnct from the re , contngent e

ence t
ef whch
egn
to ex
t ct y n tme, nd m y ce
e once more to ex
t n tme
when nd f t
own n tre dem nd
, nd God w
,
ch ce

ton. Bt
th t the re , contngent e

ence t
ef whch
o ex
t
, 

omethng
re y d
tnct from the ex
tence wherey t ex
t
; th t t form
wth
the  tter re y compo
te eng; th t t 
n t
ef re ,

jectve potent ty, receptve of ex
tence
nother nd ct zng
re ty, re y d
tnct from t,
o th t the cre ton or prodcton of
ny
nge ct y ex
tng contngent eng wod h ve for t
term two
re y d
tnct prncpe
of eng, potent  nd n ct , e

ence
nd ex
tence, cre ted or prodced _per modm n
_,
o to
pe : for


ertng  th
t 
contended y
pporter
of the vrt 
d
tncton th t we h ve no
ffcent j
tfyng re
on.(129) Hence they
concde th t re  d
tncton m
t e dened: _Ent non
nt
mtpc nd pr eter nece

t tem_.
Thogh e ch of the
e opnon
h
een defended wth
gre t de 
of ty, nd n exh 
tve rr y of rgment
, mere rehe r

of the
e  tter wod not gve mch m ter 


t nce tow rd


oton of the qe
ton. We therefore 
t n from repe tng them
here. There re ony few pont
n connexon wth them to whch
ttenton m y e drected.
In the fr
t p ce,
ome defender
of the re  d
tncton rge
th t were the d
tncton not re , thng
wod ex
t
e

ent y, _.e._ nece

ry; nd th
the mo
t fnd ment 
grond of d
tncton etween God nd cre tre
, etween the
Nece

ry Beng nd contngent eng
, wod e de
troyed:
cre tre
wod e no onger n ther very con
ttton compo
te,
mxtre
of potent ty nd ct ty, t wod e prey
ct , 
otey
mpe nd, n word, dentc  wth the
Infnte Beng Hm
ef. Spporter
of the vrt  d
tncton deny
th t tho
e very
ero
con
eqence
foow from ther vew. They
pont ot th t thogh the ex
tence of the cre tre 
re y
dentc  wth t
e

ence, the e

ence doe
not ex
t nece

ry
or _
e_; the whoe ex
tng e

ence 
_  o_, 
c 
ed,
eng
contngent; nd the fnd ment  d
tncton etween
ch
nd the Sef-Ex
tng Beng 
n th
vew perfecty ce r. Nor

the cre tre, they contend, prey ct  nd 
otey

mpe; t need not h ve ex
ted, nd t m y ce
e to ex
t; t
h
, therefore, potent ty of non-ex
tence, whch 

nconcev e n the c
e of the Nece

ry nd prey Act 
Beng; t 
, therefore, mt e
reg rd
ex
tence; e
de

whch the e

ence
even of the mo
t
mpe cre ted eng
, n mey
pre
prt
re compo
te n the
en
e th t they h ve f cte

nd oper ton
re y d
tnct from ther

t nce.
Secondy, t 
eged y
ome defender
of the re  d
tncton
th t th
 tter vew of the n tre of ex
tng contngent re ty


c rdn  doctrne n the whoe pho
ophc 
y
tem of St.
Thom
, nd of
cho
tc
gener y:
o fnd ment , n f ct,
th t m ny mport nt doctrne
, n nmo
y hed to e tre y 

cho
tc
, c nnot e
cce

fy vndc ted p rt from t.(130)
To whch t 
reped th t there re no mport nt trth
of


cho
tc pho
ophy whch c nnot e defended qte deq tey

p rt together from the vew one m y hod on the pre
ent
qe
ton; nd th t, th
eng the c
e, t 
nw
e to ende vor
to 
e dmttedy tre doctrne
, whch c n e etter defended
otherw
e, pon n opnon whch c n t e
t c m ony the mont
of pro ty t c n derve from the ntrn
c mert
of the
rgment
y whch t 
t
ef
pported.(131)
Before p

ng from th
whoe qe
ton we m
t note the ex
tence
of thrd
choo of thoght, dentfed m ny wth the foower

of Dn
Scot
.(132) The
e thor
contend th t the d
tncton
etween e

ence nd ex
tence 
not re  d
tncton, nor yet,
on the other h nd, 
t merey vrt  d
tncton, t one
whch they c  _form 
, ct 
ex n tr re_, th t etween
re ty nd t
ntrn
c mode
. It 
etter nown
the
Scot
tc d
tncton. We
h 
ee the n tre of t when
de ng _ex profe

o_ wth the gener  doctrne of d
tncton
.
The mtpcty of the
e vew
, nd the n vod e dffcty
experenced n gr
png nd
ettng forth ther me nng wth ny
toer e degree of ce rne

, wod
gge
t the refecton th t
n tho
e controver
e
the medev 
cho
tc
were perh p

ende vorng to thn nd to expre

wh t re ty 
, p rt from
thoght nd ndependenty of the con
der ton of the mnd
t
whch, conceved n the
e term
, m
t ppe r frte

; nd
one whch, nyhow, nvove
n t
very n tre the co
e
t

crtny of the ep
temoogc  proem of the power of the hm n
mnd to get t e
t tre nd v d, f not deq te nd
comprehen
ve, n
ght nto the n tre of re ty.

CHAPTER IV. REALITY AS ONE AND MANIFOLD.

25. THE TRANSCENDENTAL ATTRIBUTES OR PROPERTIES OF BEING: UNITY, TRUTH,
AND GOODNESS.So f r, we h ve n y
ed the noton
of Re  Beng, of
Becomng or Ch nge, of Beng
Po

e nd
Act , of E

ence nd
Ex
tence. Before ppro chng
tdy of the C tegore
or _Sprem Gener
Ent
_, the hghe
t nd wde
t mode
n whch re ty m nfe
t
t
ef, we
h ve next to con
der cert n ttrte
or properte
of eng whch
reve  them
eve

co-exten
ve wth re ty t
ef. T ng hm n
experence n t
wde
t
en
e,
emr cng  mode
th t re cogntve
or ed wth con
co
ne

,
ncdng nteect, memory, m gn ton,

en
e percepton, w nd ppette,

pec tve, ethc  or mor , nd
e
thetc or rt
tc,we fnd th t the re ty whch m e
p th
compex
hm n experence of or

nver
y nd nece

ry ch r cterzed y
cert n fe tre
whch we c  the _tr n
cendent  ttrte
or
properte
of eng_, n
mch
they tr n
cend 
pecfc nd generc
mode
of eng, perv de  t
c tegore
eq y, nd re n
ep r e
from ny d tm of experence. We
h 
ee th t they re not re y
d
tnct from the re ty whch they ch r cterze, t ony ogc y
d
tnct from t, eng
pect
nder whch we pprehend t, neg ton
or
other ogc  re ton
whch we nece

ry nnex to t y the ment 
proce

e
wherey we
ee to render t ct y ntege to or mnd
.
The fr
t n order of the
e ontoogc  ttrte

_nty_: the concept
of th t wherey re ty con
dered n t
ef ecome

defnte oject of

thoght. The
econd n order 
_trth_: whch 
the concepton of

re ty con
dered n t
re ton to cogntve experence, to nteect.
The thrd 
_goodne

_: the
pect nder whch re ty 
re ted
n
oject to ppettve experence, to w.
Now when we predc te of ny re ty nder or con
der ton th t t 

one, or good, or tren the ontoogc 
en
e to e exp ned,th t
whch we predc te 
not mere _en
r ton
_, t
omethng re ,

omethng whch 
re y dentc  wth the
ject, nd whch 

d
tng
hed from the  tter n or jdgment ony y
ogc 
d
tncton. The ttrton of ny of the
e properte
to the
ject
doe
not, however, dd nythng re  to the  tter: t dd
merey
ome
ogc 
pect nvoved n, or
ppo
ed y, the ttrton. At the
me
tme, th
ogc 
pect gve

re  nform ton y m ng expct

ome re  fe tre of eng not expcty reve ed n the concept of eng
t
ef, thogh nvoved n, nd foowng

property from, the
 tter.
There do not
eem to e ny other tr n
cendent  properte
of eng
e
de
the three enmer ted. The term
re ty, thng,
omethng,
re
ynonymo
expre

on
of the concept of eng t
ef, r ther th n of
properte
of eng. Ex
tence 
not
tr n
cendent  ttrte of
eng, for t 
not co-exten
ve wth re ty or re  eng. And thogh
re ty _m
t_ e _ether_ po

e _or_ ct , _ether_ nece

ry
_or_ contngent, _ether_ nfnte _or_ fnte, etc., th
nece

ty of
verfyng n t
ef one or other memer of ny
ch tern tve

not
property of eng, t r ther
omethng e

ent y rooted n the very
concept of re ty t
ef. Some wod reg rd

d
tnct tr n
cendent 
ttrte of eng the concepton of the  tter
n oject of e
thetc
contemp ton,
m nfe
tng order nd h rmony,
_e tf_. Th

concepton of eng w e fond, however, to fow from the more
fnd ment 
pect
of re ty con
dered
_tre_ nd
_good_, r ther
th n drecty from the concept of eng t
ef.
26. TRANSCENDENTAL UNITY.When we thn of nythng
one we thn of t

ndvded n t
ef. The nty or onene

of eng 
the ndvdedne


of eng: _Unm e
t d qod e
t ndv
m n
e: Unver
ter q ecnqe
non h ent dv
onem, nq ntm non h ent,
c nm dcntr_.(133)
When, therefore, we conceve eng
ndvded nto con
tttve p rt
,
nd nmtped nto repetton
of t
ef, we conceve t
_ _ eng,

_one_. For the concept of eng, form y
one, t doe
not
eem
nece

ry th t we conceve eng
_dvded or d
tnct from  other
eng_. Th

econd neg ton, of dentty wth other eng, r ther foow

the concepton of eng
one: eng 
d
tnct from other eng ec 
e
t 
re dy t
ef one: t 

pror neg ton th t form y con
ttte

t
nty, n mey, _the neg ton of ntern  dv
on or mtpc ton of
t
ef_: God w
try _one_ from  eternty, efore there w
ny
_other_ eng, ny cre ted eng, d
tnct from Hm. The dv
on or
d
tncton of n oject of thoght from wh tever 
not t
ef 
wh t
con
ttte
the noton of _otherne

_.(134)
It 
m nfe
t th t eng nd nty re re y dentc , th t when we
thn of eng we thn of wh t 
re y ndvded n t
ef, th t once
we ntrodce dvdedne

nto the oject of or concept we re no onger
thn ng of eng t of _eng
_, _.e._ of mttde or pr ty e ch
memer of whch 

_eng_ nd _one_. For eng,
n oject of
thoght, 
ether
mpe or compo
te. If
mpe, t 
not ony
ndvded t ndv
e. If compo
te, we c nnot thn of t
_ _
eng, c p e of ex
tng,
o ong
we thn t
p rt


ep r te or
dvded: ony when we thn of them
ct y nted nd ndvded h ve

we the concept of _ _ eng: nd _eo p
o_ we h ve the concept of eng

one,

nty.(135)
Hence the
cho
tc form: _En
et nm convertntr_, nd _Omne en

e
t nm_. The trth emoded n the
e 

o
ef-evdent th t the
expre

on of t m y
eem
perfo
; t they re not mere t tooge
,
nd n the ntere
t
of ce r nd con

tent thn ng or ttenton m y e
proft y drected to them. The
me rem r ppe
to mch n the
pre
ent nd

eqent ch pter
on the tr n
cendent  ttrte
of eng.
27. KINDS OF UNITY.(_ _) The nty we h ve een de
crng h
een
c ed _tr n
cendent _, to d
tng
h t from _predc ment _ ntythe
nty whch 
proper to
pec  c tegory of eng, n mey, _q ntty_,
nd whch, ccordngy, 

o c ed _q ntt tve_ or _m them tc _
nty. Whe the former 
common to  eng, wth whch t 
re y
dentc , nd to whch t dd
nothng re , the  tter eong
nd 

ppc e, propery
pe ng, ony to the mode of eng whch 

corpore , whch ex
t
ony
ffected y q ntty,
occpyng
p ce,

c p e of me
rement; nd therefore, 
o, th
 tter nty dd


omethng re  to the eng whch t ffect
, n mey, the ttrte of
q ntty, of whch nty 
the me
re nd the gener tng prncpe.(136)
For q ntty,
we
h 
ee, 

mode of eng re y d
tnct from the
corpore 

t nce whch t ffect
. The q ntty h
t
own
tr n
cendent  nty;
o h
the

t nce whch t q ntfe
;
o h
the
compo
te whoe, the q ntfed ody, t th
 tter tr n
cendent 
nty,  e the compo
te eng wth whch t 
dentc , 
not _nm
per
e_ t ony _nm per ccden
_ (_cf._ __, _nfr _).
We derve or noton of q ntt tve or m them tc  nty, whch 
the
prncpe of contng nd the
t nd rd of me
rng, from dvdng
ment y the contno
q ntty or m gntde whch 
one of the
mmed te d t of
en
e experence. Now the d
tncton etween th
nt
nd tr n
cendent  nty
ppo
e
not merey th t q ntty 
re y
d
tnct from the corpore 

t nce, t 
o th t the hm n mnd 

c p e of concevng
re  cert n mode
of eng other th n the
corpore , mode
to whch q ntt tve concept
nd proce

e
,
ch

contng nd me
rng, re not _propery_ ppc e,
they re to
corpore  re ty, t ony n n _ n ogc _ or _tr n
ferred_
en
e (2).
The noton of tr n
cendent  nty, therefore, e r
the
me re ton to
th t of q ntt tve nty,
the noton of eng n gener  e r
to
th t of q ntfed or corpore  eng.
(__) Tr n
cendent  nty m y e ether _e

ent _ (or _

t nt _,
nm _per
e_, nm _
mpcter_), or _ ccdent _ (nm _per
ccden
_, nm _
ecndm qd_). The former ch r cterze

eng
whch h
nothng n t eyond wh t 
e

ent  to t

ch, _e.g._ the
nty of ny

t nce: nd th
nty 
twofod(1) _nty of

mpcty_ nd (2) _nty of compo
ton_ ccordng
the

t nce 

e

ent y
mpe (
ch
the hm n
o or pre
prt) or
e

ent y compo
te (
ch
m n, or ny corpore 

t nce:
nce
every
ch

t nce 
compo
ed e

ent y of
form tve nd n
ndetermn te prncpe).(137)
Accdent  nty 
the nty of eng who
e con
ttent f ctor
or
content
re not re y nted n
ch
w y
to form one e

ence,
whether
mpe or compo
te. It 
threefod: (1) _coectve_ nty, or
nty _of ggreg ton_,
of _he p_ of
tone
or _crowd_ of men; (2)
_ rtfc _ nty,
of ho
e or
pctre; nd (3) _n tr _ or
_phy
c _ nty,
of ny ex
tng

t nce wth t
conn tr 
ccdent
, _e.g._ vng org n
m wth t

ze,
h pe, q te
, etc.,

or the hm n
o wth t
f cte
.(138)

(_c_) Tr n
cendent  nty m y e ether ndvd  (
ng r, nmerc ,
concrete, re ) or nver
 (
pecfc, generc, 
tr ct, ogc ). The
former 
th t whch ch r cterze
eng or re ty con
dered
ct y
ex
tng or
proxm tey c p e of ex
tng: the nty of n
_ndvd _ n tre or e

ence: the nty wherey eng 
not merey
ndvded n t
ef t nc p e of repetton or mtpc ton of
t
ef. It 
ony the ndvd 

ch th t c n ct y ex
t: the

tr ct nd nver
 
nc p e of ct y ex
tng

ch. We
h 
ex mne pre
enty wh t t 
th t _ndvd te
_ re ty, nd wh t t 

th t render
t c p e of ex
tng ct y n the form of thng
or of
per
on
the form
n whch t ct y pre
ent
t
ef n or
experence.
A
tr ct or nver
 nty 
the nty whch ch r cterze

re ty
conceved
n 
tr ct, nver
 oject y the hm n nteect. The
oject of
pecfc or generc concept, m n or nm , for ex mpe,

one n th

en
e, ndvded n t
ef, t c p e of ndefnte
mtpc ton or repetton n the ony mode n whch t c n ct y
ex
tthe ndvd  mode. The nver
 
_nm ptm ne

e pr
_.
Fn y, we c n conceve
ether of t
tern tve
Th
conceved t 
ch r
de
gn ted
_ 
tr ct_,

ny n tre or e

ence wthot con
derng t n

t te
ether
ndvd  or
nver
.
cterzed y nty whch h
een commony
or (y Scot
t
)
_form _ nty.

28. MULTITUDE AND NUMBER.The _one_ h
for t
corre tve the

_m nfod_. Unt
, one of whch 
not the other, con
ttte mttde or
pr ty. If nty 
the neg ton of ct  dv
on n eng, mttde
re
t
from
econd neg ton, th t, n mey, y whch the ndvded eng
or nt 
m r ed off or dvded from other nt
.(139) We h ve defned
nty y the neg ton of ct  _ntrn
c_ dvdedne

; nd we h ve
een
t to e comp te wth _extrn
c_ dvdedne

, or otherne

. Th
the
v ge noton of dvdedne


nteror to th t of nty. Now mttde
nvove
dvdedne

; t t 
o nvove
nd pre
ppo
e
the ntrn
c
ndvdedne

or _nty_ of e ch con
ttent of the m nfod. In the re 
order of thng
the _one_ 
pror to  _dvdedne

_; t on ccont of
the
en
o
orgn of or concept
we c n defne the former ony y
exc
on of the  tter. The order n whch we ot n the
e de

eem
,
therefore, to e
foow
: fr
t _eng_, then _dvdedne

_, next
_nty_ whch excde
dvdedne

, nd fn y _mttde_ whch con

t

of nt
.(140)
The re ton of the _one_ to the _m nfod_ 
th t of ndvded eng to
dvded eng. The
me re ty c nnot e one nd m nfod nder the
me

pect; thogh ovo
y eng m y e ct y one nd potent y
m nfod or _vce ver
_, or one nder
cert n
pect nd m nfod nder
nother
pect.
From the tr n
cendent  pr ty or mttde whch we h ve j
t
de
cred we c n d
tng
h _predc ment _ or _q ntt tve_ pr ty:
d
tncton whch 
to e nder
tood n the
me w y
when pped to
nty. Q ntt tve mttde 
the ct y
ep r ted or dvded
condton of q ntfed eng. _Nmer_ 

mttde me
red or conted
y nty: t 

_conted_, nd, therefore, nece

ry _defnte_ nd
_fnte_ mttde. Now t 
_m them tc _ nty th t 
, propery, the
prncpe of nmer nd the
t nd rd or me
re of  contng; nd
therefore t 
ony to re te
whch f  wthn the c tegory of
q nttyn other word
, to m ter  ength t the concept of nmer 

propery ppc e. No dot we c n nd do conceve tr n
cendent  nty

fter the n ogy of the q ntt tve nty whch 
the prncpe of
contng nd me
rng; nd no dot we c n 
e the tr n
cendent  concept
of ct y ndvded eng

prncpe of enmer ton, nd
o
cont or enmer te
prt  eng
; t th
contng 
ony
n ogc ; nd m ny pho
opher
, foowng Ar
tote nd St. Thom
,
hod th t the concept
of _nmerc _ mtpcty nd _nmerc _
d
tncton re not propery ppc e to mm ter  eng
, th t the
e
 tter dffer ndvd y from one nother _not nmerc y_, t e ch y
t
whoe n tre or e

ence, th t 
, _form y_.(141)
29. THE INDIVIDUAL AND THE UNIVERSAL.We h ve d
tng
hed tr n
cendent 
nty nto ndvd  nd nver
 (27, _c_). Re ty
endowed wth
nver
 nty 
re ty
pprehended y 
tr ct thoght to e
c p e of ndefnte repetton or mtpc ton of t
ef n ct 
ex
tence. Re ty
endowed wth ndvd  nty 
re ty pprehended

ct y ex
tng, or
proxm tey c p e of ct y ex
tng, nd

therefore nc p e of ny repetton or mtpc ton of t
ef, of
ny dv
on of t
ef nto other
eve
or commnc ton of t
ef to
other
eve
. Whe, therefore, the nver
 h
t
re ty ony n
the ndvd 
to whch t commnc te
t
ef, nd whch th
emody t,
the ndvd  h
t
re ty n t
ef nd of t
own rght,
o to

pe : when t ct y ex
t
t 
_
 jr
_, nd

ch
ncommnc e, _ncommnc 
_. The ct y ex
tng ndvd  

c ed n L tn _
ppo
tm_ term whch we
h  render y the
Eng
h thng or ndvd  thng. It w
c ed y Ar
tote the
, _
ub
ana ma_, 

ub
anc,  
 

nc, 
d
nu
  m 
ub
anc  

nc cncvd by ab
ac u
a
unv
a;  a bn d
nad a
, _subst nt
secun _, secon subst nce or secon essence.
Now t s fun ment l ssumpton n Arstotel n n scol stc
plosopy t t w tever ctu lly exsts, or w tever s re l n te sense
t t s suc t s proxm tely c p ble of ctu l exstence, s n must be
nvu l: t t te unvers l s suc s not re l, _.e._ s suc c nnot
ctu lly exst. An te m nfest re son for ts ssumpton s t t
w tever ctu lly exsts must be, wt entre efnteness n
etermn teness, ts own self n notng else: t c nnot be c p ble of
vson or repetton of tself, of t t wc t re lly s, nto oter
re ltes wc woul stll be t t nvu l tng. But re lty
consere s unvers l _s_ c p ble of suc repetton of tself
nefntely. Terefore re lty c nnot ctu lly exst s unvers l, but
only s nvu l.
Ts s merely pl n common sense; nor oes te e lstc monsm
wc ppe rs to ttrbute re lty to te unvers l s suc, n
wc nterprets re lty exclusvely ccorng to te forms n
wc t presents tself to bstr ct tougt, re lly run counter
to ts conser ton; for w t t re lly ols s not t t
unvers ls s suc re re l, but t t tey re p ses of te
ll-one re lty wc s tself _one nvu l beng_.
But m ny moern plosopers ol t t nvu lty, no less t n
unvers lty, s form of tougt. No oubt nvu lty _n
te bstr ct_ s, no less t n unvers lty, n object bstr cte
from te  t of experence by te mns n lyss of te l tter.
But ts s not w t tose plosopers me n. Tey me n t t te
nvu l s suc s not re l  tum of experence. From te
K nt n vew t t nvu lty s purely ment l form wt wc

te mn nvests te  tum, tey r w te subjectvst concluson

t t te worl, tus nterprete s consstng of nvu ls,
s penomen l or ment l prouct for te objectve v lty of
wc tere c n be to m ns specul tve re son no suffcent
gu r ntee.
To ts teory we oppose t t of Arstotle n te scol stcs,
not merely t t te nvu l lone s ctu lly exstent, but
t t s ctu lly exstent n s nvu l t s ctu lly gven
to us n ppreene by us n ntern l n extern l sense
experence; n t t ltoug n te norg nc worl, n to some
extent n te lower forms of lfe, we m y not be ble to etermne
for cert n w t portons of ts experence re stnct
nvu ls, stll n te worl of lvng tngs gener lly, n
espec lly of te nm l ngom, tere c n be no ffculty n
etermnng ts, for te smple re son t t ere re lty s gven
to us n sense experence s consstng of stnct nvu ls.
At te s me tme t s true t t we c n unerst n tese nvu l
re ltes, nterpret tem, re  te me nng of tem, only by te
ntellectu l functon of jugment, _.e._ by te n lytc n syntetc
ctvty wereby we bstr ct n unvers lze cert n spects of tem, n
use tese spects s prec tes of te nvu ls. Now, seeng t t
ntellectu l tougt, s stnct from sense experence, ppreens ts
objects only s bstr ct n potent lly unvers l, only s st tc,
self-entc l, possble essences, n neverteless prec tes tese of
te concrete, nvu l, contngent, ctu lly exstng tngs of sense
experence, entfyng tem wt te l tter n ffrm tve jugments;
seeng moreover, t tsnce te ntellectu l nowlege we tus cqure
bout te  t of sense experence s genune n not cmerc ltose
objects of bstr ct tougt must be l ewse re l, n must be re lly n
tose nvu l sense  t ( ccorng to te teory of nowlege wc
fns ts expresson n Moer te Re lsm),tere rses mme tely te
problem, or r ter te group of problems, reg rng te rel tons between
re lty s reve le to ntellect, _.e._ s bstr ct n unvers l, n
re lty s reve le to sense, _.e._ s concrete n nvu l. In oter
wors, we  ve to nqure ow we re to nterpret ntellectu lly te f ct
t t re lty, wc s possble essence s _unvers l_ for bstr ct
tougt, s neverteless, s ctu lly exstng, _nvu lze_ for
sense n consequently for ntellect reflectng on te  t of sense.(142)
30. THE METAPHYSICAL GRADES OF BEING IN THE INDIVIDUAL.W t, ten s
te rel ton between ll t t ntellect c n ppreen n te nvu l,
_vz._ ts lowest cl ss essence or specfc n ture, n ts wole n ture
s n nvu l, ts _essent tom _ or nvu l n ture? We c n best
ppro c ts problem by conserng frst tese v rous bstr ct
tougt-objects wc ntellect c n ppreen n te nvu l.
W t re c lle te met pysc l gr es of beng, tose postve moments
of perfecton or re lty wc te mn etects n te nvu l, s, for
nst nce, subst nt lty, m ter lty, org nc lfe, nm lty,
r ton lty, nvu lty, n te nvu l m nweter we escrbe tem
s p ses or spects or form ltes of beng re unoubtely
stnct objects for bstr ct tougt. Wy oes t tus stngus
between tem, n express tem by stnct concepts, even wen t fns
tem emboe n sngle nvu l? Bec use, reflectng on te m nner n
wc re lty presents tself, troug sense experence, s ctu lly
exstng, t fns resembl nces n fferences between nvu lly
stnct  t . It fns n some of tem gr es of re lty wc t oes

not fn n oters, nvu l, specfc, n generc gr es; n

sometr nscenent lgr es common to ll. Now between tese v rous gr es
of beng s foun n one n te s me nvu l t c nnot be ene t t
tere exsts logc l stncton wt
foun ton or groun for t n
te nvu l re lty; bec use te l tter, _beng more or less sml r_
to oter nvu l re ltes, c uses te mn to ppreen t by
number
of stnct concepts: te nvu lty wereby t ffers re lly from ll
oter nvu ls of te s me speces; te specfc, fferent l n
generc gr es of beng wereby t s conceptu lly entfe wt wer
n wer cl sses of tngs; n te tr nscenent l gr es wereby t s
conceptu lly entfe wt ll oters. Te _sml rty_ of re lly
stnct nvu ls, wc s te _conceptu l entty_ of ter
_qu ltes_, s te groun on wc we conceptu lly entfy ter
_essences_. Now s tere ny re son for tn ng t t tese grouns of
sml rty, s foun n te nvu l, re _re lly stnct_ from one
noter n te l tter? Tey re cert nly conceptu lly stnct
expressonse c less n equ te t n te wer onesof w t s re lly one
nvu l essence. But we must t e tem to be ll re lly entc l n
n wt ts nvu l essence, unless we re prep re to ol
conceptu l plur lty s suc to be re l plur lty; n wc c se we soul
lso ol conceptu l unty s suc to be re l unty. But ts l tter vew
s precsely te error of extreme re lsm, of refyng bstr ct concepts
n olng te _unvers le p rte re_: teory wc le s logc lly
to monsm.(143)
31. INDIVIDUALITY.Te stncton, terefore, between tese gr es of
beng n te nvu l, s vrtu l stncton, _.e._
logc l
groun for t n te re lty. Ts s te sort of
stncton wt
stncton wc exsts between te specfc n ture of te nvu l,
_.e._ w t s cont ne n te efnton of te lowest cl ss to wc t
belongs, n ts _nvu lty_, _.e._ w t consttutes ts _n ture or
essence s n nvu l_. No oubt te concrete exstng nvu l
cont ns, beses ts nvu l n ture or essence, v rety of
ccent l c r cterstcs wc serve s m r s or sgns wereby ts
nvu lty _s reve le to us_. Tese re c lle nvu lzng
c r cterstcs, _not e nvu ntes_, te f ml r scol stc lst of
tem beng _form _, _fgur _, _locus_, _tempus_, _strps_, _p tr _,
_nomen_, wt m nfest reference to te nvu l m n. But toug
tese c r cterstcs en ble us to m r off te nvu l n sp ce n
tme from oter nvu ls of te s me cl ss, tus _reve lng_
nvu lty to us n te concrete, t c nnot be el t t tey
consttute te nvu lty of te n ture or subst nce n e c c se. If
te um n subst nce, essence, or n ture, s foun n Socr tes, were el
to ffer from te um n subst nce, essence, or n ture, s foun n Pl to,
only by te f ct t t n e c t s ffecte by
fferent set of
ccents, _.e._ of moes ccent l to te subst nce s foun n e c,
ten t woul follow t t ts subst nce s not merely _conceptu lly_
entc l n bot, but t t t s _re lly_ entc l n bot; wc s te
error of extreme re lsm. As
m tter of f ct t s te converse t t s
true: te sets of ccents re stnct bec use tey ffect nvu l
subst nces lre y re lly n nvu lly stnct.
It s m nfest t t te ccents wc re _sep r ble_ from te
nvu l subst nce, _e.g._ n me, s pe, sze, ppe r nce, loc ton,
etc., c nnot consttute ts nvu lty. Tere re, owever, oter
c r cterstcs wc re _nsep r ble_ from te nvu l subst nce, or
wc re _propertes_ of te l tter, _e.g._ te f ct t t n nvu l
m n w s born of cert n p rents. Per ps t s suc c r cterstcs t t
gve ts nvu lty to te nvu l subst nce?(144) To tn so woul
be to msunerst n te queston uner scusson. We re not now

nqurng nto te _extrnsc_ c uses wereby ctu lly exstng re lty s

nvu te, nto te _effcent_ prncples of ts nvu ton, but
nto te _form l_ n _ntrnsc_ prncple of te l tter. Tere must
obvously be sometng ntrnsc to te nvu l re lty tself wereby
t s nvu te. An t s bout ts ntrnsc sometng we re
nqurng. Te nvu l m n s ts nvu l, um n n ture s tus
nvu te n m, by sometng t t s essent l to um n n ture s
foun n m. Ts sometng  s been c lle fter te n logy of te
_fferent specfc _ wc fferent tes speces wtn genuste
_fferent nvu _ of te nvu l. It  s lso been c lle by some
te _fferent numerc _, n by Scotsts te _ eccet s_. However we
re to conceve ts sometng, t s cert n t ll events t t,
consere s t s re lly foun n te nvu l, t c nnot be nytng
_re lly stnct_ from te specfc n ture of te l tter. No oubt, te
_fferent specfc _, consere n te bstr ct, t s not essent l
n ntrnsc to te _n tur generc _ consere n te bstr ct: t s
extrnsc n ccent l to te bstr ct content of te l tter noton; but
ts s bec use we re concevng tese gr es of beng n te bstr ct.
Te s me s true of te _fferent nvu _ s comp re wt te
_n tur specfc _ n te bstr ct. But we re now conserng tese
gr es of re lty s tey re ctu lly n te concrete nvu l beng:
n s tey re foun ere, we  ve seen t t re l stncton between
tem s n mssble.
32. THE PRINCIPLE OF INDIVIDUATION.How, ten, re we to conceve ts
sometng wc nvu tes re lty? It m y be well to pont out t t for
te erroneous octrne of extreme re lsm, wc ssues n monsm, te
problem of nvu ton, s ere unerstoo, oes not rse. For te
monst ll plur lty n beng s merely pp rent, not re l: tere c n be
no queston of re l stncton between nvu l n nvu l.(145)
Sml rly, te nomn lst n te conceptu lst ev e te problem. For
tese te nvu l lone s not merely form lly re l: t lone s
fun ment lly re l: te unvers l s not even fun ment lly re l,  s no
foun ton n re lty, n tus ll scentfc nowlege of re lty s
reve le n sense experence s renere mpossble. But for te moer te
re lst, wle te nvu l lone s form lly re l, te unvers l s
fun ment lly re l, n ence te problem rses. It m y be forcbly
st te n te form of
p r ox: T t wereby Socr tes n Pl to re
re lly stnct from e c oter s nvu ls s re lly entc l wt
te um n n ture wc s re lly n bot. But w t nvu tes um n
n ture n Socr tes, or n Pl to, s logc lly stnct from te um n
n ture t t s re lly n Socr tes, n re lly n Pl to. We  ve only to
nqure, terefore, weter te ntrnsc prncple of nvu ton s to
be conceve merely s neg ton, s sometng neg tve e by te mn
to te concept of te specfc n ture, wereby te l tter s ppreene
s nc p ble of multplc ton nto oters e c of wc woul be
form lly t t s me n ture, or, n oter wors, s ncommunc ble; or s
te ntrnsc groun of ts ncommunc blty to be conceve s
sometng postve, not nee s sometng re lly stnct from, n
super e to, te specfc n ture, but s postve spect of te
l tter, n spect, moreover, not nvolve n te concept of te specfc
n ture consere n te bstr ct.
Of te m ny vews t t  ve been put forw r on ts queston two or tree
c ll for some ttenton. In te opnon of Tomsts gener lly, te
prncple wc nvu tes _m ter l_ tngs, tus multplyng
numerc lly te s me specfc n ture, s to be conceve s postve
moe ffectng te l tter n reve lng t n new spect, were s te
specfc n ture of te _sprtu l_ nvu l s tself form lly n
nvu l. Te prncple of te l tters nvu ton s lre y

nvolve n te very concept of ts specfc n ture, n terefore s not

to be conceve s
stnct postve spect of te l tter but smply s
te bsence of plur lty n communc blty n te l tter. In m ter l
tngs, moreover, te postve moe or spect wereby te specfc n ture
s foun numerc lly multple, n ncommunc ble s t exsts n e c,
conssts n te f ct t t suc
specfc n ture nvolves n ts very
consttuton
_m ter l_ prncple wc s ctu lly lle wt cert n
_qu ntt tve mensons_. Hence te prncple wc nvu tes m ter l
subst nces s not to be conceve fter te m nner n wc Scotsts
conceve t s n ultm te _fferent _ ffectng te _form l_ f ctor of
te n ture, etermnng te specfc n ture just s te _fferent
specfc _ etermnes te generc n ture, but s _m ter l_
fferent tng prncple. W t nvu tes te m ter l nvu l, w t
m r s t off s one n tself, stnct or ve from oter nvu ls
of te s me specfc n ture, n ncommunc ble n t t conton, s te
m ter l f ctor of t t nvu ls n turenot, nee, te m ter l
f ctor, _m ter prm _, consere n te bstr ct, but te m ter l
f ctor s proxm tely c p ble of ctu l exstence by beng lle to
cert n more or less efnte sp t l or qu ntt tve mensons: m tter
ffecte wt qu ntty: _m ter qu ntt te sgn t _.(146)
In reg r to m ter l subst nces ts octrne embr ces two sep r te
contentons: (_ _) t t te prncple wc nvu tes suc
subst nce
must be conceve s sometng postve, not re lly stnct from, but yet
not cont ne n, te specfc n ture consere n te bstr ct; (_b_)
t t ts postve spect s to be foun not n te form l but n te
m ter l prncple of te composte corpore l subst nce.
To te former contenton t mgt be objecte t t w t nvu tes te
specfc n ture c nnot be conceve s nytng _postve_, super e to
ts n ture: t c nnot be nytng _ ccent l_ to te l tter, for f t
were, te nvu l woul be only n ccent l unty, _unum per
ccens_ n woul be consttute by n ccent, wc we  ve seen to
be n mssble; nor, on te oter  n, c n t be nytng _essent l_ to
te specfc n ture, for f t were, ten nvu ls soul be c p ble of
equ te essent l efnton, n furtermore te efnton of te
specfc n ture woul not re lly gve te wole essence or _qut s_ of
te nvu lstwo consequences wc re commonly rejecte by ll
scol stcs. To ts, owever, t s reple t t te prncple of
nvu ton s sometng essent l to te specfc n ture n te sense
t t t _s_ sometng ntrnsc to, n re lly entc l wt, te wole
re l subst nce or entty of ts n ture, toug not nvolve n te
bstr ct concept by te n lyss of wc we re c te efnton or
_qut s_ of ts n ture. W t nvu tes Socr tes s cert nly
essent l to Socr tes, n s terefore re lly entc l wt s um n
n ture; t s ntrnsc to te um n n ture n m,
moe or spect of
s um n subst nce; yet t oes not enter nto te efnton of s
n ture_ nm l r ton le_for suc efnton bstr cts from
nvu lty. Wen, terefore, we s y t t efnton of te specfc
n ture gves te wole _essence_ of n nvu l, we me n t t t gves
explctly te bstr ct (specfc) essence, not te nvu lty wc s
re lly entc l wt ts, nor, terefore, te wole subst nt l re lty
of te nvu l. We gve fferent nswers to te questons, W t s
Socr tes? n Wo s Socr tes? Te nswer to te former queston
m n, or r ton l nm lgves te essence, but not explctly te
wole subst nt l re lty of te nvu l, ts rem nng nc p ble of
equ te conceptu l n lyss. Te l tter queston we nswer by gvng te
notes t t _reve l_ nvu lty. Tese, of course, re ccent l n
te strct sense. But even te prncples wc consttute te
nvu lty of sep r te nvu ls of te s me speces, n wc

fferent te tese nvu ls numerc lly from one noter, we o not

escrbe s _essent l_ fferences, were s we o escrbe specfc n
generc fferences s _essent l_. Te re son of ts s t t te l tter
re bstr ct, unvers l, conceptu l, men ble to ntellectu l n lyss,
scentfc lly mport nt, wle te former re just te reverse; te
unvers l fferences lone re prncples bout wc we c n  ve
scentfc nowlege, for ll scence s of te bstr ct n
unvers l;(147) n ts s w t we  ve n mn wen we escrbe tem s
essent l or form l, n nvu l fferences s entt tve or
m ter l.
Te secon pont n te Tomstc octrne s t t corpore l subst nces
re nvu te by re son of ter _m ter lty_. Te form tve,
specfc, etermnng prncple of te corpore l subst nce s renere
_ncommunc ble_ by ts unon wt te m ter l, etermn ble prncple;
n t becomes nvu lly _stnct_ or sep r te by te f ct t t ts
l tter prncple, n orer to be c p ble of unon wt te gven specfc
form,  s n ts very essence n exgence for cert n more or less
etermn te mensons n sp ce. Corpore l tngs  ve ter n tur l sze
wtn cert n lmts. Te nvu l of gven corpore l speces c n
exst only bec use te m ter l prncple, receptve of ts specfc
form,  s n tur l rel ton to te fun ment l property of corpore l
tngs, _vz._ qu ntty, wtn cert n more or less etermn te lmts.
Te form s renere ncommunc ble by ts recepton n te m tter. Ts
concrete re lz ton of te form n te m tter s nvu lly stnct
n sep r te from oter re lz tons of te s me specfc form, by te
f ct t t te m tter of ts re lz ton em ns cert n mensons of
qu ntty: ts l tter property beng te root-prncple of numerc l
multplc ton of corpore l nvu ls wtn te s me speces.
On te oter  n, ncorpore l subst nces suc s ngels or pure sprts,
beng pure forms, _form subsstentes_, wolly n essent lly
un lle wt ny etermn ble m ter l prncple, re _of temselves_ not
only specfc but nvu l; tey re temselves essent lly
ncommunc ble, superor to ll multplc ton or repe te re lz ton of
temselves: tey re suc t t e c c n be ctu lze only once n for
ll: e c s
speces n tself: t s te full, ex ustve, n
equ te expresson of vne type, of n exempl r n te Dvne Mn:
ts re lz ton s not, l e t t of m ter l form, te ctu ton of n
nefntely etermn ble m ter l prncple: t sums up n ex usts te
mt ble perfecton of te specfc type n ts sngle nvu lty,
were s te perfecton of te specfc type of corpore l tng c nnot be
equ tely expresse n ny sngle nvu l re lz ton, but only by
repe te re lz tons; nor nee c n t ever be equ tely, ex ustvely
expresse, by ny fnte multtue of tese.
It follows t t n reg r to pure sprts te nvu tng prncple n
te specfc prncple re not only re lly but lso logc lly,
conceptu lly entc l; t t te stncton between nvu l n
nvu l s ere properly specfc stncton; t t t c n be
escrbe s numerc l only n n n logc l sense, f by numerc l we
me n m ter l or qu ntt tve, _.e._ te stncton between corpore l
nvu ls of te s me speces (28).
But te stncton between nvu l um n souls s not specfc or
form l stncton. Tese, toug sprtu l, re not _pure_ sprts. Tey
re sprtu l subst nces wc, of ter very n ture, re essent lly
or ne for unon wt m tter. Tey ll belong to te s me speceste
um n speces. But tey o not consttute nvu ls of ts speces
unless s exstng ctu lly unte wt m tter. E c um n soul  s

tr nscenent l rel ton to ts own boy, to te _m ter sgn t _ for

wc, n n wc, t w s cre te. For e c um n soul ts rel ton s
unque. Just s t s te m ter l prncple of e c um n beng, te
m tter s lle to qu ntt tve mensons, t t nvu tes te m n, so
t s te unque rel ton of s soul to te m ter l prncple tus
sp t lly etermne, t t nvu tes s soul. Now te soul, even wen
semboe n exstng fter e t, necess rly ret ns n ts very
consttuton ts essent l rel ton to ts own boy; n tus t s t t
semboe souls, toug not ctu lly lle wt m tter, rem n
numerc lly stnct n nvu te n vrtue of ter essent l
rel ton, e c to ts own boy. We see, terefore, t t um n souls,
toug sprtu l, re n entrely fferent orer of bengs, n must be
conceve qute fferently, from pure sprts.
We must be content wt ts bref exposton of te Tomstc
octrne on nvu ton. A scusson of te rguments for n
g nst t woul c rry us too f r.(148) Tere s no oubt t t
w t _reve ls_ te nvu lty of te corpore l subst nce to us
s ts m ter l prncple, n vrtue of wc ts exstence s
crcumscrbe wtn cert n lmts of tme n sp ce n ffecte
wt nvu l c r cterstcs, _not e nvu ntes_. But te
Tomstc octrne, wc fns n _m ter sgn t _ te form l,
ntrnsc, consttutve prncple of nvu ton, goes muc
eeper. It s ntm tely connecte wt te Arstotel n teory of
nowlege n re lty. Accorng to ts plosopy te form tve
prncple or , he _frma sba
iais_, is r se ke 
he i
eiibii f rprea hi
s: hese are i
eiibe i

s far frh as he are aa, a

d he are aa i
vire f
heir frms. He
e he e
de
 f he shasi mme
ars
f Arise  se he erm frm as s

ms wih he erm

are, hh he whe

are f he rprea sbsa
e
embraes he maeria as we as he frma pri
ipe: fr eve

hh i des, we a

dersa
d
hi
 ab his
are
be
d wha is i
eiibe i
i i
vire f is frm. The
maeria pri
ipe, 
he her ha
d, is he pe
ia,
i
deermi
ae pri
ipe, i
isef 
i
eiibe. We k
w ha i

a
ie
 Greek phisph i was rearded as he , he srd
a
d 
i
e
 pri
ipe i
hi
s, he eeme
 whih resised
rai
a a
asis a
d fe side he spe f sie
e, r
k
wede f he
eessar a
d 
iversa. Whie i reveaed he
frms r
ares f hi
s  se
se, i remai
ed isef impervis
 i
ee, whih rasped hese
ares a
d re
dered hem
i
eiibe 
 b divesi
 hem f maer, b absrai
 hem
frm maer. Reai is i
eiibe 
 i
s far frh as i is
immaeria, eiher i
fa r b absrai
. The hma
i
ee,
bei
 isef spiria, is reepive f frms wih maer.
B bei
 isef aied wih maer, is prper bje is

e
her ha
he
ares r esse
es f rprea hi
s,
absraed, hwever, frm he maer i
whih he are aa
immersed. The 
 reas
, herefre, wh a
 i
eiibe frm
r esse
e whih, as absra a
d 
iversa, is 
e fr
i
ee, is
everheess aa r pe
ia ma
ifd i

is reai, is bease i is aied wih a maeria pri

ipe. I
is he aer ha a
s fr he
meria mipiai
, i

aa reai, f a
 i
eiibe frm r esse
e. If he aer
is maeria i a
be aaized 
 b i
defi
ie repeaed,

meria r maeria disi

, aia
es wih maer. I
a

 be aaized _a sim_, r 

e fr a, as i
were. I is, herefre, he maeria pri
ipe ha
 mere

reveas, b as 

sies, he i
dividai
f sh rprea
frms r esse
es. He
e, , he i
divida as sh a

 be
adeqae apprehe
ded b i
ee; fr a i
eiibe
pri
ipes f reai are frma, whereas he i
dividai

pri
ipe is maeria.
O
he her ha
d, if a
i
eiibe esse
e r frm be pre
spiria, wh 
reaed  a
 i
deermi
ae, maeria
pri
ipe, i ms be 
e
 a
e 
epa r ia
b as rea: i a
exis 
 as 
e: i is f isef
i
divida: i a
be differe
iaed frm her spiria esse
es

 maeria b 
 frma, r, i
her wrds,


meria b b a disi

i
whih is a 
e i
divida a
d
speifi. Tw pre spiris a

 be w
meria a
d 
e
speifia, w fr se
se a
d 
e fr i
ee, as w me
are:
if he are disi
 a a he ms be disi
 fr i
ee,
_i.e._ he a

 be prper 
eived as w members f he
same speies.
I
his si
f he qesi
i is
 eas  see hw he
maeria pri
ipe, whih, b is aia
e wih qa
i,
i
dividaes he frm, is isef i
dividaed s as  be he
sre a
d pri
ipe f a mipii f
meria disi
 a
d
i
mm
iabe reaizai
s f his frm. Perhaps he ms ha
a
be said 
his pi
 is ha we ms 
eive qa
i, whih
is he f
dame
a prper f rprea reai, as bei
 isef
esse
ia divisibe, a
d he maeria pri
ipe as derivi
 frm
is esse
ia reai
 qa
i is f
i
f mipi
 he
same speifi
are
meria.
Of hse wh reje he Thmisi dri
e sme few 
e
d ha i is he
_aa exise
e_ f a
 speifi
are ha shd be 
eived as
i
dividai
 he aer. N db he 
iversa as sh a

 exis;
reai i
rder  exis aa ms be i
divida. Ye i a

 be
aa exise
e ha i
dividaes i. We ms 
eive i as i
divida
befre 
eivi
 i as aa exise
; a
d we a

eive i as
i
divida whie absrai
 frm is exise
e. We a
hi
k, fr
i
sa
e, f pre pssibe i
divida me
, r a
es, as
meria r
i
divida disi
 frm 
e a
her. Mrever, wha i
dividaes he

are ms be esse

ia  he aer, b aa exise
e is

esse
ia  a
 fi
ie
are. He
e aa exise
e a

 be he
pri
ipe f i
dividai
.(149) Ca
i be 
e
ded ha _pssibe_
exise
e is wha i
dividaes reai? N; fr pssibe exise
e is

hi
 mre ha
i
ri
si apai  exis aa, a
d his is
esse
ia  a reai: i is he rieri
whereb we disi
ish rea
bei
 frm ia bei
; b rea bei
, as sh, is i
differe
 

iversai r i
dividai; as far as he simpe 
ep f rea bei

is 
er
ed he aer ma be eiher 
iversa r i
divida; he 
ep
absras eqa frm eiher 
dii
f bei
.
The vas majri, herefre, f hse wh reje he Thmisi dri
e

i
dividai
, sppr he view ha wha i
dividaes a

are r
sbsa
e is simp he whe reai, he a e
i, f he
i
divida. This a e
i f he i
divida, hh rea ide
ia
wih he speifi
are, ms be 
eived as smehi
 psiive,
speradded  he aer, fr i i
vves a smehi
 whih is ia
r me
a disi
 frm he aer. This smehi
 is wha we 
eive
as a _differe
ia i
divida_, afer he a
a f he _differe
ia
speifia_ whih 
ras he 
ep f he e
s  ha f he

speies; a
d b Siss i has bee
ermed _haeeias_ r his
ess.
Wih si
 he Sis ermi
, ms f hse shasis wh
reje he Thmis dri
e 
his pi
 advae he prese
 view. The
i
dividai r his
ess f he i
divida sbsa
e is rearded as
havi

 speia pri
ipe i
he i
divida, her ha
he whe
sbsa
ia e
i f he aer. If he
are is simpe i is f isef
i
divida; if mpsie, he i
ri
si pri
ipes frm whih i
ress_i.e._ maer a
d frm esse
ia 
iedsffie  i
dividae
i.
I
his view, herefre, he maeria pri
ipe f a
 i
divida ma
, fr
exampe, is
meria a
d i
divida disi
 frm ha f a
 her
i
divida, _f isef_ a
d i
depe
de
 f is reai
eiher  he
frmaive pri
ipe r  qa
i. The frmaive pri
ipe, , is
i
dividaed _f isef_, a
d
 b he maeria pri
ipe whih is
rea disi
 frm i, r b is reai
 his maeria pri
ipe.
Likewise he 
i
f bh pri
ipes, whih is a sbsa
ia mde f he
mpsie sbsa
e, is i
dividaed a
d re
dered
meria disi

frm a her 
i
s f hese w i
divida pri
ipes,
 b eiher r
bh hese, b b isef. A
d fi
a, he i
divida mpsie sbsa
e
has is i
dividai
frm hese w i
ri
si pri
ipes hs
i
divida 
ied.
I ma be dbed, perhaps, wheher his aemp a expai
i
 he
rea, i
divida ma
ifd
ess f wha is 
e fr i
ee,
_i.e._ he 
iversa, hrws a
 rea ih p
he prbem. N
db, ever eeme
 r far whih is rasped b i
ee i

is a
asis f reaimaer, frm, sbsa
e, aide
,
qa
i,
a, eve
i
dividai isefis apprehe
ded as
absra a
d 
iversa; a
d if we hd he dri
e f Mderae
Reaism, ha he i
ee i
apprehe
di
 he 
iversa aai
s
 reai, a
d
 mere  a ia fime
 f is w

reai
, he prbem f reai
 i
eiib he reai whih
is 
e fr i
ee wih he same reai as ma
ifes
ma
ifd i
is 
ree reaizai
s fr se
se, is a e
i
e
phisphia prbem. T sa ha wha i
dividaes a
 rea
esse
e r
are, wha deprives i f he 
e
ess a
d

iversai whih i has fr i
ee, wha makes i his,
ha, r he her i
mm
iabe i
divida, ms be

eived  be simp he whe esse
ia reai f ha
are
isefeaves s si i
i
ra
e as  wh sh a
are, whih
is rea 
e fr i
ee, a
be rea ma
ifd i
is
aaizai
s fr se
se experie
e. The reas
wh he
are
whih is 
e a
d 
iversa fr absra hh, a
d whih is

dbed
 a ia e
i b a reai apabe f aa
exise
e, a
be aaized as a ma
ifd f disi

i
dividas, ms be sh, we are i
i
ed  hi
k, i
he
reai
f his
are  a maeria pri
ipe i
aia
e wih
qa
i whih is he sre f a pre
meria, spae a
d
ime disi
i
s.
33. INDIIDUATION OF ACCIDENTS.The re f qa
i i
he Thmisi
her f i
dividai
sess he qesi
: Hw are aide
s
hemseves i
dividaed? We have referred aread (29, _
._)  he view
ha he are i
dividaed b he i
divida sbjes r sbsa
es i

whih he i
here. If we disi
ish aai
bewee
wha _reveas_
i
dividai a
d wha _
sies i_, here a
be
 db ha whe

aide
s f he same ki
d are f
d i
i
divida disi
 sbjes

wha reveas he

meria disi
i
bewee
he frmer is he fa ha
he are f
d i
heri
 i
he aer. S, as, disi
i
f i
divida
sbsa
es is he _exri
si_, _e
ei_, r _asa_ pri
ipe f he

meria disi
i
bewee
simiar aide
s arisi
 i
hese
sbsa
es. B whe
he same ki
d f aide
 rers sessive i
he
same i
divida sbsa
eas, fr exampe, whe
a ma
perfrms repeaed
as f he same ki
dwha reveas he
meria r i
divida disi
i

bewee
hese aer a

 be he i
divida sbsa
e, fr i is 
e a
d
he same, b raher he _ime_ disi
i
bewee
he aide
s
hemseves.
The i
ri
si 
siive pri
ipe whih frma i
dividaes he
aide
s f i
divida disi
 sbsa
es is, ardi
  Thmiss
e
era, heir esse
ia reai
 he i
divida sbsa
es i
whih
he appear. I is
 ear hw his her a
be appied  he
f
dame
a aide
 f rprea sbsa
es. If he f
i
f frma
i
dividai
 he rprea sbsa
e isef is  be asribed i
a

measre  _qa
i_, i wd seem  fw ha his aer ms be
rearded as i
dividaed b isef, b is w
a e
i r reai.
A
d his is he view hed b ms her shasis i
reard  he
i
dividai
f aide
s e
era: ha hese, ike sbsa
es, are
i
dividaed b heir w
a psiive reai.
Whe
here is qesi
f he same ki
d f aide
 rerri
 i
he same
i
divida sbje, he ime disi
i
bewee
sh sessive
i
divida aide
s f he same ki
d wd appear
 mere  _revea_
heir i
dividai b as  i
diae a differe
 reai
f eah 
is sbje as exisi
 a ha pariar pi
 f spae a
d ime: s
ha he reai
f he aide
  is i
divida sbje, as here a
d

w exisi
 i
he 
ree, wd be he i
dividai
 pri
ipe f he
aide
.
Wheher a
mber f aide
s f he same _speies i
fima_, a
d disi

mere
meria, d exis sima
es i
he same i
divida
sbje, is a qesi

whih shasi phisphers are
 areed:
he
eaive pi
i
, whih has he ahri f S. Thmas, bei
 he
mre prbabe. Thse varis qesi
s 
he i
dividai
f aide
s
wi be beer 
dersd frm a sbseqe
 expsii
f he shasi
dri
e 
aide
s (Ch. viii.).
I ma be we  remark ha i
i
qiri
 ab he i
dividai

f sbsa
es a
d aide
s we have bee

sideri
 reai frm
a sai sa
dpi
, seeki
 hw we are  
eive a
d i
erpre
i
eea, r fr absra hh, he reai
f he

iversa  he i
divida. If, hwever, we asribe  ime
disi
i
s a
 f
i
i
i
dividai
 aide
s f he same
ki
d i
he same i
divida sbsa
e, we are i
rdi
 i
 r
a
asis he ki
ei aspe f reai, r is sbjei

presses f ha
e.
We ma a ae
i
here  a few her qesi
s f mi
r
impr disssed b shasis. Firs, have a i
dividas f
he same speies he same _sbsa
ia_ perfei
, r a

i
dividas have differe
 rades f sbsa
ia perfei
wihi

he same speies? A admi he bvis fa ha i

divida
differs frm i
divida wihi
he same speies i
he
mber,
varie, exe
 a
d i
e
si f heir aide
a prperies a
d
qaiies. B, havi
 he hma
s mai
 i
view, he
disaree as  wheher he sbsa
ia perfei
f he speifi


are a
be aaized i
differe
 rades i
differe

i
dividas. Ardi
  he mre mm
pi
i
here a

 be
differe
 _sbsa
ia_ rades f he same speifi
are, fr
he simpe reas
ha ever sh rade f sbsa
ia perfei

shd be rearded as speifi, as ha

i
 he speies: he
e,
_e.._ a hma
ss are sbsa
ia eqa i
perfei
. This
view is bvis based p
he 
epi
f speifi pes r
esse
es as bei
, afer he a
a f
mbers, immabe whe


sidered i
he absra. A
d i seems  be 
firmed b he

siderai
ha he i
ri
si pri
ipe f i
dividai
is

hi
, r adds
hi
, _rea disi
_ frm he speifi
esse
e isef.
A
her qesi
i


exi
wih i
dividai
has derived a
eas a
hisria i
eres frm he
abe 
rvers  whih
i ave rise i
he seve
ee
h e
r bewee
Carke a
d
Leib
iz. The aer, i
arda
e wih he pri
ipes f his
ssem f phisph,he _Law f Sffiie
 Reas
_ a
d he _Law
f C
i
i_ am
 he _m
ads_ r imae pri
ipes f
bei
,
e
ded ha w i
divida bei
s s abse aike as
 be _i
diser
ibe_ wd be _e ips ide
ia_, i
her
wrds, ha he reai f w sh bei
s is impssibe.
Of rse if we r  
eive w i
dividas s abse
aike bh i
esse
e a
d aide
s, bh i
he absra a
d i

he 
ree, as  be i
diser
ibe eiher b r se
ses r b
r i
ee, r b a
 i
eeeve
he Divi
e I
eewe
are simp 
eivi
 _he same hi
_ wie ver. B is here
a
hi
 impssibe r 
radir i
hi
ki
 ha Gd d
reae w perfe simiar bei
s, disi
 frm eah her 

i
divida, s simiar, hwever, ha
eiher hma
se
se
r
hma
i
ee d apprehe
d hem as w, b 
 as 
e? The
impssibii is
 appare
. Were he w maeria i
dividas
he shd, f rse, p he same spae i
rder  have
simiar spaia reai
s, b impe
erabii is
 esse
ia 
rprea sbsa
es. A
d eve
i
he view ha eah is
i
dividaed b is _maeria si
aa_ i is
 impssibe 

eive
meria disi
 qa
ified maers aied a he
same ime  he same dime
si
s f spae. If, 
he her ha
d,
here be qesi
f w pre spiris, abse simiar
speifia, eve
i
he Thmisi view ha here he i
divida
disi
i
is a he same ime speifi here seems  be

sffiie
 r
d fr de
i
 ha he Divi
e Om
ipe
e d
reae w r mre sh i
divida (a
d herefre speifia)
disi
 spiris:(150) sh disi
i
remai
i
, f rse,
i
diser
ibe fr he fi
ie hma
i
ee.
The arme
 f Leib
iz, ha here wd be _
 sffiie

reas
_ fr he reai
f w sh i
diser
ibe bei
s, a
d
ha i wd herefre be rep
a
  he Divi
e Wisdm, is
exri
si  he qesi
f heir i
ri
si pssibii: if he
be i
ri
sia pssibe he a

 be rep
a
  a

aribe f he Divi
i, eiher  he Divi
e Om
ipe
e r 
he Divi
e Wisdm.
34. IDENTITY.C
sideri
 he rder i
whih we aqire r ideas we are
easi 
vi
ed ha he
i
f fi
ie bei
 is a
eede
  ha f
i
fi
ie bei
. Mrever, i is frm refei

fi
ie bei
s ha we
arrive a he ms absra
i
f bei
 i
e
era. We make he bje

f his aer
i
defi
ie 
 b dividi
 i ff me
a frm

hi

ess, 
eived _per mdm e
is_, r as a
_e
s rai
is_. Ths
he
ara wa f maki
 r 
eps defi
ie is b _imii
_ hem; i
is 
 whe
we me  refe 
he
eessar impiai
s f r

ep f i
fi
ie bei
 ha we reaize he pssibii f 
eivi

a bei
 whih is _defi
ie_ wih bei
 rea _imied_, whih is
defi
ie b he ver fa f is i
fi
i, b is pssessi
f 
imied
perfei
; a
d eve
he
r imperfe hma
mde f 
eivi
 i
fi
ie
bei
 is heped b disi
ishi
 r dividi
 i ff frm a fi
ie
bei
 a
d 
rasi
 i wih he aer. A his es  prve he rh
f he eahi
 f S. Thmas, ha he me
a f
i
f _dividi
_ r
_disi
ishi
_ preedes r 
eps f 
i a
d mide. Nw he

eps f _ide
i_ a
d _disi
i
_ are se aied wih hse f

i a
d mide; b he add smehi
  hese aer. Whe
we hi
k
f a bei
 as 
e we ms a
ase i frher, k a i 
der differe

aspes, a
d _mpare i wih isef_, befre we a
reard i as _he
same_ r _ide
ia_ wih isef. Or, a eas, we ms hi
k f i wie
a
d mpare i wih isef i
he affirmaive jdme
 This is isef,
A is A, hs frmai
 he ia _Pri
ipe f Ide
i_, i
rder
 me i
 pssessi
f he 
ep f _ide
i_.(151) Ever
affirmaive aeria jdme
 assers _ide
i_ f he prediae wih
he sbje (_S is P_): assers, i
her wrds, ha wha we apprehe
d

der he
i
f he prediae (_P_) is _rea ide
ia_ wih wha we
have apprehe
ded 
der he _disi
_
i
f he sbje (_S_). The
s
hei f
i
f he affirmaive aeria jdme
 _ide
ifies_ i

he rea rder wha he a

ai f
i
f me
a absrai
had
_separaed_ i
he ia rder. B sai
 ha he affirmaive
aeria jdme
 assers ide
i we mea
ha b asseri
 ha his
is ha, ma
is rai
a we ide
if his wih ha, ma
wih
rai
a, hs _de
i
_ ha he are _w_, ha he are _disi
_,
ha he _differ_. Ide
i is 
e f hse eeme
ar 
eps whih
a

 be defi
ed; b perhaps we ma desribe i as _he ia reai

hrh whih he mi

d assers he bjes f w r mre f is hhs
 be rea 
e_.
If he bje frma represe
ed b eah f he 
eps is 
e a
d he
sameas, _e.._ whe
we mpare _A_ wih _A_, r ma
wih rai
a
a
ima, r, i
e
era, a
 bje wih is defi
ii
he ide
i is
bh _rea a
d ia_ (r _
epa_, _frma_). If he 
eps
differ i
heir frma bjes whie represe
i
 _
e a
d he same
reai_as whe
we mpare S. Peer wih head f he apses, r
ma
wih rai
ahe ide
i is _rea, b
 ia_ r frma.
Fi
a, if we represe
 w r mre reaiies, Jh
, James, Thmas, b
he same frma 
ep, ma
, he ide
i is _mere ia_ r
frma, _
 rea_. Of hese hree ki
ds f ide
i he firs is
smeimes aed _adeqae_, he se
d a
d hird _i
adeqae_.
Lia ide
i ma be _speifi_ r _e
eri_, ardi
 as we ide
if
rea disi
 i
dividas 
der 
e speifi 
ep, r rea disi

speies r asses 
der 
e e
eri 
ep. Aai
, i ma be _esse
ia_
r _aide
a_, ardi
 as he absra a
d 
iversa ass-
ep

der whih rea disi
 members are assified represe
s a mm

par f he esse

e f hese members r 
 a mm
prper r
aide
. Ths Jh
, James a
d Thmas are esse
ia ide
ia i
heir
_hma

are_; he are aide
a ide
ia i
bei
 a hree
_fair-haired_ a
d _six fee i
heih_. Lia ide
i 
der he 
ep
f _qai_ is based 
he rea reai
f _simiari_; ia
ide
i 
der he 
ep f _qa
i_ is based 
he rea reai
f
_eqai_. Whe
we sa ha _esse
ia_ (ia) _ide
i_ (_e.._ he
ide
i f Jh
, James a
d Thmas 
der he 
ep f ma
) is based 

he fa ha he rea disi

 i
dividas have rea _simiar_

ares, we mere mea

ha _r_ k
wede f
ares r esse
es is
derived frm r k
wede f qaiies, aki
 qaiies i
he wide
se
se f aide
s e
era: ha he prperies a
d aiviies f
hi
s are r 
 ke  he
are f hese hi
s: _Operari seqir
esse._ I is
 impied,
r is i re, ha rea _simiari_ is a
paria _rea ide
i_: i is b he r
d f a paria _ia_
ide
i,ide
i 
der he mm

ep f sme qai (i
he wide
se
se f his erm). Fr exampe, he heih f Jh
is as rea disi

frm ha f James as he hma
i f Jh
is frm ha f James. If,
he
, i
divida hi
s are _rea_ disi
, hw is i ha we a

represe
 (eve
i
adeqae) _a mide_ f hem b _
e_ 
ep? T
sa ha we a
d s bease he revea hemseves  s as _simiar_ 

e a
her is  sa wha is 
dbed re; b his des
 sve
he prbem f he reai
bewee
he 
iversa a
d he i
divida i

hma
experie
e: raher i paes s fae  fae wih his prbem.
Reveri

w  _rea_ ide
i: whaever we a
prediae affirmaive
ab a bei
 
sidered as _
e_, a
d as sbje f a jdme
, we reard
as rea ide
ia wih ha bei
. We a

 prediae a rea par f

is rea whe, r _vie versa_. B r 
eps, whe
mpared eher
i
jdme
, bear _ia_ reai
s f exe
si
a
d i
e
si
 eah
her, ha is, reai
s f ia par  ia whe. Ths, he
_ia_ ide
i f sbje a
d prediae i
he affirmaive jdme

ma be 
 _i
adeqae_.(152) B he rea ide
i 
deri
 he
affirmaive jdme
 is a
adeqae rea ide
i. Whe
we sa, fr
exampe, ha Sraes is wise, we mea
ha he bje f r 
ep
f wisdm is i
his ase rea a
d adeqae ide
ia wih he
bje f r 
ep f Sraes: i
her wrds ha we are 
eivi


e a
d he same rea bei
 
der w disi
 
eps, eah f whih
represe
s, mre r ess adeqae, he whe rea bei
, a
d 
e f hem
i
his ase ess adeqae ha
he her.
We have  bear i
mi
d ha whie 
sideri
 bei
 as 
e r ma
ifd,
ide
ia r disi
, we are hi
ki
 f i i
is _sai_ mde, as a

bje f absra hh,

 i
is _d
ami a
d ki
ei_ mde as
aa exisi
 i
spae a
d ime, a
d sbje  ha
e. I is he
ide
i f bei
 wih isef whe

sidered i
his sai, 
ha
i


dii
, ha is embdied i
he ia _Pri
ipe f Ide
i_. I

rder, herefre, ha his pri

ipe ma fi
d is appiai
 bei
 r
reai _as sbje  aa ha
e_a
d his is he sae i
whih _de
fa_ reai is prese
ed  s as a
immediae dam f experie
ewe
ms seize p
he ha
i
 reai a
d hi
k f i i
a
i
divisibe
i
sa
 apar frm he ha
e  whih i is aa sbje; 
 hs
des he Pri
ipe f Ide
i app  ias _bei
_,
 as _bemi
_,

 _i
fieri_, b _i
fa esse_. The Pri
ipe f Ide
i, whih
appies  a rea bei
, wheher pssibe r aa, es s simp
ha a hi
 is wha i is. B fr he 
dersa
di
 f aa bei
 as
sbje  rea ha
e we ms sppeme
 he Pri
ipe f Ide
i b
a
her pri
ipe whih es s ha sh a
aa bei

 
 is
aa wha i is (Pri
ipe f Ide
i), b as ha i _is
pe
ia smehi
 her ha
wha i aa is, ha i is
pe
ia wha i a
beme aa_ (Ch. ii.).
We have see
ha, si
e ha
e is
 
i
s a

ihiai
a
d
reai
, he ha
i
 bei
 ms i
sme rea a
d re se
se _persis_
hrh he press f ha
e. I is frm experie
e f ha
e we
derive r
i
f ime-drai
; a
d he 
ep f perma
e
e r
sabii hrh ha
e ives s he
i
f a rea same
ess r
abidi
 sef-ide
i whih is mpaibe wih rea ha
e. B a bei


whih persiss i
exise
e is ide
ia wih isef hrh is
drai

 i
s far frh as i has
 ha
ed. O
 he Neessar
Bei
, whse drai
is abse exemp frm a ha
e, is
_abse_ r _meaphsia_ ide
ia wih Himsef: His drai
is
eer
iwhih is 
e perpea, 
ha
i
 _
w_. A bei
 whih persiss

ha
ed i
is esse
e r
are, whih is exemp frm sbsa
ia
ha
e, b whih is sbje  aide
a ha
e,  a sessi
f
aide
a qaiies sh as via ai
ssh a bei
 is said  reai

is _phsia_ ide

i wih isef hrh hse ha
es. Sh, fr
i
sa
e, is he ide
i f he hma
s wih isef, r f a

i
divida ivi
 hi
 dri
 is ife, r eve
f a
i
ra
i maeria
sbsa
e as 
 as i esapes sbsa
ia ha
e. Fi
a, he
persisi
 ide
i f a ei
f bei
s, 
ied b sme mra b
d
s as  frm a mra 
i, is spke
f as _mra_ ide
i as 
 as
he b
d remai
s, eve
hh he 
sie
 members ma be 
sa

disappeari
  be repaed b hers: as i
a
ai
, a reiis
sie, a ea rprai
, e.
35. DISTINCTION.Disi
i
is he rreaive f ide
i; i is he
abse
e r
eai
f he aer. We express he reai
aed
disi
i
b he
eaive jdme
, his is
 ha; i is he
reai
f a bei
  whaever is
 isef, he reai
f _
e_ 
_her_.
Disi
i
ma be eiher _adeqae_ r _i
adeqae_, ardi
 as we
disi
ish 
e a bje f hh frm a
her a bje, r 

frm a par f isef. Fr exampe, he disi
i
bewee
Jh
a
d James
is a
adeqae rea disi
i
, whie ha bewee
Jh
a
d his bd is
a
i
adeqae rea disi
i
; he disi
i
bewee
Jh
s rai
ai
a
d his a
imai is a
adeqae ia disi
i
, whie he
disi
i
bewee
eiher f hese a
d his hma
i is a
i
adeqae
ia disi
i
.
We have aread (23) brief expai
ed a
d israed he ms impra

assifiai
f disi
i
s: ha i
 rea a
d ia; he
sb-divisi
f he aer i
 pre ia a
d vira; a
d f he
aer aai
i
 perfe (mpee, adeqae) a
d imperfe (i
mpee,
i
adeqae). B he her here brief i
ed as fr sme frher
a
asis a
d ampifiai
.
36. LOGICAL DISTINCTIONS AND THEIR GROUNDS.The pre ia disi
i

ms
 be 
f
ded wih a mere _verba_ disi
i
, _e.._ ha
bewee
a
edifie a
d a bidi
, r bewee
rhf
ess a
d
verai. A ia disi
i
is a disi
i
_i
he 
eps_:
hese ms represe
 
e a
d he same reai b i
differe
 was: he

e ma be mre expii, mre f a
ased ha
he her, as a
defi
ii
is i
mparis
wih he hh-bje defi
ed; r he 
e
ma represe
 he bje ess adeqae ha
he her, as whe
we
mpare (i
i
e
si
) he 
eps ma
a
d a
ima; r he 
e ma be
prediaed f he her i
a
affirmaive jdme
; r he 
e ma
represe
 he bje as 
ree a
d i
divida, he her he same bje
as absra a
d 
iversa.(153)
Cmpari
, i
he
ex pae, he pre ia wih he vira
disi
i
, we see ha he r
ds fr maki
 hese disi
i
s are
differe
. Ever disi
i
made b he mi
d ms have a
i
eiibe
r
d r reas
f sme sra _f
dame
m disi
i
is_. Nw i
he
ase f he pre ia disi
i
he r
d is 
dersd  
sis
exsive i
he
eeds f he mi
d isef
eeds whih spri
 frm he
mi
ds w
imiai
s whe

fr
ed wih he ask f 
dersa
di
 r

i
erprei
 reai, f maki
 reai i
eiibe. Pre ia
disi
i
s are herefre see
 be a ass f pre ia reai
s,
_i.e._ f hse _e
ia rai
is_ whih he mi
d ms 
sr fr isef
i
is effr  
dersa
d he rea. The have
 her reai as
bjes f hh ha
he reai he derive frm he 
siive r

srive aivi f he mi
d. The are mdes, r frms, r erms, f
he 
iive aivi isef,
 f he reai whih is he bje
apprehe
ded a
d 
empaed b mea
s f his 
iive aivi.
The vira disi
i
, 
he her ha
d, ahh i as, as a
bje
f hh, is 
 a
_e
s rai
is_i
asmh as here is
 rea dai
r prai rresp
di
  i i
he reai i
 whih he mi
d
i
rdes i, his reai bei
 a rea _
i_he vira disi
i

is 
sidered,
everheess,  have a r
d, r reas
, r f
dai

(fr maki
 a
d i
rdi
 i) i
he
are f his 
e reai; ha
is, i is rearded as havi
 a _rea_ f
dai
, a _f
dame
m i
re_.
I
s far, herefre, as r k
wede is permeaed b vira
disi
i
s, reai a

 be said  be _frma_, b 


_f
dame
a_ wha his k
wede represe
s i  be. Des his fa
i
erfere wih he bjeive vaidi f r k
wede? N i
he eas;
fr we d
 asribe  he reai he disi
i
s, a
d her sh
mdes r frms, whih we k
w b refei
 be frma haraerisi
_
 f hi
s_ b _f r hh r 
ii
f hi
s_. Or
k
wede, herefre, s far as i es, ma be a faihf apprehe
si
f
reai, eve
hh i be isef affeed b mdes
 f
d i
he
reai.
B wha is his _rea_ f
dai
f he vira disi
i
? Wha _is_
he _f
dame
m i
re_? I is
 a rea r bjeive dai i
vire
f whih we d sa ha here are, i
he bje f r hh, w
bei
s r reaiies 
e f whih is
 he her. Sh dai wd
ase a _rea_ disi
i
. B js here he diffiies f r a
asis
bei
 arise: fr we have  fix r ae
i

aa exisi

reaiies; a
d, assmi
 ha eah a
d ever 
e f hese is a

i
divida, we have  bear i
mi
d he reai
f he rea  he
aa, f reai as absra a
d 
iversa  reai as 
ree a
d
i
divida, f he simpe  he mpsie, f he sabe  he ha
i
,
f esse
ia  aide
a 
ii
a
 a
d ever aemp  disrimi
ae
i
deai bewee
a rea a
d a vira disi
i
. Nr is i eas  a
dw
a
 e
era es whih wi serve eve
hereia  disrimi
ae
bewee
hem. Le s see wha r
ds have bee
mai
 sesed as rea
f
dai
s fr he vira disi
i
.
If a bei
 whih is
 
 
e b simpe, ma
ifess, i
he sperir
rade f bei
  whih i be
s, a perfei
whih is eqivae
 
ma
 esser perfei
s f
d rea disi
 a
d separae esewhere, i

separae bei
s f a
i
ferir rder, his is 
sidered a sffiie
 rea
r
d fr 
sideri
 he frmer bei
, hh rea 
e a
d simpe, as
vira ma
ifd.(154) The hma
s, as bei
 vira
hreefdrai
a, se
ie
 a
d veeaiveis a ase i
pi
: b 


he assmpi
ha he s f he i
divida ma
a
be prved  be

e a
d simpe. This, f rse, a shasis reard as apabe f
prf: eve
hse f hem wh hd ha he pwers r faies whereb i
immediae ma
ifess hese hree rades f perfei
are _aide
a_
reaiies, _rea disi
_ frm 
e a
her a
d frm he _sbsa
e_ f
he s isef.
Aai
, he bei
 whih is he bje f r hh ma be s rih i

reai r perfei
ha r fi
ie mi
ds a

 adeqae rasp i b
a
 
e me
a i
ii
, b ms preed disrsive, b a
asis a
d

absrai
, aki
 i
paria aspes f i sessive hrh
i
adeqae 
eps; whie reaizi
 ha hese aspes, hese bjes f
r disi
 
eps, are 
 paria aspes f 
e a
d he same rea
bei
. This, i
fa, is r mm
experie
e. B he her assmes
ha we are abe  deermi
e whe
hese bjes f r 
eps are 

me
a aspes f _
e_ reai, a
d whe
he are severa separae
reaiies;
a, eve
, ha we a
deermi
e wheher r
 he are rea
disi
 e
iies 
ied eher  frm 
e _mpsie_ i
divida
bei
, r 
 me
a disi
 views f 
e _simpe_ i
divida bei
.
Fr exampe, i is assmed ha whie he disi
i
bewee
he se
ie

a
d he rai
a rades f bei
 i
a hma
i
divida a
be shw
 be

 a vira disi
i
, ha bewee
he bd a
d he s f he same
i
divida a
be shw
 be a rea disi
i
; r, aai
, ha whie
he disi
i
bewee
esse
e, i
ee, a
d wi i
Gd, a
be shw

 be 
 a vira disi
i
, ha bewee
esse
e, i
ee, a
d
wi i
ma
, a
be shw
 be a rea disi
i
.
37. THE IRTUAL DISTINCTION AND THE REAL DISTINCTION.Nw shasis
differ 
siderab i
assifi
 his, ha, r he her disi
i
,
as ia r as rea; b his des
 prve ha i is impssibe ever
 deermi
e wih eride wheher a
 pariar disi
i
is ia
r rea. Wha we are ki
 fr js
w is a e
era es fr
disrimi
ai
, if sh a
be f
d. A
d his bri
s s  a

siderai
f he es sesed i
he ver defi
ii
s hemseves. A
firs sih i wd appear  be a
impraiabe, if
 eve
a


i
eiibe es: The disi
i
is rea if i exiss i
he
reai_i.e._ if he reai is _w_ (r mre) _bei
s_,
 _
e
bei
_a
eede
 , r i
depe
de
 f, he 
siderai
f he
mi
d; herwise he disi
i
is ia. Bi mih be bjeedhw
a
we pssib k
w wheher r
 a
 bje f perepi
r hh is
_
e_ r _mre ha

e_ a
eede
 , r i
depe
de
 f, he

siderai
f he mi
d? I is erai
 impssibe fr s  k
w wha,
r wha ki
d, reai is, r wheher i is 
e r ma
ifd, apar frm a
d
prir , he exerise f r w

iive aivi. This, herefre,
a

 be wha he es mea

s:  i
erpre i i
sh a se
se wd be
absrd. B whe
we have pereived reai i
r aa se
se experie
e,
whe
we have i
erpreed i,  he mea
i
 f i, made i i
eiibe,
a
d aa 
dersd i, b he sp
a
es exerise f i
ee, he
jdi
 a
d reas
i
 fa: he
, bvis, we are a iber 
refe riia 
hse a
eede
 sp
a
es presses, 
he
k
wede whih is he res f hem, a
d he reai whih is k
w

hrh hem; a
d b sh riia refei

hse presses, heir
bjes a
d heir prds, 
he reai as pereived a
d k
w
a
d 

he pereivi
 a
d k
wi
 f i, we ma be abe  disi
ish
bewee
w asses f 
ribi
s  he a res whih is he
k
w
reai: hse whih we ms reard as pre me
a, as mdes r
frms r sbjeive 
sred erms f he me
a f
i
f

ii
isef (wheher perepa r 
epa), a
d hse whih we
ms reard as ive
r prese
ed  he mi
d as bjes, whih are
 i

a
 se
se 
sred r 
ribed b he mi
d, whih, herefre, are
wha he are i
depe
de
 f r me
a aivi, a
d whih wd be a
d
remai
wha he are, a
d wha we have apprehe
ded hem  be, eve
if we
had
ever pereived r hh f hem. This, ardi
  he
shasis, is he se
sea
d i is a perfe i
eiibe se
sei

whih we are aed 

 deide wheher he reaed erms f a
 ive

disi
i
have bee
mere re
dered disi
 b he a
ai aivi f
he 
iive press, r are hemseves disi
 reaiies irrespeive
f his press. Tha i is pssibe  arr 
sessf, a eas 
sme exe
, his wrk f disrimi
ai
bewee
he sbjeive a
d he
bjeive fars f r 
iive experie
e, a
sare be de
ied. I

is wha phisphers i
ever ae have bee
aempi
. There are,
hwever, sme disi
i
s ab he
are f whih phisphers have

ever bee
abe  aree, sme hdi
 hem  be rea, hers  be 

vira: he frmer view bei
 i
diaive f he e
de
  emphasize he
re f 
ii
as a passive represe
ai
f bjeive ive

reai; he aer view bei

 a
expressi
f he ppsie e
de
 
emphasize he aive r 
siive r 
srive fars whereb

ii
assimiaes  he mi
ds w
mde f bei
 he reai ive

i i
experie
e. I
a 
ii
here is a
assimiai
f reai a
d
mi
d, f bje a
d sbje. Whe
erai
disi
i
s are hed  be rea
his 
siderai
is emphasized: ha i
he 
iive press, as sh,
i is he mi
d ha is assimiaed  he bjeive reai.(155) Whe

hese same disi

i
s are hed  be ia his her 
siderai
is
emphasized: ha i
he 
iive press reai ms as be assimiaed
 mi
d, ms be me
aized s  speak: _C
im es i

se
e
se
dm mdm 
se
is_: ha i
his press he mi
d ms fe

reard wha is _
e_ reai 
der _disi
 aspes_: a
d ha if we
reard hese disi
 aspes as disi
 reaiies we are viai
 he
pri
ipe, _E
ia

s
 mipia
da praeer
eessiaem_.
Nw hse phisphers wh hd erai
disi
i
s  be
vira, a
d
 rea, hereb asribe  
iive experie
e a
arer sphere f 
siive r 
srive i
fe
e ha
wd
be awed  i b advaes f he reai f sh disi
i
s.
B b di
 s are he  be rearded as ai
 i
 qesi

he bjeive vaidi f hma

k
wede? B
 mea
s: he fa
ha he hma
mi
d a

dersa
d reai 
 b presses f
absrai
, e
eraizi
, mpari
, reai
, a
asi
 a
d
s
hesizi
presses whih i
vve he prdi
f ia
e
iiesi

 wa viiaes he vae f hese mdes f

dersa
di
: i mere i
diaes ha he are ess perfe ha

i
iive mdes f 
dersa
di
 whih wd dispe
se wih sh
ia e
iies,he mdes haraerisi f pre, a
ei
i
eie
es, r he k
wede f he Dei. The bjeive
vaidi f hma

ii
is
 i
erfered wih eiher b
e
ari
 r b resrii
 he dmai
f he mi
ds 
siive
aivi i
frmi
 sh ia e
iies;
r, herefre, b
aimi
 ha erai
disi
i
s are rea raher ha
vira,
r _vie versa_. I ms be remembered, mrever, ha he vira
disi
i
is
 pre ia: i has a f
dai
i
he
reai, a _f
dame
m i
re_; a
d i
s far as i has i ives
s a
i
sih i
 he
are f reai.
N db, a
 pariar disi
i
a

 be vira a
d a he
same ime simp rea: eiher view f i ms be err
es: a
d
pssib bh, if i happe
 be _de fa_ a _pre_ ia
disi
i
. B he errr f 
f
di
 a vira disi
i

wih a rea is
 s rea as ha f reardi
 eiher as a
pre ia disi
i
. Nw he e
de
 f mh mder

phisph, 
der he i
fe
e f Ka
, has bee
 reard a
he aeries i
whih he mi
d apprehe
ds reai as bei

wh a
d exsive frms f 
ii
, as bei
 i
he reai

eiher frma
r eve
f
dame
a; a
d  i
fer frm his a

esse
ia, 
sii
a i
abii f he mi
d  aai
 a
vaid k
wede f reai. B if, as a maer f fa, hese
aeries are i
he reai frma,
a, eve
if he are i

i 
 f
dame
a, he i
fere
e ha isses i
Ka
ia

sbjeivism is 
warra
ed. A
d hse aeries we hd  be i

he reai a eas f

dame
a; we herefre reje he

Ka
ia
phe
me
ism f he speaive reas
. Mrever, we a

see
 vaid r
d fr admii
 he Ka
ia
divisi
f he
hma
mi
d i
 w a separae 
iive mparme
s, he
speaive a
d he praia reas
, a
d asribi
  eah
mparme
 
iive pri
ipes a
d apaiies e
ire aie

he her. T arrive a a rih her f k
wede hma


iive experie
e as a whe ms be a
ased; b prvided he
a
asis is rea a
a
asis f his experie
e i ma be
eiimae direed wards disveri
 wha he me
a

dii
s ms be_i.e._ he 
dii
s 
he side f he
k
wi
 sbje, he sbje havi
 he experie
ewhih are
_
eessari prereqisie_ fr havi
 sh experie
e. A
d if i
be f
d b sh a
asis ha 
iive experie
e presppses i

he k
wi
 sbje
 mere a se
ie
 a
d i
eie
 mi
d,
b a mi
d whih pereives, imai
es, remembers reai i
erai

defi
ie was; whih hi
ks reai i
erai
mdes a
d hrh
erai
frms whih b is w

siive aivi i 
srs
fr isef, a
d whih i re
izes b refei
 be is w


sri
s (_e.._ disi
i
s, reai
s, affirmai
s a
d

eai
s, absrai
s, e
eraizai
s, e.: _i
e
i
es
iae_, ia e
iies),here is
 reas
whaever i
a
his fr i
ferri
 ha bease he mi
d is s 
sied,
bease i has hese mdes f 
ii
, i ms
eessari fai
 reah, b mea
s f hem, a re, vaid, a
d e
i
e k
wede
f reai. Frm he fa ha hma
mdes f 
ii
are hma
,
a
d
 a
ei r divi
e; frm he fa ha reai a
be k
w

_ ma
_ 
 hrh hese mdes, hese fi
ie mdes f fi
ie
hma
faies,we ma i
deed i
fer ha eve
r hihes
k
wede f reai is i
adeqae, ha i des
 _mprehe
d_
a ha is i
he reai, b sre
 ha i is esse
ia
isr a
d f is ver
are i
apabe f ivi
 s a
 re
a
d vaid i
sih i
 he
are f reai.
Fixi
 r ae
i

he vira disi
i
we see ha he mi
d is
sppsed b mea
s f i  apprehe
d, hrh a prai f disi


eps, wha i k
ws smehw r her  be _
e_ bei
. Nw if i
k
ws he reai  be _rea 
e_, i k
ws ha he frma bje f
ever disi
 
ep f his reai is rea ide
ia wih he
bjes f a he her 
eps f he aer. This 
dii
f hi
s
is erai
 verified whe
he mi
d a
see ha eah f he disi


eps, hh
 _expii_ prese
i
 he bjes f he hers,

everheess _impii a
d
eessari_ i
vves a hese her
bjes:(156) fr b seei
 ha he disi
 
eps
eessari i
vve

e a
her bjeive i sees ha he reai apprehe
ded hrh a
f hem ms
eessari be _
e reai_. This is wha akes pae i
he
_imperfe_ vira disi
i
: he 
eps presi
d frm 
e a
her
frma,
 bjeive. B sppse ha he disi
 
eps presi
d
frm 
e a
her _bjeive_, s ha he a

 be see
b a

a
asis  i
vve 
e a
her eve
impii, b prese
  he mi
d,
s far as he hemseves are 
er
ed, adeqae disi
 mdes f
bei
as happe
s i
he _perfe_ vira disi
i
, _e.._ bewee

ra
i ife, se
ie
 ife, a
d i
eea ife (i
ma
), r bewee

a
imai a
d rai
ai (i
ma
),he
he a-impra
 qesi

arises: Hw d we k
w, i
a
 ive
ase f his ki
d, wheher r

hese adeqae disi
 hh-bjes are _ide
ia wih 
e a
her
i
he reai_? Wha is he es fr deermi
i
 wheher r
, i
a
ive
ase, hese bjes, whih are _ma
_ fr absra i
eea
hh, are _
e bei
_ i
he rea rder? The a
swer seems  be ha
_i
er
a a
d exer
a se
se experie
e_ a
a
d des fr
ish s wih

embdime
s f hese i
eea ma
ifds,embdime
s eah f whih we
apprehe
d as _a bei
 ha is rea 
e_, as a
_i
divida sbje_ f
whih he are 
epa disi
 prediaes.
I wd appear, herefre, ha we a

 reah a re 
epi

f wha we are  reard as _rea 

e_, r _rea ma
ifd_, b
absra hh a
e. I is exer
a a
d i
er
a se
se
experie
e,
 absra hh, whih firs bri
s s i

dire a
d immediae me
a 
a wih _aa exisi
_
reai. Wha we have herefre  deermi
e is his: Des se
se
experie
e, r des i
, revea reai  s as a _rea
ma
ifd_,
 as _
e bei
_ b as _bei
s_ exisi
 side

e a
her i
spae, seedi
 
e a
her i
ime,
i
erdepe
de
 

e a
her, i
erai
 

e a
her, a
d b
his i
erai
asi
 a
d 
deri
 rea ha
e, eah
prdi
 hers, r bei
 prded b hers, rea disi

frm isef? I
her wrds, is separae
ess f exise
e i
ime
r spae, as reveaed i
se
se experie
e, a sffiie
 i
dex f
he rea ma
ifd
ess f rprea bei
, a
d f he rea
disi
 i
dividai f eah sh bei
?r are we  ake i
ha bease hse spae a
d ime disi
i
s have  be
apprehe
ded b hh i
rder ha
 mere se
se b
i
ee ma apprehe
d rprea bei
s as rea ma
ifd,
herefre hese disi
i
s are
 _i
he reai_ ive
 s?
Or, aai
, is eah pers
s w

sis experie
e f himsef as

e bei
, f his w

i, a
d f his disi

ess frm her
pers
s, a sffiie
 i
dex ha he disi
i
bewee
pers

a
d pers
is a rea disi
i
?r are we  ake i ha
bease his _feei
_ f his i
divida 
i hrh se
se

sis
ess ms be i
erpreed b he _hh-
eps_ f

ei
dividapers
disi
 frm hers, hese

eps d
 r express wha is rea ive
him 
i
erpre? Fi
a, if we a
i
fer frm he aa exisi

maeria reai whih frms he immediae dam f dire
experie
e, r frm he hma
_E_ as ive
i
his experie
e,
he aa exise
e f a rea mde f bei
 whih is
 maeria
b spiria, b wha ess a
we deermi
e wheher his
spiria mde f bei
 is rea 
e, r wheher here is a rea
prai f sh bei
s? The si
f hese qesi
s bears
dire 
he vaidi f he adeqae r reaer rea
disi
i
, he _disi
i reais majr se absa_.
The phisph whih defe
ds he vaidi f his
disi
i
,whih hds ha he disi
i
bewee
i
divida
hma
bei
s, a
d bewee
i
divida ivi
 hi
s e
era, is
i
he fes a
d res se
se a rea disi
i
,is a a
eve
s i

frmi wih 
iversa prevaii
 mdes f hh
a
d a
ae; whie he m
ism whih repdiaes hese sp
a
es
i
erpreai
s f experie
e as i
vaid b de
i
 a rea
ma
ifd
ess  reai, a
make isef i
eiibe 
 b
di
 vie
e  hh a
d a
ae aike. N ha his a
e
is a disprf f m
ism; b a a eve
s i reaes a
presmpi
aai
s a ssem  fi
d i r

i
 
er  a
 f
hse 
iversa sp
a
es beiefs whih appear  be red i

ma
s rai
a
are. O
he her ha
d, he phisph whih
ards wih mm
beief i
praimi
 a rea prai i

bei
 has  re
ie i
ee wih se
se, a
d he 
iversa
wih he i
divida, b svi
 he impra
 prbem f
_i
dividai
_: Wha is i ha makes rea bei
 i
divida, if,


wihsa
di
 he fa ha i
ee apprehe
ds reai as
absra a
d 
iversa, reai
everheess a
exis 
 as

ree a
d i
divida? (29-33).
38. THE REAL DISTINCTION.I
he
ex pae i ms be remembered,
mpari
 he vira disi
i
wih he rea, ha phisphers have
re
ized w ki
ds f rea disi
i
: he _majr_ r _abse_ rea
disi
i
, a
d he _mi
r_ rea, r _mda_ disi
i
. Befre defi
i

hese e s see wha are he sa si
s b whih a rea disi
i
i

e
era a
be re
ized.
The reai
f effiie
 asai, f effiie
 ase a
d
effe, bewee
w bjes f hh, is smeimes se dw
as a
sre si
f a (majr) rea disi
i
bewee
hem.(157) A
d he
reas
aeed is ha a hi
 a

 be he effiie
 ase f
isef: he effiie
 ase is
eessari exri
si  he effe
a
d a

 be rea ide
ia wih he aer. I is  be
ed
ha his es appies  reai as aa exisi
, as
prdi
 r 
deri
 ha
e, a
d ha i is derived frm r
se
se experie
e f reai i
press f ha
e. B si
e r

ep f effiie
 asai has is rii
i
r i
er
a
experie
e f r w
_seves_ as aive ae
s, as asi
 sme
pri
f wha e
ers i
 r experie
e, he es seems 
assme ha we have aread i
rded i
 his experie
e a rea
disi
i
bewee
he sef a
d wha is ased b he sef. I is

 ear ha he reai

f effiie
 ase  effe, as
appied  reaed ases, a
preede a
d revea, i
r
experie
e, he reai
f wha is _rea 
e_  wha is
_rea her_, i
his experie
e. If he reai reveaed  s
i
r dire experie
e, he phe
me
a 
iverse, has bee

brh i
 exise
e b he reaive a f a Spreme Bei
,
his, f rse, impies a rea disi
i
bewee
Crear a
d
reare. B i des
 seem pssibe i
his ase, r i
deed i

a
 ase,  prve he exise
e f he asa reai

a
eede
  ha f he rea disi
i
, r  iize he
frmer as a
i
dex  he aer.
Tw disi
 hh-bjes are rearded as _rea_ disi
 (1) whe

he are f

d  exis separae a
d apar frm eah her i
ime r
spae, as is he ase wih a
 w i
dividas sh as Jh
a
d James, r
a ma
a
d a hrse; (2) whe
, ahh he are f
d i
he same
i
divida, 
e f hem a eas is separabe frm he her, i
he se
se
ha i a
aa exis wih ha her: fr exampe, he s f
a
 i
divida ma
a
exis apar frm he maeria pri
ipe wih whih
i is aa 
ied  frm his ivi
 hma
i
divida; he i
divida
himsef a
exis wih he pariar aide
a mdes, sh as
sii
, hi
ki
, speaki
, whih aa affe his bei
 a a

pariar i
sa
 f his exise
e.
Frm his we a
aher i
he firs pae ha he disi
i
bewee

w i
dividas,i
divida pers
s r i
divida hi
sis a rea
disi
i
i
he fes a
d pai
es se
se f his expressi
, a majr
r abse rea disi
i
. I is, mrever,
 mere rea b aa.
Tw exisi
 i
dividas are awas aa divided a
d separae frm
eah her, whie eah is aa 
e r aa 
divided i
isef.
A
d he are s i
depe
de
 f he 
siderai
f he mi
d.

I
he se
d pae, assmi
 ha he mi
d a
apprehe
d, i
he
i
dividas f is experie
e, a 
i resi
 frm he 
i
r
mpsii
f separabe fars r pri
ipes, wheher esse
ia r
aide
a [27 (_b_)]; a
d assmi
 ha i a
k
w hese fars  be
rea separabe (hh aa 
e a
d 
divided), ha is, separabe
i
he se
se ha eah f a
 w sh fars, r a eas 
e f hem,
d aa exis wih he her,i reards he disi
i
bewee

sh fars as rea. The are rea disi

 bease hh _aa_

e a
d 
divided he are _pe
ia_ ma
ifd. If eah has a psiive
e
i f is w
, s ha abse speaki
 eah d exis wih
he her, he disi
i
is si rearded as a
abse r majr rea
disi
i
. Fr exampe, he hma
s a
exis wih he bd; he
bd a
exis wih he s, bei
 aaized b he
ew frmaive
pri
ipe r pri
ipes whih repae he s a deah; herefre here
is a
abse rea disi
i
bewee
he s a
d he bd f he
ivi
 hma
i
divida: ahh bh fars frm _
e aa bei
_,
si, i
depe
de
 f he 
siderai
f he mi
d _he 
e far is

 he her_: eah is rea, hh 

 pe
ia, her ha
he
far wih whih i is 
ied: he reai
f 
e  her hh

 _aa_ verified f eiher far (si

e here is 
 _
e aa_
bei
: he exisi
 i
divida ma
), is pe
ia a
d rea verified,
_i.e._ _verifiabe_ f eah. Aai
, he i
divida rprea sbsa
e
a
, abse speaki
, exis wih is 

ara aide
 f
exer
a r a exe
si
; his aer a
, abse speaki
, exis
wih is 

ara sbsa
e;(158) herefre hese are abse a
d
rea disi
.
If 
 
e f he fars is see
 be apabe f exisi
 wih he
her, a
d he aer  be sh ha i d
 aa exis exep
as 
ied wih he frmer, s ha he separabii is
 ma, he
disi
i
is rearded si as rea, b 
 as a _mi
r_ r _mda_
disi
i
. Sh, fr i
sa
e, is he disi
i
bewee
a bd a
d is
ai
, r is sae f res r mi
: a
d, i
e
era, he disi
i

bewee
a sbsa
e a
d wha are aed is aide
a mdes r mda
aide
s. The disi
i
is rearded as rea bease refei
is hed
 assre s ha i is i
he reai isef i
depe
de
 f he mi
d,
a
d
 mere impsed b he mi
d 
he reai bease f sme r
d
r reas
i
he reai. I is aed a mda disi
i
raher ha
a

abse rea disi

i
bease hse aide
a mdes f a sbsa
e d

 seem  have f hemseves sffiie

 reai  warra
 r ai

hem hi
s r reaiies, b raher mere mdes r
deermi
ai
s f hi
s r reaiies. I is si
ifia
, as hrwi

ih 
he reai
f he vira  he rea disi
i
, ha sme
ahrs a he mda disi
i

 a rea disi
i
b a
disi
i _media_, _i.e._ i
ermediae bewee
a rea a
d a ia
disi
i
; a
d ha he qesi
wheher i shd be aed simp a
rea disi
i
, r i
ermediae bewee
a rea a
d a ia
disi
i
is rearded b sme as a pre verba qesi
.(159) We
sha rer  he mda disi
i
aer (68).
I
he hird pae i ms be
ed ha separabii _i
he se
se
expai
ed_, eve


-ma, is
 rearded as he _
_ i
dex  a rea
disi
i
. I
her wrds, erai
disi
i
s are hed b sme  be
rea eve
hh his es f separabii des
 app. Fr i
sa
e,
i is mm
 hed ha
 mere i
ma
b i
_a_ rprea
i
dividas he frmaive a
d he deermi
abe pri
ipe f he
are r
sbsa
e, he _frma sbsa
iais_ a
d he _maeria prima_, are rea
disi
, ahh i is admied ha, apar frm he ase f he hma

s, _
eiher_ a
aa exis exep i

i
wih he her. Wha is
hed i
reard  _aide
a_ mdes is as appied  hese esse
ia

pri
ipes f he rprea sbsa
e: _viz._ ha here is here a speia
reas
wh sh pri
ipes a

 aa exis i
isai
. Of heir
ver
are he are hed  be sh ha he a

 be _aaized_ r
_aa exis_ i
isai
, b 
 i

i
. B his fa, i is

e
ded, des
 prve ha he pri
ipes i
qesi
are mere
me
a disi
 aspes f 
e reai: he fa ha he a


aa exis as sh separae des
 prve ha he are
 rea
separabe; a
d i is 
e
ded ha he are rea a
d aa separaed
whe
ever a
i
divida rprea sbsa
e 
deres sbsa
ia ha
e.
This, he
, raises 
e mre he qesi
: Wha sr f
separai
r separabii is he es f a rea disi
i
?
Is i separae
ess i
a
d fr se
se perepi
, r separae
ess i

a
d fr i
eea hh? The frmer is erai
 he
f
dame
a i
dex f he rea disi
i
; fr a r k
wede
f reai rii
aes i
se
se experie
e, a
d separae
ess i

ime a
d spae, whih marks is daa, is he ke  r k
wede
f reai as a ma
ifd f rea disi
 i
divida bei
s; a
d
whe
we i
fer frm se
se-experie
e he aa exise
e f a
_spiria_ dmai
f reai we a

eive _is_ i
dividas

 afer he a
a f he rprea i
dividas f r
immediae se
se experie
e. Shasi phisphers, fwi

Arise, have awas ake
he ma
ifd
ess f reai, _i.e._
is prese
ai
i
se
se experie
e i
he frm f i
dividas,
f his a
d ha, , _oc lqu_, s n
unquestone n unqueston ble _re l  tum_. Not t t tey
n vely ssume everytng _perceve by te senses_ s n
nvu l, n tme n sp ce, to be re lly n nvu l: tey
re lze t t w t s perceve by sense s _one_ lmte
contnuum, occupyng efnte porton of sp ce, m y be n
re lty n ggreg te of m ny nvu ls; n tey recognze te
nee of scrutnzng n n lysng tose pp rent nvu ls n
orer to test ter re l nvu lty; but tey el, n
rgtly, t t sense experence oes present to us some  t t t
re unmst bly re l nvu lsnvu l men, for nst nce.
Next, tey s w t t ntellectu l tougt, by n lysng sense
experence, m sses n ever-growng multtue of bstr ct n
conceptu lly stnct tougt-objects, wc t utlzes s
prec tes for te nterpret ton of ts sense experence. Tese
tougt-objects ntellect c n unte or sep r te; c n n some c ses
postvely see to be mutu lly comp tble or ncomp tble; c n form
nto e l or possble complexes. But weter or not te
_conceptu lly_ stnct, toug mutu lly comp tble,
tougt-objects formng ny suc complex, wll be lso _re lly
stnct_ from one noter, s queston wc evently c nnot
rse untl suc
complex s consere s n ctu l or possble
_nvu l beng_: for t s te nvu l only t t exsts or
c n exst. Tey wll be _re lly_ stnct wen foun ctu lze n
_stnct nvu ls_. Even te _conceptu lly_ one n
self-entc l bstr ct tougt-object wll be _re lly stnct
from tself_ wen emboe n stnct nvu ls; te one sngle
bstr ct tougt-object, um nty, um n n ture, s re lly
stnct from tself n Jon n n J mes; te um nty of Jon s
_re lly oter_ t n te um nty of J mes.
Of course, f conceptu lly stnct tougt-objects re seen to be
mutu lly ncomp tble tey c nnot be foun re lze except n
re lly stnct nvu ls: te unon of tem s only n _ens
r tons_. Ag n t m y be t t te ntellect s un ble to

pronounce postvely s to weter tey re comp tble or not

(18): s to weter te complex forms
possble beng or not. But
wen te ntellect postvely sees suc tougt-objects to be
mutu lly comp tbleby nterpret ton of, n nference from, ts
ctu l sense experence of tem s emboe n nvu ls
(18) n wen, furtermore, t now fns number of tem
co-exstng n some one ctu l nvu l, te queston recurs:
How c n t now weter tey re _re lly stnct_ from e c
oter, toug ctu lly unte to form one (essent lly or
ccent lly composte) nvu l, or only conceptu lly stnct
spects of one (smple) nvu l [27 (_b_)]?
Ts, s we  ve seen lre y, s te c se for wc t s re lly
s tsf ctory test: n ence te fferent
ffcult to fn
vews to be foun mong scol stc plosopers s to te n ture
of te stnctons wc te mn m es or scovers _wtn te
nvu l_. Te ffculty s ts. Te conceptu l stncton
between comp tble tougt-objects s not proof of re l
stncton wen tese tougt-objects re foun unte n _one
nvu l_ of sense experence, s _e.g._ nm lty n
r ton lty n m n; n te only stncton gven to us by sense
experence, t le st rectly n mme tely, s unoubtely
re l, s te stncton _between_ corpore l _nvu ls_
exstng p rt n sp ce or tme, s _e.g._ between m n n m n.
How ten, c n we sow t t ny stnctons _wtn te
nvu l_ re re l?
Well, we  ve seen t t cert n enttes, wc re objects of
sense or of tougt, or of bot, c n s ppe r from te nvu l
wtout te resue tereby persng or ce sng to exst ctu lly
s n nvu l: te um n soul survves, s n ctu l nvu l
re lty, fter ts sep r ton from te m ter l prncple wt
wc t forme te nvu l m n; te nvu l m n perssts
wle te ccent l moes t t ffect m s ppe r. In suc
c ses s tese, ntellect, nterpretng sense experence n
re sonng from t, pl ces
re l stncton, n te composte
nvu l, between te f ctors t t c n contnue to exst wtout
oters, n tese l tter. In ong so t s pp rently pplyng
te n logy of te typc l re l stnctont t between one
nvu l n noter. Te f ctor, or group of f ctors, wc c n
contnue to exst ctu lly fter te sep r ton of te oters, s
n nvu l: n w t were sep r te from t were pp rently
re l enttes, toug tey m y  ve perse by te ctu l
sep r ton. But on w t groun s te stncton between te
m ter l prncple n te vt l prncple of pl nt or n
nm l, for ex mple, reg re s re l? Ag n on te groun
furnse by te n logy of te stncton between nvu ls of
sense experence. Note t t t s not between te m ter l n te
vt l prncples _ s objects of bstr ct tougt_, _.e._ between
te _m ter lty_ n te _vt lty_ of te pl nt or te nm l,
t t re l stncton s cl me: tese re reg re only s
conceptu lly stnct spects of te pl nt or te nm l; nor s
t mtte t t bec use one of tese tougt-objects s foun
emboe elsewere n n ture wtout te oterm ter lty wtout
vt lty n te norg nc unversewe c n terefore conclue t t
tey re re lly stnct n te pl nt or te nm l. No; t s
between te two prncples conceve s coexstng n unte n
te concrete nvu l t t te re l stncton s cl me. An
t s el to be re l stncton bec use subst nt l c nge n
corpore l tngs, _.e._ corrupton n gener ton of nvu l

corpore l subst nces, s el to be re l. If t s re l tere s

re l sep r ton of essent l f ctors wen te nvu l perses.
An te f ctors contnue to be re l, s _potent l_ prncples of
oter nvu ls, wen ny nvu l corpore l subst nce
perses. E c prncple m y not contnue to exst ctu lly s
suc n sol ton from te otertoug some scol stcs ol
t t, bsolutely spe ng, tey coul be conserve p rt, s
ctu l enttes, by te Autor of N ture. But tey _c n_ ctu lly
exst _ s essent l prncples of oter ctu l nvu ls_: tey
re re l _potent ltes_, wc _become ctu l_ n oter
nvu ls. Tus we see t t tey re conceve trougout _ fter
te n logy of te nvu l_. Tose wo ol t t, bsolutely
spe ng, te m ter l prncple s suc, _m ter prm _, coul
ctu lly exst n sol ton from ny form tve prncple, soul
pp rently mt t t n suc
c se t woul be _ n nvu l
re lty_.
39. SOME QUESTIONABLE DISTINCTIONS. THE SCOTIST DISTINCTION.Te
ffculty of scrmn tng between te vrtu l n te re l stncton
n n nvu l  s gven rse to te concepton of stnctons wc
some m nt n to be re l, oters to be less t n re l. Te vrtu l
stncton, s we  ve terto unerstoo t, m y be escrbe s
_extrnsc_ n smuc s t rses n te nvu l only wen we conser
te l tter uner fferent spects, or n fferent rel tons to tngs
extrnsc to t. By reg rng n nvu l uner fferent spects_e.g._
m n uner te spects of nm lty n r ton ltywe c n prec te
contr ctory ttrbutes of te nvu l, _e.g._ of m n t t e s
sml r to orse, n t t e s not sml r to orse. Now t s
m nt ne by some t t ltoug nepenently of te conser ton of te
mn te grouns of tese contr ctory prec tons re not _ ctu lly_
stnct n te nvu l, neverteless even before suc conser ton
te nvu l  s re l _ntrnsc c p cty_ to  ve tese contr ctory
prec tes ffrme of m: tey c n be ffrme of m not merely wen e
s reg re, n bec use e s reg re, uner conceptu lly fferent
spects, but bec use tese prncples, nm lty n r ton lty, re
lre y re lly n m not merely s spects but s stnct c p ctes, s
potent lly stnct prncples of contr ctory prec tons.
Te vrtu l stncton, unerstoo n ts w y, s escrbe s
_ntrnsc_. It s rejecte by some on te groun t t, t le st n ts
pplc ton to fnte re ltes, t nvolves vol ton of te prncple
of contr cton: t seems to mply t t one n te s me nvu l  s
n tself bsolutely ( n not merely s consere uner fferent spects
n rel tons) te c p cty to verfy of tself contr ctory prec tes.
Scotus n s followers go even f rter t n te voc tes of ts
ntrnsc vrtu l stncton by m nt nng te exstence of
stncton wc on te one  n tey ol to be less t n re l bec use
t s not between tng n tng, n on te oter  n to be more t n
logc l or vrtu l, bec use t _ ctu lly_ exsts between te v rous
tougt-objects or _form lt tes_ (suc, _e.g._ s nm lty n
r ton lty) n te nvu l, nepenently of te n lytc ctvty
wereby te mn etects tese n te l tter. Ts stncton Scotsts
c ll form l stncton, ctu l on te p rt of te tng_stncto
form ls_, _ ctu ls ex n tur re_. Hence te n me form lsts pple
to Scotsts, from ter voc cy of ts Scotstc stncton. It s,
tey expl n,
stncton not between tngs (_res_) but between
form ltes (_form lt tes_). By tng s oppose to form lty
tey me n not merely te nvu l, but lso ny postve tougt-object

wc, toug t m y not be c p ble of exstng p rt, c n re lly ppe r

n, or s ppe r from, tng wc c n so exst: for nst nce, te
essent l f ctors of re lly composte essence, ts ccent l moes, n
ts re l rel tons. By form lty tey me n postve tougt-object
wc s bsolutely nsep r ble from te tng n wc t s ppreene,
wc c nnot exst wtout te tng, nor te tng wtout t: for
nst nce, ll te met pysc l gr es of beng n n nvu l, suc s
subst nt lty, corporety, lfe, nm lty, r ton lty, nvu lty,
n n nvu l m n. Te stncton s c lle form l bec use t s
between suc form ltese c of wc s te postve term of
sep r te concept of te nvu l. It s c lle _ ctu l_ on te se of
te tng bec use t s cl me to be _ ctu lly_ n te l tter p rt from
our ment l ppreenson of te nvu l. W t  s cefly nfluence
Scotsts n cl mng ts stncton to be tus _ ctu lly_ n te
nvu l, nepenently of our ment l ctvty, s te conser ton
t t tese met pysc l gr es re grouns on wc we c n prec te
contr ctory ttrbutes of te s me nvu l, _e.g._ of n nvu l
m n t t e s sml r to orse n t t e s not sml r to
orse: wence tey nfer t t n orer to vo vol ton of te
prncple of contr cton, we must suppose tese grouns to be _ ctu lly_
stnct n te tng.
To ts t s reple, frstly, t t f suc prec tons were truly
contr ctory we coul vo vol ton of te prncple of contr cton
only by nferrng _re l_ stnctonwc Scotsts eny to
exstbetween tese grouns; seconly, t t suc prec tons re not
truly contr ctory n smuc s e s sml r re lly me ns e s
p rt lly sml r, n e s not sml r me ns e s not completely
sml r; terefore wen we s y t t m ns r ton lty _s not_ te
prncple wereby e resembles orse, n s nm lty _s_ te
prncple wereby e resembles orse, we me n (_ _) t t s
r ton lty s not te prncple of complete resembl nce, toug we now
t s te prncple of p rt l resembl nce, n smuc s we see t to be
re lly entc l wt t t wc s te prncple of p rt l resembl nce,
_vz._ s nm lty; n we me n (_b_) t t s nm lty s te
prncple of s p rt l resembl nce to orse, not of tot l resembl nce,
for we now t t te nm lty of m n s not perfectly sml r to t t
of orse, te former beng re lly entc l wt r ton lty, te l tter
wt rr ton lty. Wen, ten, we prec te of one tng t t t s
sml r to some oter tng, n t t t s not sml r to ts oter
tng we re not re lly prec tng contr ctores of te s me tng; f
we t e te prec tes s contr ctores tey re true of te s me
re lty unoubtely, but not uner te s me spect. Scotsts temselves
mt t t te _re l entty_ of tese spects nvolves no vol ton of
te prncple of contr cton; wy, ten, soul tese be el to be
_ ctu lly_ stnct form ltes nepenently of te conser ton of te
mn? How c n
stncton t t s ctu l nepenently of te mns
n lyss of te re lty be oter t n re l? Is not prec ton wor of
te mn? An must not te contons on wc re lty verfes te
prec ton be etermne by te mn? If, ten, we see t t n orer to
justfy ts prec tonof sml r n not sml r bout ny re lty,
t s merely necess ry t t te mn soul ppreen ts re lty to be
n ts unve unty equv lent to m nfol gr es of beng or
perfecton wc te mn tself c n gr sp s ment lly stnct spects,
by stnct concepts, ow c n we be justfe n supposng t t tese
gr es of beng re not merely _stngus ble_, but _ ctu lly stnct_
n te re lty tself, _nepenently of te mn_?
Te Scotst octrne ere s nc tve of te tenency to

emp sze, per ps unuly, te ssml ton of re lty s

 tum
wt te mn wc nterprets ts  tum; to reg r te
consttuton of re lty tself s beng w t bstr ct tougt,
rrespectve of sense experence, woul represent t; n
ccorngly to pl ce n te re lty s beng ctu lly tere,
nepenently of tougt, stnctons wc s m tter of f ct
m y be merely te prouct of tougt tself.
Scotsts, by voc tng n _ ctu l_ stncton between tese
gr es of beng, s form ltes n te nvu l,  ve expose
temselves to te c rge of extreme re lsm. Tey te c t t e c
of tese form ltes  s, for bstr ct tougt, _form l_ unty
wc s _su geners_. An ts unty s not reg re s
prouct of tougt, ny more t n te stncton between suc
untes. Tus, te m ter lty ppreene by tougt n ll
m ter l tngs s one, not bec use t s m e one by te
bstr ctng n unvers lzng ctvty of tougt, s most f not
ll oter scol stcs te c; t s not merely _conceptu lly one_
troug our tougt- ctvty, t s _form lly one_ p rt from te
l tter; n t tus nts nto form l unty ll m ter l
tngs. An so oes lfe ll lvng tngs; n nm lty ll
nm ls; n r ton lty ll men. Now, f ts form l unty of
ny suc essent l or met pysc l gr e of beng were reg re s
re l unty, monsm woul be of course te logc lly nevt ble
coroll ry of te teory.
But te form l unty of ny suc essent l gr e of beng
Scotsts wll not mt to be re l unty, toug tey ol t to
be c r cterstc of re lty nepenently of our tougt. Tey
conten t t ts unty s qute comp tble wt te _re l
plur lty_ conferre upon beng by te prncples wc
nvu te te l tter; n tus tey c nnot be f rly ccuse of
monsm. Ter re sonng ere s c r cterstc lly subtle. Just s
ny met pysc l gr e of beng, consere s n object of
tougt, s n tself neter m nfol nvu lly nor one
unvers llyso t t, s Tomsts s y, esgn tng t n ts
conton s te _unvers le rectum_, or _met pyscum_, or
_fun ment le_, or _quo  rem concept m_, we c n truly ffrm of
t n ts conton neter t t t s one (logc lly, s
unvers l) nor t t t s m nfol (re lly, s multple n
ctu l nvu ls),(160)so l ewse, Scotsts conten, t s n
ts conton _ontologc lly_, s n entty n te re l orer
nepenently of tougt, n s suc  s unty of ts own,
form l unty, wc, wle untng n form l unty ll te
nvu ls t t emboy t, s tself nc p ble of fttng ts
gr e of beng for ctu l exstence, n terefore mts tose
ultm te nvu tng prncples wc m e t re l m nfol n
te ctu l orer.(161)
Tus, te met pysc l gr e of beng, wc, s consere n
tself, Tomsts ol to be n bstr cton,  vng no oter unty
t n t t wc tougt confers upon t by m ng t logc lly
unvers l, Scotsts on te contr ry ol to be s suc sometng
postve n te ontologc l orer,  vng tere form l unty
corresponng to te conceptu l or logc l unty wc tougt
confers upon t by unvers lzng t. Te met pysc l gr e of
beng, tus conceve s sometng postve n te re l orer,
Scotsts wll not mt to be re lty, nor te unty wc
c r cterzes t re l unty. But fter ll, f suc
form lty wt ts proporton te unty, s nepenent of

tougt; n f on te oter  n unvers lty s te wor of

tougt, so t t te unvers l s suc c nnot be re l, t s not
e sy to see ow te Scotst octrne esc pes te error of extreme
re lsm. Te met pysc l gr e of beng s form lty only
bec use t s _m e bstr ct_ by tougt; n t  s unty only
bec use t s _m e logc lly unvers l_ by tougt; terefore to
conten t t s suc t s sometng postve n te re l orer,
nepenently of tougt, s to refy te bstr ct n unvers l
s suc: wc s extreme re lsm.

CHAPTER V. REALITY AND THE TRUE.

40. ONTOLOGICAL TRUTH CONSIDERED FROM ANALYSIS OF EXPERIENCE.We  ve seen
t t wen te mn tn s of ny re lty t ppreens t s one, t t
ontologc l unty s tr nscenent l ttrbute of beng; n ts
conser ton le us to conser te m nfolness n te stnctons
wc c r cterze te tot lty of our experence. Now m n mself s
re l beng surroune by ll te oter re l bengs t t consttute te
unverse. Moreover e fns mself enowe wt f cultes wc brng m
nto conscous rel tons bot wt mself n wt tose oter bengs;
n only by te proper nterpret ton of tese rel tons c n e unerst n
rgt s pl ce n te unverse. Te frst n orer of tese rel tons s
t t of re lty to mn (25). Ts rel ton between mn n re lty s
w t we unerst n by _Trut_.
Now trut s ttrbute bot to nowlege n to tngs. We s y t t
person tn s or juges _truly_, t t s nowlege s _true_ (or correct,
or ccur te), wen tngs re lly re s e tn s or juges tem to be.
Te trut wc we tus scrbe to nowlege, to te mn nterpretng
re lty, s _logc l_ trut: rel ton of concor or conformty of te
mn nterpretng re ltyor, of te mns jugment bout re ltywt
te re lty tself.(162) Logc l trut s e lt wt n Logc n
Epstemology. We re concerne ere only wt te trut t t s ttrbute
to re lty, to tngs temselves: ontologc l, met pysc l,
tr nscenent l trut, s t s c lle. Tere s notng bstruse or
f r-fetce bout te use of te terms true n trut s equv lent to
re l n re lty. We spe of true gol, true fren,
vert ble ero, etc. Now w t o we me n by tus scrbng trut to
tng? We me n t t t correspons to ment l type or e l. We c ll
lqu true wne or re l wne, for nst nce, wen t verfes n tself
te efnton we  ve forme of te n ture of wne. Hence wenever we
pply te terms true or trut to tng we s ll fn t t we re
conserng t t tng not bsolutely n n tself but n reference to n
e n our mns: we o not s y of tng smply t t t s true, we s y
t t t s _truly suc or suc_ tng, _.e._ t t t s re lly of
cert n n ture lre y conceve by our mns. If te ppe r nce of te
tng suggests comp rson wt some suc e l type or n ture, n f te
tng s seen on ex mn ton not re lly to verfy ts n ture n tself,
we s y t t t s not re lly or truly suc or suc
tng: _e.g._ t t
cert n lqu s not re lly wne, or s not true wne. Wen we  ve no
suc e l type to wc to refer tng, wen we o not now ts n ture,
c nnot cl ssfy n n me t, we  ve to suspen our jugment n s y t t
we o not now w t te tng _re lly_ s. Hence, for ex mple, te new
r ys scovere by Rntgen were c lle provson lly X r ys, ter re l
n ture beng t frst un nown. We see, ten, t t re l or ontologc l

trut s smply re lty consere

n e n te mn.

s conform ble wt

n e l type, wt

Wence oes te um n mn erve tese e l types, tese concepts or

efntons of te n ture of tngs? It erves tem from ctu lly
experence re lty by bstr cton, comp rson, gener lz ton, n
reflecton on te  t of ts experence.(163) Hence t follows t t te
ontologc l trut of tngs s not nown by te mn nteceently to te
form ton of te ment l type. It s, of course, n te tngs nteceently
to ny jugment we form bout te tngs; n te logc l trut of our
jugments s epenent on t, for logc l trut s te conformty of our
jugments wt te re l n ture of tngs. But nteceently to ll exercse
of um n tougt, nteceently to our concepton of te n ture of
tng,
te tng  s not for us _form l_ or _ ctu l_ ontologc l trut: t  s
only fun ment l or _potent l_ ontologc l trut. If n ts conton
re lty   ctu l ontologc l trut for us, tere woul be no groun for
our stngusng ment lly between te re lty n te trut of tngs;
were s te exstence of ts ment l or logc l stncton s unen ble.
Te concept of re lty s te concept of sometng bsolute; te concept
of ontologc l trut s te concept of sometng rel tve, not of n
bsolute but of rel tve property of beng.
But f for te um n mn te ontologc l trut of tngs s t
le st proxm tely, mme tely, n n te frst pl ceter
conformty wt te bstr ct concepts of essences or n tures,
concepts erve by te mn from n n lyss of ts experence,
ow c n ts ontologc l trut be one for ll men, or mmut ble
n necess ry? For, snce men form fferent n vergent n
conflctng conceptons s to te n tures of tngs, n so  ve
fferent vews n st n rs of trut for tngs, ontologc l
trut woul seem, ccorng to te exposton just outlne, to be
not one but m nfol, not mmut ble but v r ble: consequences
wc surely c nnot be mtte? Te nswer to ts ffculty
wll le  us to eeper n more fun ment l concepton of w t
ontologc l trut re lly s.
Frst, ten, we must conser t t ll men re enowe wt te
s me sort of ntellect, n ntellect c p ble of some nsgt t
le st nto te n ture of tngs; t t terefore tey bstr ct te
s me tr nscenent l notons n te s me west concepts from
ter experence: tr nscenent l concepts of beng, unty, trut,
gooness; generc concepts of subst nce, m tter, sprt, c use, of
ccent, qu ntty, multtue, number, entty, sml rty,
stncton, versty, etc. Tey lso form te s me _specfc_
concepts of possble essences. Altoug, terefore, tey m y
s gree n err n reg r to _te pplc ton_ of tose concepts,
espec lly of te lower, rcer n more complex specfc
concepts, to te ctu l  t of ter experence, tey gree n
te f ct t t tey  ve tose common concepts or e -types of
re lty; lso n te f ct t t wen tey pply tose concepts
_rgtly_ (_.e._ by _logc lly true_ jugments) to te tngs
t t m e up ter experence, tey  ve so f r gr spe te re l
n tures of tese tngs; n fn lly n recognzng t t te
ontologc l trut of tese tngs les n te conformty of te
l tter wt ter true n proper ment l types or essences. An
just s e c of tese l tter s one, nvsble, mmut ble,
necess ry n etern l (14, 15), so s te ontologc l trut of
tngs, weter possble or ctu l, one, nvsble, mmut ble,
necess ry n etern l. Of course, just s te um n mn oes not

consttute but only ppreens re lty, so te um n mn oes not

consttute te ontologc l trut of re lty, but only ppreens
t. Every re lty s c p ble of proucng n te um n mn
more
or less equ te ment l represent ton of tself: n ts les
w t we m y c ll te potent l or fun ment l ontologc l trut of
re lty. Wen t oes prouce suc
ment l concept of tself ts
rel ton of conformty to ts concept s ts form l ontologc l
trut. Of course te um n mn m y err n pplyng to ny re lty
wrong concept; wen t oes t  s so f r f le to gr sp te
re l n ture of te tng n terefore te ontologc l trut wc
s re lly entc l wt ts n ture. But te tng stll  s ts
ontologc l trut, nepenently of te errng mn; not only
fun ment l trut, but lso possbly form l trut n so f r s t
m y be rgtly ppreene, n tus rel te to ts proper ment l
type, by oter um n mns. Re lty tself, terefore, s not n
c nnot be f lse, s we s ll see more fully l ter; error or
f lsty s n ccent only of te mn nterpretng re lty.
41. ONTOLOGICAL TRUTH CONSIDERED SYNTHETICALLY, FROM THE STANDPOINT OF ITS
ULTIMATE REAL BASIS.So f r we  ve expl ne ontologc l trut s
rel ton of re lty to te um n ntellgence; but ts rel ton s not
one of epenence. Te objectve term of te rel ton, te re lty tself,
s nteror to te um n mn, t s not consttute by te l tter. Te
subjectve term, te bstr ct concept, s nee s
vt l prouct
epenent on te mn, but s represent tve of re lty t s etermne
only by te l tter. Is tere, owever, n Intellgence to wc re lty s
_essent lly_ conforme, oter t n te um n ntellgence? Gr nte te
ctu l exstence of contngent re ltes, n gr nte t t te um n mn
c n erve from tese re ltes r ton l prncples wc t sees to be
necess rly n unvers lly pplc ble to ll te  t of experence, we
c n emonstr te te exstence of Necess ry Beng, Frst n
Self-Exstent Intellgence. Re lzng, ten, t t Go  s cre te ll
tngs ccorng to Infnte Wsom, we c n see t t te essences of
tngs re mt tons of exempl r e s n te Dvne Mn (20). On te
Dvne Mn tey epen essent lly for ter re lty n ntellgblty.
It s bec use ll cre te re ltes, nclung te um n mn tself, re
umbr tons of te Dvne Essence, t t tey re ntellgble to te
um n mn. Tus we see t t n te ontologc l orer, n te orer of
re l gr  ton n epenence mong tngs, s stnct from te orer of
um n experence,(164) te re son wy re lty  s ontologc l trut for
te um n mn s bec use t s nteceently n essent lly n ccor
wt te Dvne Mn from wc t erves ts ntellgblty. Altoug,
terefore, ontologc l trut s for us proxm tely n mme tely te
conformty of re lty wt our own conceptons, t s prm rly n
fun ment lly te essent l conformty of ll re lty wt te Dvne
Mn. All re lty, ctu l n possble, nclung te Dvne Essence
tself, s ctu lly compreene by te Dvne Mn, s ctu lly n
conformty wt te exempl r e s n te Dvne Mn, n  s terefore
ontologc l trut even nepenently of ts rel ton to cre te mns; but
n te (mpossble) ypotess of te bsence of ll ntellect, suc
tng s trut woul be nconcev ble.(165)
Te re son, terefore, wy tngs re ontologc lly true for our mns,
wy our mns c n ppreen ter essences, wy we c n  ve ny true
nowlege bout tem, s n f ct bec use bot our mns n ll tngs
else, beng expressons of te Dvne Essence, re n essent l conformty
wt te Dvne Intellect. Not t t we must now ll ts n orer to  ve
ny logc l trut, ny true nowlege, bout tngs; or n orer to
scrbe to tngs te ontologc l trut wc conssts n ter conformty

wt our concepton of ter n ture. Te test c n  ve

true nowlege
of tngs n c n recognze n tem ter conformty wt s ment l
concepton of ter n ture; only e s un w re of te re l n fun ment l
re son wy e c n o so. Nor c n e, of course, wle enyng te
exstence of Go, rse to te fuller concepton of ontologc l trut wc
conssts n te essent l conformty of ll re lty wt te Dvne
Intellect, n ts essent l epenence on te l tter for ts
ntellgblty to te um n ntellect.
N tur lly, t s ts l tter n fuller concepton of ontologc l trut
t t  s been t ll tmes expoune by scol stc plosopers.(166) We
m y terefore, efne ontologc l trut s _te essent l conformty of
re lty, s n object of tougt, wt ntellect, n prm rly n
espec lly wt te Dvne Intellect_.
Te conformty of re lty wt te Dvne Intellect s escrbe
s _essent l_ to re lty, n te sense t t te re lty s
epenent on te Dvne Intellect for ts ntellgblty; t
erves ts ntellgblty from te l tter. Te conformty of
re lty wt te um n ntellect s lso essent l n te sense
t t _potent l_ conformty wt te l tter s nsep r ble from
re lty; t s n spect re lly entc l wt, n only logc lly
stnct from, te l tter. But n smuc s te _ ctu l_ conformty
of re lty wt our um n concepton of t s contngent on te
exstence of um n ntellgences, n s not _ultm tely_
epenent on te l tter, n smuc s re lty oes not erve ts
ntellgblty _ultm tely_ from ts conceptonseeng t t
r ter ts concepton s erve from te re lty n s
ultm tely epenent on te Dvne Exempl r,ts conformty of
re lty wt te um n mn s sometmes spo en of s _ ccent l_
to re lty n contr st wt te rel ton of epenence wc
exsts between re lty n te Dvne Mn.
Be rng n mn t t re lty erves ts ntellgblty from ts
essent l conformty wt te Dvne Mn, n t t te um n mn
erves _ts_ trut from te re lty, we c n unerst n ow t  s
been s  of trut n gener l t t t s frst n te Uncre te
Intellect, ten n tngs, ten n cre te ntellects; t t te
prm ry source n me sure of ll trut s te Dvne Intellect
Itself Unme sure, mensur ns, non mensur tus; t t cre te
re lty s me sure by, or conforme wt, te Dvne Intellect,
n s n turn te me sure of te um n ntellect, conformng te
l tter wt tself, mensur ns et mensur t ; n t t, fn lly,
te um n ntellect, me sure by cre te re lty n te Dvne
Mn, s tself te me sure of no n tur l tngs but only of te
proucts of um n rt, ntellectus noster ... non mensur ns
quem res n tur les, se rtfc les t ntum.(167)
Is trut _one_, ten, or s t _m nfol_? Logc l trut s
m nfolmultple by te number of cre te ntellgences, n by
te number of stnct cogntons n e c. Te prm ry ontologc l
trut wc conssts n te conformty of ll re lty wt te
Dvne Intellect s one: tere s no re l plur lty of rcetype
e s n te Dvne Mn; tey re m nfol only to our mperfect
um n moe of tn ng. Te secon ry ontologc l trut wc
conssts n te conformty of tngs wt te bstr ct concepts of
cre te ntellgences s contone by, n multple wt, te
m nfolness of te l tter.(168)

Ag n to te queston: Is trut _etern l_ or _tempor l_?we reply

n sml r w y t t te trut of te Dvne compreenson of
re lty, ctu l n possble, s etern l, but t t no oter trut
s etern l. Tere s no etern l trut outse of Go. Cre te
tngs re not etern l; n trut s consecutve on re lty: were
tere s no re lty tere s no ontologc l trut: te conformty
of tngs wt um n conceptons n te logc l trut of te
l tter re bot l e tempor l.(169)
Fn lly, we m y s y t t te trut of te Dvne Intellect s
_mmut ble_; n so s te essent l conformty of ll re lty
wt te Dvne Intellect. Te c nge to wc cre te re lty s
essent lly subject s tself essent lly conforme wt te
Dvne Mn; t s, so to spe , p rt n p rcel of te
ontologc l trut of ts re lty n rel ton to te Dvne Mn,
n c nnot terefore nterfere wt ts ontologc l trut. Wen
te corn grows nto te o te wole process  s ts ontologc l
trut; t t of te corn c nges, not nto f lsty, but nto
noter trut, t t of te o .(170) We see, ten, t t s tngs
c nge, ter trut oes not c nge n te sense of beng lost or
gvng pl ce to f lsty: te trut of one st te c nges to te
trut of noter wle te ontologc l trut of te c ngng
re lty perseveres mmut bly.
Te s me mmut blty tt ces to te trut of tngs n rel ton
to te um n mn: wt te qu lfc ton, to wc we s ll
return (43), t t tey m y occ son f lse jugments n te um n
mn, n on t t ccount be esgn te f lse.
Fn lly, te logc l trut wc  s ts se t n cre te
ntellgences s _mut ble_: t m y be ncre se or mnse,
cqure or lost.
42. ONTOLOGICAL TRUTH A TRANSCENDENTAL ATTRIBUTE OF REALITY.From w t  s
been s  t wll be pp rent t t ontologc l trut s tr nscenent l
ttrbute of re lty. T t s to s y, w tever s re l, weter ctu l or
possble, s ontologc lly true; or, n scol stc termnology, _Omne ens
est verum; Ens et verum convertuntur_: All beng s true; Te re l n te
true re convertble terms. For n te frst pl ce tere s no moe or
c tegory of re l beng, of wc te um n mn ctu lly tn s, to wc
t oes not ttrbute ontologc l trut n te sense of conformty wt
te rgt um n concepton of t. Moreover, te proper object of te um n
ntellect s re lty; ll true nowlege s nowlege of re lty. Re lty
of tself s m nfestly now ble, ntellgble, n tus potent lly or
fun ment lly true; n, on te oter  n, ntellect s, ccorng to te
me sure of ts c p cty, f culty of nsgt nto ll re lty, nto
w tever s re l: _ntellectus potens fer omn ; nm ... quo mmoo
ft omn _.(171) Deny eter of tese postul tes reg rng te terms of
te ontologc l rel ton, re lty n mn, n ll r ton l tougt s
nst ntly p r lyse. Hence, n so f r s re lty becomes n ctu l
object of um n nowlege t  s form l ontologc l trut n rel ton bot
to te um n mn n to te Dvne Mn; wle nteceently to um n
tougt t s fun ment lly true, or ntellgble, to te um n mn, n
of course form lly true n rel ton to te Dvne Mn.
Tus we see t t w tever s re l s ontologc lly true; t t ontologc l
trut s re lly entc l wt re l beng; t t, pple to te l tter, t
s not mere extrnsc enomn ton, but sgnfes n ntrnsc, postve
spect of re lty, _vz._ te re l, essent l, or tr nscenent l rel ton

of ll re l beng to Mn or Intellect: rel ton wc s logc lly or

conceptu lly stnct from te noton of re lty consere n tself.
43. ATTRIBUTION OF FALSITY TO REAL BEING.If ontologc l trut s re lly
entc l wt re l beng, f t s n essent l spect of te l tter,
tr nscenent l rel ton of re lty to mn, t follows mme tely t t
tere c n be no suc tng s tr nscenent l f lsty: f w tever s re l
s ontologc lly true, ten te ontologc lly f lse must be te unre l,
must be notngness. An ts s re lly so: ontologc lly f lsty _s_
notngness. We  ve, terefore, to scover te re l me nng of
ttrbutng f lsty to tngs, s wen we spe of f lse fren, f lse
gol, f lse teet, f lse musc l note, f lse me sure n poetry, etc.
Frst of ll, ten, t wll be note t t e c suc object  s ts own
re l n ture n c r cter, ts proper ment l correl te, n, terefore,
ts ontologc l trut. Te f lse fren s true or re l ecever, or
tr tor, or cow r, or w tever s re l c r cter m y be; te f lse gol
s true or re l bronze, or lloy, or w tever t m y be n re lty; te
f lse teet re true or re l vory, or w tever subst nce tey re m e
of; f lse musc l note s true or re l note but not te proper one n
ts ctu l settng; n so of f lse me sure n poetry. Next, wen we
tus scrbe f lsty to fren, or gol, or suc l e, we see t t te
eptet f lse s n re lty merely tr nsferre from te f lse jugment
wc
person s l ble to m e bout te object. We me n t t to juge
t t person fren, or t t subst nce gol, or tose rtcles re l
teet, woul be to form f lse jugment. We see t t t s only n te
jugment tere c n be f lsty; but we tr nsfer te eptet to te object
bec use te object s l ely to occ son te erroneous jugment n te
f llble um n mn, by re son of te resembl nce of te object to
sometng else wc t re lly s not. We see, terefore, t t f lsty s
not n te objects, but s tr nsferre to tem by purely extrnsc
enomn ton on ccount of ppe r nces c lcul te to msle . We commonly
s y, n suc c ses t t tngs msle  us, t t ppe r nces eceve
us. Tngs, owever, o not eceve or msle  us _necess rly_, but only
_ ccent lly_: tey re te _occ sons_ of our llowng ourselves to be
eceve: te f llblty n lmt tons of our own mns n nterpretng
re lty re te re l c use of our erroneous jugments.(172)
Seconly, tere s noter mproper sense n wc we ttrbute f lsty to
wor s of rt wc f l to re lze te rtsts e l. In ts sense we
spe of f lse note n musc,
f lse me sure n poetry, f lse
tnt n p ntng, f lse curve n sculpture or rctecture. F lse
ere me ns efectve, b , w ntng n perfecton. Te object beng out of
 rmony wt te e l or esgn n te pr ctc l ntellect of te rtst,
we escrbe t s f lse fter te n logy of w t t es pl ce wen we
escrbe s f lse gol subst nce wc s out of  rmony wt te e
of gol n te specul tve ntellect. It s n rel ton to te
specul tve, not te pr ctc l, ntellect, t t tngs  ve ontologc l
trut. All cre te tngs re, of course, s suc, n conformty not only
wt te Dvne Intellect consere s specul tve, but lso wt te
Dvne Intellect consere s pr ctc l. For Go, beng omnpotent, oes
ll tngs ccorng to te esgns of Hs Wsom. For Hm notng s
ccent l, notng  ppens by c nce. But te worl He  s freely wlle
to cre te s not te best possble worl. Bot n te pysc l n n te
mor l orer tere re tngs n events wc re efectve, wc f ll
sort of ter n tur l perfecton. Ts efectveness, wc s properly
pysc l or mor l evl, s sometmes escrbe s f lsty, lyng, v nty,
etc., on ccount of te screp ncy between tose tngs n te e l of
w t tey soul be. But ll suc efectve re ltes re nown to be w t
tey re by te Dvne Mn, n m y be nown s tey re lly re by te

um n mn. Tey  ve, terefore, ter ontologc l trut. Te queston of

ter perfecton or mperfecton gves rse to te conser ton of qute
fferent spect of re lty, n mely ts _gooness_. Ts, ten, we must
e l wt n te next pl ce.

CHAPTER VI. REALITY AND THE GOOD.

44. THE GOOD AS DESIRABLE AND AS SUITABLE.Te noton of te _goo_
(L. _bonum_; Gr. ) 
o
e of he mo
 famla of all
oo

. Bu
lke all ohe a

e
de
al o dely ge
e o
ep
, he a
aly

of
 ope

up
ome fu
dame
al que
o

. The p
e
of a
e
 Geek
phlo
ophy, Soae
, Plao a
d A
ole, gave muh a
xou
hough o

eludao
. The e
ave gop
g
of Soae

volved a
ambguy
hh 

ued 
he o
fl
g phlo
ophe
of So
m a
d Epuea

m.
No dd Plao
ueed 
b
g
g do
fom he loud
he Idea of he
Good hh he
o devoedly o
hpped a
he Su
of he I
elleual
Wold. I
eeded he moe
obe a
d
eah
g a
aly

of he Sagye o
b
g o lgh he fomula
o u
ve
ally aeped 
afe age
: The Good
of be
g

ha hh all de
e: _Bo
um e
 quod om
a appeu
_.(173)
Le u
y o eah he fu
dame
al dea u
dely
g he em
good,
good
e

, by
ome
mple example
.
The hld, dev
g
e

ble plea
ue fom a
eemea, e
ou: Tha 

_good_! Whaeve gafe


e

e
, gve

e

ble delgh, 
_lke
_ o _love
_. Suh h
g
 _de
e
_, _
eek
_, _yea

fo_, 

he ab
e
e; a
d 
he pe
e
e _e
joy
_. A h

age he good
mea


mply he _plea
ue-gv
g_. Bu a
ea
o
develop
he huma
be
g
appehe
d
a
d de
be
a
good
o meely ha 
plea
ue-gv
g, bu
haeve
a
fe
a
y
aual
eed o av
g, hehe puely oga
, o
puely 
elleual, o moe dely huma
: food 
good beau
e 

a
fe
a phy
al, oga
 av
g; k
oledge 
good beau
e 

a
fe
a
aual 
elleual h
; fe
d
hp 
good beau
e 

a
fe
a de
eed of he hea. Hee e
oe a a

o
fom
ageeable 
he
e

e of plea
ue-gv
g o ageeable 
he moe
pope
e

e of
uable o u
eful. The good 

o o
eved
o 
he

ao
e

e of ha yeld

e

ble plea
ue bu 
he de
e

e of
ha hh 
u
eful o
uable fo he
a
fao
of a
aual
e
de
y o
eed, ha hh 
_he obje of a
aual e
de
y_.
Nex, le u
efle, h A
ole, ha eah of he 
dvdual pe
o


a
d h
g
ha make up he old of ou de expee
e ha
a
e
d
oad
hh 
aually e
d
. Thee 
a pupo
e 
he ex
e
e of
eah. Eah ha
a
aue, _.e._ a
e

e
e hh 
fo  a p
ple of
developme
, a
oue of all he fu
o

a
d ave
heeby 
o

ually adap

elf o 
e
vo
me
 a
d heeby o

ually
fulfl
he am of 
ex
e
e. By 
vey
aue  e
d
oad


e
d alo
g he pope l
e of 
developme
.(174) I
he old of
o

ou
be
g
h

aual e
de
y 
popely alled appee: _
e

e
appee_ of ha 
appehe
ded a
good by
e

e og
o
, a
d ao
al
appee o _ll_ 
egad o ha 
appehe
ded a
good by 
elle
o ea
o
. I
he old of u
o

ou
h
g
h

aual e
de
y 
a
eal e
de
y a
d 
a
alogou
o o

ou
appee. He
e  
ha
A
ole, ak
g 
all gade
of eal be
g, de
be
he good a
ha
hh 
he obje of a
y
aual e
de
y o appee ha
oeve: he
good 
he _appeble_ o de
able, ha hh all h
g

eek:

_bo
um e
 quod om
a appeu
_.
45. THE GOOD AS AN END, PERFECTING THE NATURE.So fa, e have
a
aly
ed he
oo
of ha 
good _fo
ome be
g_; a
d e have
gaheed ha  mple
ha _
u
_ h
be
g, ha o
bue
o he
lae
ealzao
of 
e
d. Bu e apply he em good o obje
,
a
d
peak of he good
e

, apa fom he de a
d mmedae
elao
of helpful
e

o
uably _fo u
_. Whe
, fo 

a
e, e

ay of a ah ha  
a _good_ o
e, o of a
olde ha he 
a
_good_
olde, ha pe
ely do e mea
by
uh abuo
of good
e


o h
g
o pe
o

? A lle efleo
ll
ho ha  


ellgble _o
ly 
efee
e o a
e
d o pupo
e_. A
d e mea
by 
ha he be
g e de
be a
good ha
he poe
, quale
, equpme

,
hh _f  fo 
e
d o pupo
e_. A be
g 
good ho
e
aue 

equpped a
d adaped fo he ealzao
of 

aual e
d o pupo
e.
Thu
e
ee ha he
oo
of good
e


oelave h he
oo
of
a
e
d, oad
hh, o fo hh, a be
g ha
a
aual e
de
y o
de
e. Whou he o
ep of a
aue a
e
d
g o ealze a
e
d o
pupo
e, he
oo
of he good ould be 
explable.(175) A
d he o
fomul, The good 
ha hh be
g
de
e, o oad
hh hey

aually e
d, a
d The good 
ha hh 
adaped o he e
d
hh
be
g
have 
he ex
e
e, eally ome o he
ame h
g; he fome

aeme
 e
olv
g 
elf 
o he lae a
he moe fu
dame
al. Fo
he ea
o
hy a
yh
g 
de
able, hy  
he obje of a
aual
e
de
y, 
beau
e  
good, a
d
o _ve ve
a_. The de
po
of
he good a
ha hh 
de
able, _Bo
um e
 d quod e
 appeble_,

a
_a po
eo_ de
po
, a de
po
of au
e by efee
e o
effe.(176) A h
g 
de
able beau
e  
good. Why he

 good,
a
d heefoe de
able? Beau
e  _
u
_ he
aual
eed
, a
d _

adaped_ o he
aue, of he be
g ha de
e
 o e
d
oad
;
beau
e  _help
_ h
be
g, _agee
h_ , by o
bu
g oad

he ealzao
of 
e
d: _Bo
um e
 d quod o
ve

au
appee

_: The good 
ha hh
u
he
aue of he be
g ha
de
e
. The geae
 good fo a be
g 
he ealzao
of 
e
d;
a
d he mea

oad
h
ae al
o good beau
e hey o
bue o h

ealzao
.
No doub, 
be
g
e
doed h o

ou

e

he gadual ealzao
of
h

aual e
de
y, by he
omal fu
o

g a
d developme
 of he
ave
, 
aompa
ed by plea
uable feel
g. The lae 
, 
fa,

o a
e
d of ao

elf, bu ahe he
aual o
oma
, he
effe a
d 
dex, of he healhy a
d
omal avy of he o

ou

be
g: _deleao
equu opeao
em debam_. I 
he plea
ue fel

e
d
g oad
he good ha eveal
he good o he o

ou
age
:
ha 
, ak
g plea
ue 

de
e

e a
he feel
g of ell-be
g,
of
a
fao
h o
e
hole o
do
, ave
a
d e
vo
me
.
He
e  
he a
paed plea
ue, o

eed by pa
 a

oao

h a
ea
l
e of ao
, ha
mulae
he o

ou
be
g o a 
ha
ay aga
. I 

he f
 

a
e beau
e a ea
opeao
o
e
de
y 
fel o be _plea

g_ ha  
de
ed, a
d appehe
ded a

_de
able_. No doe
he bue bea
 eog
ze o e
po
d o a
y
mulu

of ao
ohe ha
plea
ue. Bu ma
e
doed h ea
o
, a
d efle
g
o
he elao
beee
h
o

aue a
d he ave
heeby he duly
oe

h
lfe 
h
e
vo
me
mu

ee ha ha 
plea
ue-gv
g
o ageeable 
he od
ay
e

e of h
em 
ge
eally
o beau
e
 
ageeable 
he deepe
e

e of be
g
uable o h

aue,
adaped o h
e
d, a
d heefoe good.
The good, he
, 
haeve
u
he
aue of a be
g e
d
g oad


e
d: _bo
um e
 o
ve
e


au appee

_. I
ha pe
ely doe

h

uably o


? Wha
u
a
y
aue _pefe
_ ha
aue,
a
d
u
 pe
ely 

o fa a
 pefe
. Bu haeve pefe

a
aue doe

o o
ly beau
e a
d 

o fa a
 
_a ealzao
of he
e
d_ oad
hh h

aue e
d
. Hee e eah a
e
oo
, ha of
pefe
g o pefeo
, a
d o
e hh 
a
e

e
ally o

eed
h he
oo
of e
d o pupo
e, a
he o
ep of he good 
elf

. Le u
ompae he
e
oo

of good
e

, e
d, a
d pefeo
.
We have
ad ha a ah o a
olde ae good he
hey ae adaped o
he e
peve e
d
. Bu hey ae
o o
ly beau
e he e
d 
elf 

aleady good. A
d e may a
k hy a
y
uh e
d 

elf good a
d heefoe
de
able. Fo example, hy 
he auae 
dao
of me good, o
he defe
e of o
e
ou
y? A
d obvou
ly 

uh a
ee
of que
o


e mu
 ome o
omeh
g hh 
good a
d de
able 
a
d fo 
elf,
fo 
o

ake a
d
o a
lead
g a
d help
g oad

ome emoe good.
A
d h

omeh
g hh 
good 
a
d fo 
elf 
a la
 o ulmae
e
da
ab
olue,
o a elave, good. Thee mu
 be
uh a
ab
olue
good,
uh a
ulmae e
d, f good
e


h
g

o be made

ellgble a all. A
d  
o
ly 

o fa a
h
g
e
d oad
h

ab
olue good, a
d ae adaped o , ha hey a
be emed good. The
ealzao
of h
e
de
y of h
g
oad
he ab
olue good, o
ulmae e
d, 
ha o

ue
he good
e

of ho
e h
g
, a
d 
doe

o beau
e  _pefe
he
aue
_.
The e
d oad
hh a
y
aue e
d

he au
e of h

e
de
y, 
_f
al_ au
e; a
d he 
flue
e of a f
al au
e
o



pe
ely 

good
e

, _.e._ 

poe of
aualz
g a
d pefe
g a
aue. Th

flue
e of he good 


omeme
de
bed a
he dffu
ve haae of good
e

:
_Bo
um e
 dffu
vum
u_: Good
e

e
d
o dffu
e o
ommu
ae 
elf, o mulply o epodue 
elf. Th

haae, hh e may eog
ze 
he good
e

of f
e,
eaed h
g
, 
expla
ed 
he phlo
ophy of he
m a
be
g
deved, h h
good
e


elf, fom he u
eaed good
e

of
God ho 
he Ulmae E
d a
d Supeme Good of all ealy. Evey
eaue ha

o
pope ulmae e
d a
d hghe
 pefeo



be
g a ma
fe
ao
, a
expe

o
, a
he
g foh, of he
Dv
e Good
e

. I ha

o
aualy a
d good
e

, d


fom, bu depe
de
 o
, he Dv
e Good
e

; bu 
a
muh a


good
e


a
expe

o
o mao
of he Dv
e Good
e

, e
may, by a
_ex

_ de
om
ao
,
ay ha he eaue 
good
_by he Dv
e Good
e

_. I
a
mla ay, a
d hou a
y

u
po
of pa
he
m, e may
peak of he good
e

of eaue

a
be
g a _papao
_ of he Dv
e Good
e

(5).
46. THE PERFECT. ANALYSIS OF THE NOTION OF PERFECTION.I 
he
ealzao
of he e
d o obje o pupo
e of a
aue ha pefe
he
lae, a
d
o fa fomally o

ue
he good
e

of h

aue. No
he
oo
of pefeo


o exaly he
ame a
he
oo
of
good
e

: alhough ha 
pefe 
alay
good, ha 
good 

o
alay
pefe. The em pefe ome
fom he La
_pefee_,
_pefeum_, mea

g fully made, hooughly aheved, ompleed, f

hed.
Sly
peak
g,  
o
ly f
e be
g, poe
al be
g, apable of
ompleo
, ha a
be
poke
of a
_pefeble_, o, he
fully
aualzed, _pefe_. Bu by u
ve
al u
age he em ha
bee
exe
ded
o he ealy of he I
f
e Be
g: e
peak of he lae a
he
I
f
ely _Pefe_ Be
g,
o mea

g ha h
Be
g ha
bee

pefeed, bu ha He 
he puely Aual a

d I
f
e Realy.

Appled o a
y f
e be
g, he em pefe mea

ha h
be
g ha

aa
ed o he full aualy hh e egad a

e
d, a
he deal of


aual apay a
d e
de
y. The f
e be
g 

ubje o ha
ge;
 

o aualzed all a o
e, bu gadually; by he play of ho
e
ave a
d pa

ve poe
hh ae ooed 


aue  
gadually
aualzed, a
d hu
pefeed, ga

g moe a
d moe ealy o be
g by
he poe

. Bu ha de
h
poe

a
d deem
e
he l
e of 

e
de
y? The _good_ hh 
he _e
d_ of he be
g, he good oad

hh he be
g by 

aue e
d
. Th
good, hh 
he em of he
be
g

aual e
de
yhh 
, 
ohe od
, 
e
d
he
fu
dame
al p
ple(177) hh pefe
he
aue of he be
g, 
he

oue a
d expla
ao
of he poe

heeby h

aue 
pefeed:
_bo
um e
 pefevum_: _he good 
he pefe
g p
ple of
ealy_. The e
d 
elf 
he good hh pefe
, _bo
um quod_; he
pefe
g 
elf 
he fomal au
e of he good
e

of he be
g ha

pefeed, _bo
um quo_; he be
g 
elf hh 
pefeed, a
d
heefoe ameloaed o 
ea
ed 
good
e

, 
he _bo
um u_. I

popoo
, heefoe, o he degee 
hh a be
g aually po

e

e

he pefeo
due o 

aue  
good; 

o fa a
 lak
h

pefeo
,  
a

g 
good
e

, o 
, a
e
hall
ee,
o
ologally bad o evl.
Whle, he
, he
oo
of he good mple
a elao
of he appee
o
aual e
de
y of a be
g oad

e
d, he
oo
of
pefeo
, o pefe
g, o
vey
o ou m
d
aual ealy
mply,
o he aualz
g of ealy. The em pefeo

ommo
ly u
ed a


y
o
ymou
h aual ealy. I

o fa foh a
a ealy 
aual e

ay  ha
pefeo
. Bu e do
o all  pefe _
mply_, u
le


 ha
all he aualy e o
eve o be due o 

aue:
o lo
g a

 lak
a
y of h
 
o
ly pefe _
eu
dum qud_, _.e._ 

popoo
o he aualy  doe
po

e

. He
e e def
e he pefe
a
_ha hh 
aually lak
g 

oh
g ha 
due o 

aue_.
The pefe 
heefoe
o
mply he good, bu he omplee o f

hed
good; a
d  
eve
logally d

 fom he lae, 
a
muh a
he
aualy o

oed by he fome ha
added o  he elao

o appee
o

oed by he lae. Smlaly good

e


logally d

 fom
pefeo
by add
g he lke elao
o he lae. Alhough a h
g
ha
good
e



o fa a
 ha
pefeo
, a
d _ve ve
a_,
ll 

pefeo


aualy
mply, hle 
good
e


h
aualy
o

deed a
he em of 

aual appee o e
de
y.
47. GRADES OF PERFECTION. REALITY AS STANDARD OF ALUE.We may d

gu
h
beee

age
of pefeo

he ha
g
g ealy of he
ame be
g, o
gade
of pefeo

ompa
g h o
e a
ohe dffee
 la

e
o
ode
of be
g.
I
o
e a
d he
ame be
g e may d

gu
h beee
ha 
alled 

_f
_ o _e

e
al_ pefeo
, hh mea


e

e
e o
aue
o

deed a
apable of ealz
g 
pupo
e 
ex
e
e by e
d
g
effevely oad

e
d; ha 
alled 
_
emedae_ o
_ade
al_ pefeo
, hh o




all he poe
, faule
a
d
fu
o

heeby h
e
de
y 
gadually aualzed; a
d ha 

alled 
_f
al_ o _
egal_ pefeo
, hh o





full
aualzao
by omplee aa
me
 of 
e
d.
Aga
, ompa
g h o
e a
ohe he 
dvdual be
g
ha make up ou
expee
e, e la

fy hem, e aa
ge hem 
a heahal ode of
elave pefeo
, of 
feoy o
upeoy, aod
g o he
dffee
 gade
of ealy o pefeo
hh e h
k e appehe
d 

hem. Thu
, e look o

lv
g h
g
a
a hghe,
oble, moe pefe

ode of be
g
ha

o
-lv
g h
g
, o
a
mal lfe a
a hghe fom of
be
g ha
pla
 lfe, o

ellge
e a
hghe ha



, o
ll a


upeo o
e

e appee, o
m
d o
p a

oble ha
mae, a
d

o o
. No all
uh ompa
o


volve he appehe

o
of
ome
a
dad
of value. A
e
mao
of elave value
, o elave gade
of
pefeo

h
g
, 
u

ellgble exep 
efee
e o
ome
uh

a
dad;  
volve
of
ee

y he 
uo
of
uh a
a
dad. We
feel
ue ha
ome a lea
 of ou appeao

ae u
que
o
ably
oe: ha ma
, fo 

a
e, 

upeo o he bue bea
, a
d he
lae
upeo o he pla
; ha he loe
 ma
fe
ao
of lfe
he
amba, o haeve mo
oellula, mo
op gem may be he loe


hghe o
he
ale of be
g ha
he hghe
 expe

o
of he
meha
al, hemal a
d phy
al foe
of he 
oga
 u
ve
e. A
d f
e a
k ou
elve
ha 
ou
a
dad of ompa
o
, ha 
ou e
 o
mea
ue, a
d hy ae e
ue of ou applao
of  

uh a
e
, ou
o
ly a

e 
ha ou
a
dad of ompa
o

ealy 
elf, aual
be
g, pefeo
; ha e ely mplly o
ou 
uo
of
uh aual
ealy a
ma
fe
ed o u

vay
g gade
o degee
h
ou
expee
e; ha hou lam
g o be 
fallble 
ou judgme

of
ompa
o
, 
ou la

fao

of h
g
, 
ou appeao

of
he elave pefeo
, e may ju
ly a

ume ealy 
elf o be a


uh 
ellgble, a
d he huma
m
d o be apable of oba

g
ome ue
a
d ea


gh 
o he
aue of ealy.
48. THE GOOD, THE REAL, AND THE ACTUAL.Hav
g ompaed pefeo
h
good
e

a
d h be
g, le u

ex ompae he o lae
oo


h eah ohe. We
hall
ee pe
e
ly ha evey aual be
g ha


o
ologal good
e

, ha he
e ae 
ealy de
al. Bu hee 
a
logal d

o
beee
hem. I
he f
 plae he em be
g 

appled _pa exelle
e_ o
ub
a
e
ahe ha
o ade

. Bu e do

o ommo
ly
peak of a

dvdual
ub
a
e, a pe
o
o h
g, a
good

efee
e o e

e
al o
ub
a
al pefeo
.(178) Whe
e de
be
a ma
, o a mah
e, a
good, e mea
ha he ma
po

e

e
ho
e
_ade
al_ pefeo

, ho
e quale
a
d e
dome

, hh ae

uable o h

aue a
a ma
; ha he mah
e po

e

e
ho
e
popee
hh adap  o 
e
d. I
he
eo
d plae he
oo
of
be
g 
ab
olue; ha of he good 
elave, fo  mple
he
oo

o of ealy
mply bu of ealy a
de
able, ageeable,
uable, a

pefe
g he
aue of a
ubje, a
be
g he e
d, o o
duve o he
e
d, oad
hh h

aue e
d
. A
d

e ha hu
_pefe
_ mu

be
omeh
g
o poe
al bu aual,  follo
ha, u
lke eal uh,
eal good
e


de
al
o h poe
al, bu o
ly h aual
ealy. I 

o a
abue of he ab
a, po

ble e

e
e, bu
o
ly of he o
ee, aually ex

g e

e
e.(179)
Fom he fa ha he
oo
of he good 
elave  follo
ha he

ame h
g a
be
mula
eou
ly good a
d bad 
dffee
 elao

:
Wha 
o
e ma

mea 
a
ohe ma

po
o
.
49. KINDS OF GOODNESS; DIISIONS OF THE GOOD.(_a_) The good
e

of a
be
g may be o

deed 
elao
o h
be
g 
elf, o o ohe
be
g
. Wha 
good fo a be
g 
elf, ha make
 


ally a
d
fomally good, _bo
um
b_, 
haeve pefe
, a
d 
he fulle


e

e he ealzao
of 
e
d. He
e e
peak of a vuou
, upgh
ma
, ho
e o
du 

keep
g h h

aue a
d o
duve o he
ealzao
of h
e
d, a
a good ma
. Bu a be
g may al
o be good o
ohe
, _bo
um ale_, by a
ex

, ave, effeve good
e

,

a
muh a
by 
ao
 may help ohe be
g

he ealzao
of
he e
d
. I
h

e

e, a be
efe
 ma
, ho 
he
he ell-be
g of
h
fello-me
a
d help
hem o ealze h
ell-be
g, 
alled a good

ma
. Th
k
d of good
e


ha 
ofe

oaday

yled
_phla
hopy_; 
Ch
a
eh
 
k
o
a
_hay_.
(_b_) We have de
bed he good a
he em o obje of
aual e
de
y
o appee. I
he doma
of be
g

o e
doed h he poe of
o

ou
appehe

o
, deem

m ule
h

aual e
de
y; h

lae 
alay
oe
ed oad
he _eal_ good: 
eve a
am

: 

alay
deed by he Dv
e W
dom hh ha
gve
o h
g
he

aue
. Bu 
he doma
of o

ou
lv
g age

h

aual
e
de
y 
o

eque
 o
appehe

o
:  ake
he fom of 


ve
a
mal appee o of ao
al volo
. A
d

e h
appehe

o
of
he good may be eo
eou
,

e ha 

o eally good bu evl may be
appehe
ded a
good, he appee o ll, hh follo
h

appehe

o
_
l volum

 paeog
um_may be bo
e oad
evl
_
ub ao
e bo
_. He
e he obvou
d

o
beee
_eal good_ a
d
_appae
 good__bo
um veum_ a
d _bo
um appae

_.
(__) I
efee
e o a
y 
dvdual
ubjea ma
, fo 

a
e 

ma
fe
 ha _ohe_ be
g
a
be good fo hm 

o fa a
a
y of hem
a
be h
e
d o a mea

o he aa
me
 of h
e
d. They ae alled 

efee
e o hm _objeve good
_, a
d he good
e

_objeve
good
e

_. Bu  
equally lea ha hey ae good fo hm o
ly beau
e
he a
pefe h
o

aue by
omeho de
fy
g o u

g hm
elf
h hem, po

e


g, u

g, o e
joy
g hem. Th
po

e

o
of he
objeve good o

ue
ha ha
bee
aleady efeed o a
_fomal_
o _
ubjeve good
e

_.(180)
(_d_) We have lke
e aleady efeed o he fa ha 
be
g
e
doed
h o

ou

e

a
d appee pope, hehe
e
e
 o ao
al, he
fu
o
of po

e


g o aa

g o ha 
objevely good, o ha

u
a
d pefe
he
aue of he
ubje, ha
fo 

aual
o
oma
 a feel
g of plea
ue,
a
fao
, ell-be
g, delgh,
e
joyme
. A
d e have ob
eved ha h
plea
uable feel
g may he

beome a
mulu
o fe
h de
e, may 

deed be de
ed fo 
o

ake.
No h

ubjeve, plea
ue-gv
g po

e

o
of a
objeve good ha

bee

elf alled by
hola

_bo
um deleable_deleable o
delgh-gv
g good. The objeve good 
elf o

deed a
a
e
d, a
d
he pefe
g of he
ubje by 
aa
me
, have bee
alled _bo
um
ho
e
um_good hh 
eally a
d _ab
oluely_
uh _

elf_. Whle f
he good 
que
o

eally
uh o
ly he
o

deed a
a mea

o he
aa
me
 of a
e
d, of
omeh
g ha 
good 

elf, he fome 

alled _bo
um ule_u
eful good.(181)
I
h
mpoa
 ple dv
o
_bo
um ho
e
um_ 
u
ed 
he de

e

e 
hh  embae
a
y _eal_ good, hehe phy
al o moal. A

appled o ma
 ould heefoe embae haeve pefe
h
phy
al
lfe a
ell a
haeve pefe
h

aue o

deed a
a ao
al, a
d
heefoe moal, be
g. Bu 
ommo
u
age  ha
bee
e
ed o he
lae, a
d 

h

e

e
y
o
ymou
h _moal good_, _vue_.(182)
Fuhemoe, a good hh 
a
e
d, a
d heefoe de
able fo 
o

ake, hehe  be phy
al o moal, a

be a he
ame me a mea

o

ome hghe good a
d de
ed fo he
ake of h
lae. He
e S.
Thoma
, follo
g A
ole, edue
all he moal good
hh ae
de
able 
hem
elve
o o k
d
: ha hh 
de
able o
ly fo

elf, hh 
he la
 e
d, f
al fely; a
d ho
e hh, hle good

hem
elve
, ae al
o o
duve o he fome, a
d he
e ae he
vue
.(183)

Whe
he
e vaou
k
d
of good
e

ae exam
ed 
efee
e o
he
aue, o
du a
d de

y of ma
, hey a
e a mulude of
poblem
hh belo
g popely o Eh
a
d Naual Theology. The
fa ha ma
ha
a ompo
e
aue hh 
he
ea of vaou

a
d o
fl
g e
de
e
, of he fle
h a
d of he
p; ha
he peeve

hm
elf a double la, a hghe a
d a loe
appee; ha he 

ubje o eo 
h
appehe

o
of he
good; ha he appehe
d
a d

o
beee
plea
ue a
d duy;
ha he feel
he lae o be he pah o ulmae happ
e

,all
h
ae
uae
he d

o
beee
eal a
d appae
 good,
beee
_bo
um ho
e
um_, _bo
um ule_, a
d _bo
um deleable_.
The ex
e
e of God 
e
abl
hed 
Naual Theology; a
d 

Eh
, aded by P
yhology,  
poved ha

o f
e good a

be he la
 e
d of ma
, ha God, he Supeme, I
f
e Good, 

h
la
 e
d, a
d ha o
ly 
he po

e

o
of God by k
oledge
a
d love a
ma
f
d h
omplee a
d f
al fely.
50. GOODNESS A TRANSCENDENTAL ATTRIBUTE OF BEING.We have
ho
ha hee

a logal d

o
beee
he o
ep of good
e

a
d ha of
be
g. We have
o o
ho ha he d

o


o eal, 
ohe
od
, ha good
e


a a

e
de
al abue of all aual ealy,
ha all be
g, 

o fa foh a
 
aual, ha

good
e

a

e
de
al o o
ologal good
e


he
e

e of
_appebly_, _de
ably_, _
uably_, a
aleady expla
ed.
Whe
he he


fomulaed 
he ado
al
hola

aeme
,
_Om
e e

e
 bo
um_: _All be
g 
good_ 
ou
d
a
al
g paadox.
Suely  a

o be o
e
ded ha eveyh
g 
good? A a
e 
he

omah 

o good; le
ae
o good; ye he
e ae aual eale
;
a
e
ex
 a
d le
ae old; heefoe
o evey ealy 
good. Th


u
que
o
ably ue. Bu  doe

o o
ad he he

ghly
u
de
ood. The ue mea

g of he he


,
o ha evey be
g 

good 
all e
pe
, o po

e

e

uh good
e

a
ould ju
fy u


de
b
g  a
good 
he od
ay
e

e, bu ha evey be
g
po

e

e

ome good
e

: evey be
g 

o fa a
 ha
aualy ha

fomal, 


 good
e

, o 
, 
ohe od
, he em o obje of

aual e
de
y o de
e. Th
good
e

, hh e pedae of a
y a
d
evey aual be
g, may be (1) he em of he
aual e
de
y o
appee of ha be
g 
elf, _bo
um
b_, o (2)  may be o
evably
he em of he appee of
ome ohe be
g, _bo
um ale_. Le u

ee
hehe  a
be
ho
ha evey aual be
g ha
good
e


o
e o
boh of he
e
e

e
.
(1) _Bo
um
b_.I
hee a
y 
ellgble
e

e 
hh  a
be
ad
ha he aualy of a
y a
d evey ex

g be
g 
_good fo ha
be
g__bo
um
b_? Thee 
. Fo f e eog
ze 
evey
uh be
g, a

e mu
, a _
aue_, a poe
aly of fuhe aualzao
, a e
de
y
oad
a
ae of fulle aualy hh 

_e
d_; a
d f,
fuhemoe, e eog
ze ha evey
uh be
g a a
y 

a

o meely
_
_ o ex

, bu 
_beom
g_ o _ha
g
g_, a
d heeby e
d
g
effevely oad

e
d; e mu
 adm
o meely ha he full
aa
me
 of 
e
d (

egal o f
al pefeo
) 
de
ed by,
a
d pefe
, a
d 
good fo, ha be
g

aue; bu al
o ha he
paal ealzao
of 
e
d, o, 
ohe od
, he aualy  ha

a a
y 

a
 

ha
g
g o
do
of ex
e
e (
ade
al o

emedae pefeo
) 

mlaly good fo ; a
d eve
ha 

aual ex
e
e a
ompaed h 
mee po

bly (
f
 o
e

e
al pefeo
) 
de
able a
d good fo 

aue. Aually
ex

g be
g
ae 
ellgble o
ly beau
e hey ex
 fo
ome e
d o

pupo
e, hh, by he vey ex
e

e, ave
, opeao

, o
du,
hey e
d o ealze. If h
be admed e a

o de
y ha he full
aa
me
 of h
e
d o pupo
e 
good fo hem
uable, de
able,
ageeable, pefe
g hem. I

o fa a
hey fal 
h
pupo
e hey
ae a

g 
good
e

, hey ae bad, evl. Fo he ealzao
of he
e
d he
aue
ae e
doed h appopae poe
, faule
, foe
,
by he
omal fu
o

g of hh hey gadually develop a
d go 

aualy. No eal be

g 
by
aue 
e o amle

;
o eal be
g 

hou 
o

aual faule
, foe
a

d fu
o

. Bu he
aual
e
ul of all opeao
, of all ao
a
d 
eao
amo
g h
g
, 

_aualzao
_ of he poe
al, ameloao
, developme
, goh 

pefeo
a
d good
e

by gadual ealzao
of e
d
. If by ade
 a
y
of he
e poe

a

g, o a
am

by fal
g o o
bue 
due
pefeo
o he
aue, hee 

he be
g a popoo
ae a
 of
good
e

 

o fa bad, evl. Bu, eve

o, he
aue of he h
g
pe
eve

fu
dame
al oe
ao
oad

e
d, oad
he
pefeo

aual o , a
d
uggle
a
 ee aga

 he evle

o make good he defe
y. A a
e 
he
omah 

eve good _fo
he
omah_, o _fo he lv
g
ubje_ of hh he
omah 
a

oga
. Fo he lv
g be
g he a
e 
a
evl, a _falue_ of o
e of
he oga

o d
hage 
fu
o


omally, _a
ab
e
e of a good_,
_vz._ he healhy fu
o

g of a
oga
. Bu he a
eou
goh,
o

deed 

elf a
d fo 
elf, bologally a
d hemally, ha


o

aue, pupo
e, e
de
e
, la
;
o a
e de
y ha 

developme
 aod
g o he
e la

good fo 

pef

aue,(184) _bo
um
b_.
I may be a
ked ho a
he _f
_ o _e

e
al_ pefeo
of a

ex

g
ub
a
e, hh 

oh
g el
e ha
he aual ex
e
e of he

aue 
elf, be o
eved a
good fo h

aue? I 

o 
a
muh
a
he aual ex
e
e of he
ub
a
e 
he f

age 
he poe


by hh he
aue e
d
oad

e
d; a
ex

g
aue de
e
a
d
e
d
oad
he o

evao
of 
o
be
g;(185) he
e he
ay
g,
Self-pe
evao

he f
 la of
aue; a
d he
e, oo, he

hola
 apho
m, _Melu
e
 e

e quam
o
e

e_.
The agume
 ju
 oul
ed e
d
o
ho ha evey
aue of hh e a

have de expee

e, o 
ohe od
evey f
e, o

ge

aue,

_bo
um
b_, fomally a
d 


ally good fo 
elf.
I 
, of ou
e, equally applable o he U
eaed, Nee

ay Be
g
Hm
elf. The I
f
e Aualy of he Dv
e Naue 
e

e
ally he
em a
d e
d of he Dv
e Love. Theefoe evey aual be
g ha




, fomal good
e

, heeby  
_bo
um
b_, _.e._ 

aualy 
, 
egad o 

aue, eally a
obje of e
de
y,
de
e, appee, a
omeh
g ha eally
u
a
d pefe
h

aue.
Thu
u
de
ood, he he

fomulae

o mee auology. I make
a eal
a

eo
abou eal be
g;
o a
he uh of h
a

eo
be poved
ohe
e ha
by a
agume
 ba
ed, a
ou

, o
he eog
o
of
pupo
e, of f
al au
aly, of adapao
of mea

o e
d
, 
he aual
u
ve
e of ou expee
e.
Noh
a
d
g all ha ha
bee

ad,  may
ll be a
ked hy
hould
ho
e 
dvdual be
g
, ho
e ex
e
e e have lamed o be good fo
hem, ex
 a all. I ll be objeed ha hee ex
 mulude
of
be
g
ho
e ex
e
e 
ma
fe
ly _
o_ good fo hem. Take, fo


a
e, he a
e of he epobae. If hey 
h he oal
a

hlao
, f hey de
e he oal e

ao
of he be
g, ahe
ha
a
ex
e
e of ee
al pu

hme
, hey u
doubedly 
h  _a
a
good_. I
a

hlao
o ab
olue
o
-ex
e
e _eally_ a good _fo

hem_? _De fao_  
_fo hem_, o

deed _
he aual o
do
_
hh 
_ade
al o he
aue_. Ch

ad of he
a
dal-gve
ha 

uely ue of he epobae: I ee bee fo ha ma
had he

eve bee
bo
. We may adm, heefoe, ha fo he epobae
hem
elve

mple
o
-ex
e
e 
moe de
able, a
d bee, ha
he
aual o
ee
ae of ex
e
e a
epobae: beau
e
mple

o
-ex
e
e 
fo hem he
mple _
egao
_ of he ealy, heea

he ab
olue a
d epaable lo

of he la
 e
d, he oal fu
ao

of he pupo
e fo hh hey ame 

o be
g, 
fo hem he geae

o
evable _pvao
_. Bu h
o
do
of he epobae 
ade
al
o he
aue, ale
o he pupo
e of he be
g, a
elf-
ued
falue, a delbeae ha
g of he
aual e
de
y. I ema


ue, heefoe, ha he
aue 
good hough 
apable of poge

,

pupo
e 
good hough fu
aed. I

o fa a
hey have aual
ealy hey have e

e
al good
e

. The _
aue
_
ll e
d oad


elf-o

evao
a
d he ealzao
of he e
d. They fom
o _eal_
exepo
o he ge
eal uh ha  
bee o be ha

o o be:
_melu
e
 e

e quam
o
e

e_. I 

o a

hlao
a

uh ha 

de
ed by hem, bu o
ly a
a le

evl ale
ave ha
he ee
al
pvao
of he la
 e
d.(186) If he evl
ade
ally a
d aually
aah
g o a ea

ae of ex
e
e make he o

ua
e of _h


ae_ u
de
able fo a be
g,  by
o mea

follo
ha he
o

ua
e of h
be
g 
ex
e
e,
mply a
d 

elf, 
le


de
able ha

o
-ex
e
e.
(2) BONUM ALTERI.Eve
, hoeve, f  ee ga
ed ha he aual
ex
e
e of
ome be
g


o good fo _hem
elve
_, mgh 
o

evehele

be good fo _ohe be

g
_, a
d 
elao
o he ge
eal

heme of h
g
? I
hee
o a

ellgble
e

e 
hh _evey_
aual be
g 
_bo
um ale_, good fo ohe h
g
? Hee aga
he
ame
expee
e of aual ealy, hh eahe
u
ha eah 
dvdual be
g
ha
a
aue heeby  e
d
o 
o
good a
a paula e
d, al
o
eahe
u
ha 
he ge
eal
heme of ealy h
g
ae helpful o o
e
a
ohe,
ay, ae 
e
ded by he 
eao
a
d o-opeao
h o
e
a
ohe o
ub
eve he de e
d hh 
he good of he hole
y
em of
ealy. Thee 
lle u
e 
puzzl
g, a
people
omeme
do, ove he
_a
o
de_ of 
dvdual h
g
o la

e
of h
g

huma

expee
e, ove he good o he evl of he ex
e
e of he
e h
g
,
ove he que
o
hehe o
o  ould be bee ha he
e h
g


hould
eve have ex
ed, u
l e have o

uled
o a
y 
olaed
poo
of huma
expee
e bu _h
expee
e a
a hole_. I
h
e
a
f
d
uffe
 evde
e fo he pevale
e of a be
efe
 pupo
e
eveyhee. No ha e a
ead h
pupo
e 
evey deal of ealy.
Eve
he
e have o
v
ed ou
elve
ha all eao

he ok of a
Supeme Be
g ho 
I
f
e Good
e

I
elf, e a

o ga
ha full


gh 
o he
ee de
g

of H
Povde
e, hh ould be
eeded

ode o ju
fy H
ay

all h
g
. Bu he
e have o
v
ed
ou
elve
ha he eaed u
ve
e ex

beau
e God ll
, e a

u
de
a
d ha evey aual ealy 
 mu
 be good, a
be
g a

obje o em of he Dv

e Wll. Evey eaed ealy 
hu
_bo
um
ale_ 
a
muh a
 
good fo God,
o, of ou
e, 
he mpo

ble

e

e of pefe
g Hm, bu a
a
mao
a
d expe

o
of he
Good
e

of he Dv
e Naue I
elf. The expee
e hh e
able
u
o
eah a k
oledge of he ex
e
e a
d
aue of God, he Ceao,
Co

eve, a
d Povde
e of he aual u
ve
e, al
o eahe
u
ha
h
u
ve
e a
have
o ohe ulmae e
d o good ha
God Hm
elf,
_.e._ God
ll o ma
fe
 H
good
e

by he ex

 gloy hh
o




he k
oledge a
d love of Hm by H
ao
al eaue
. The
om
poe
e of he Ceao, H
feedom 
ea
g, a
d ou k
oledge of
he u
ve
e He ha
aually ho
e
o eae fom amo
g 
def
e

po

ble old
, all alke o

v
e u
ha he aual old 

ehe
he be
 po

ble
o he o
 po

ble, _ab
oluely_
peak
g. Bu ou
k
oledge of H

dom a
d poe al
o o
v
e
u
ha fo he pupo
e
of ma
fe

g H
gloy 
he mea
ue a
d degee 
hh He ha

aually ho
e
o ma
fe
  by ea
g he ex

g u
ve
e, a
d
_elavely_ o he aa
me
 of h

pef pupo
e, he ex

g
u
ve
e 
he be
 po

ble.
51. OPTIMISM AND PESSIMISM.Tho
e fe oul
e
of he phlo
ophy of
he
mhe
e
e
abl
hed 
Naual Theologyll eveal o u
he plae
of he
m 
elao
o opm
 a
d pe

m

y
em
of phlo
ophy.
Pe

m
m, a
a
ouome of phlo
ophal
peulao
, 
he polamao



ome fom o ohe of he o
vo
ha huma
ex
e
e,
ay,
ex
e
e 
ge
eal, 
a falue, a
evl. I 
he a
alogue, 

elao
o ll, of ha
ep
m 

elao
o 
elle; a
d 


o le


elf-o
adoy ha
he lae. Whle he lae po

o
oal paaly

of hough, he fome 
volve
a lke paaly

of all
ll, all effo, all pupo
e 
ex
e
ea phlo
ophy of de
pa,
de
po
de
y, gloom. Boh ae equally eo
eou
, equally 
dave of
phlo
ophal falue, equally epug
a
 o he
omal, healhy m
d.
Opm
m o
he ohe ha
d 
expe

ve of he o
vo
ha good
pedom
ae

all ex
e
e: _melu
e
 e

e quam
o
e

e_; ha a
he oo of all ealy hee 
a be
efe
 pupo
e hh 
eve be
g
ealzed; ha hee 

h
g

o meely a uh ha a
be k
o
bu
a good
e

ha a
be loved. Ex
e
e 

o a
evl, lfe 

o a
falue. Th

a phlo
ophy of hope, buoya
y, effo a
d aa
me
.
Bu 
 ue, o 
 a
empy llu
o
? Well, o ma
a
ha he
aual u
ve
e 
he be
 ab
oluely, ould, of ou
e, be ab
ud. If
Leb
z
P
ple of Suffe
 Rea
o
oblged hm o o
e
d, 
fae
of he pa
fully palpable fa
of phy
al a
d moal evl 
he
u
ve
e, ha h
u
ve
e 
he be
 ab
oluely po

ble, he be

ha God ould eae, e a
o
ly
ay:
o muh he o
e fo h

P
ple. The ue opm
m 
ha of he he
 ho, adm
g he
pevale
e of evl 
he u
ve
e, 
he
e

e o be expla
ed
pe
e
ly, a he
ame me hold
ha houghou eao
he good
pedom
ae
, ha God
be
efe
 pupo
e 
egad o 
dvdual
doe


he ma
peval, a
d ha H
gloy 
ma
fe
ed 
gv
g o
ao
al eaue
he pefeo
a
d fely of k
o
g a
d lov
g
Hm
elf. Fo he he
, he
, he poblem of he ex
e
e of evl 
he
u
ve
e a

ume
he ge
eal fom of eo
l
g he fa of evl 
God

eao
h he fa of God

f
e poe a
d good
e

. Th

a
poblem fo Naual Theology. Hee e have meely o 
dae
ome ge
eal
p
ple
a

g fom he o

deao
of evl a
he oelave a
d
a
he

of good
e

.
52. EIL: ITS NATURE AND CAUSES. MANICHEISM.Adm
g he ex
e
e of
evl 
he u
ve
e, he
hola
 appae
ly hda
he adm

o

fohh by de
y
g he ealy of evl. The paadox expla


elf by
ompa
g he
oo

of good a
d evl, a
d hu
y
g o ave a a
pope o
epo
of he lae.
If o
ologal good
e


eally de
al h aual be
g, f be
g 

good 

o fa a
 
aual, he
 ould appea ha o
ologal evl
mu
 be de
al h
o
-be
g,
oh
g
e

. A
d
o  
, 
he
e

e
ha
o evl 
a po
ve, aual ealy, ha all evl 
a
ab
e
e of
ealy. Bu ju
 a
he good, hough eally de
al h he aual, 

evehele

logally d


 fom he lae,
o 
evl logally
d

 fom
oh
g
e

, o he ab
e
e of ealy. A
e have
ee
, he
good 
ha hh pefe
a
aue, ha hh 
due o a
aue a
he
ealzao
of he e
d of he lae. So, oo, 
evl he _pvao
_ of

a
y pefeo
due o a
aue, he ab
e
e of
omeh
g po
ve a
d

omeh
g hh ough o be pe
e
. Evl, heefoe, 

o a mee

egao
o ab
e
e of be
g;  
he ab
e
e of a good, o 
ohe
od
he ab
e
e of a ealy ha
hould be pe
e
. All pvao


egao
, bu
o _ve ve
a_; fo pvao

he
egao
of
omeh
g
_due_: he ab
e
e of vue 
a mee
egao

a
a
mal, 
ma
 

a pvao
. He
e he ommo
ly aeped def
o
of evl: _Malum e

pvao bo
 deb_: _Evl 
he pvao
of he good
e

due o a
h
g_.(187) Evl 
alay
, heefoe, a defe, a defe
y. The
oo

of evl 
a elave,
o a
ab
olue
oo
. A
good
e


he gh
elao
of a
aue o 
pope e
d,
o 
evl a falue, a defe 

h
elao
: _Malum e
 pvao od

ad f
em debum_.(188)
The vey f
e
e

of a f
e be
g 
he ab
e
e of fuhe ealy 

h
be
g; bu a
h
fuhe ealy 

o due o
uh a be
g, 

ab
e
e, hh ha

omeme
bee
mpopely de
bed a
meaphy
al
evl, 

o ghly egaded a
evl a all: exep, 
deed, e ee o
o
eve  a
happe

g o he I
f
e Be
g Hm
elf, hh ould be a
o
ado

hough.
Evl, he
, 

fomal o
ep 

oh
g po
ve;  
e

e
ally

egave, o ahe pvave. Fo h
vey ea
o

, he
e o

de evl

he o
ee, _.e._ a
affe
g aual h
g
, a
ou
g 
he
aual u
ve
ee a

aely
peak of  h popey a

ex

g,e
ee ha  e

e
ally 
volve

ome po
ve, eal

ubje hh  affe
,
ome
aue hh, by affe
g,  e
de

o
fa evl. Ca
e 
he
omah 
a eal evl of he
omah, a defe, a
defe
y, a falue, 
he adapao
of he
omah o 
pope e
d.
I 

o 
elf a po
ve, ab
olue, _evl e
y_. I

o fa a
 


elf a po
ve, phy
al ealy, a goh of lv
g ell
,  ha


o

aue, 

aual e
de
y, 
developme
 oad
a
e
d 

aoda
e h bologal la
: 
all of hh  vefe
he
def
o
of o
ologal good
e

. Bu he ex
e
e of
uh a goh 

he
omah 
pahologal, _.e._ a d
ea
e of he
omah, a peve

o

of he
aual,
omal fu
o
of he
omah, a _falue of he lae

adapao
o 
e
d_, a
d he
e a
_evl fo he
omah_. Ly
g, oo,

a
evl, a moal evl of ma
a
a moal
ubje. Bu h
doe

o mea

ha he hole phy
al poe

of h

k
g, judg
g,
peak
g, heeby a
ma
le
, 

elf a po
ve evl e
y. The h
k
g 

elf good a

a phy
al a. So 
he
peak
g 

elf good a
a phy
al a.
Whaeve of po
ve ealy hee 

he hole poe


good,
o
ologally good. Bu hee 
a _a
 of o
fomy_ of he la
guage
h he hough, e
al
g a _pvao
_ o _falue of adapao
_ of
he ma
a
a moal
ubje h h
e
d, h h
eal good; a
d 
h

falue of adapao
, h
pvao
of good
e

, le
he moal evl of
ly
g.
Evl, he
, ha
a _maeal_ o
ubjeve au
e, _vz._
ome po
ve,
aual ealy, hh 
good 

o fa foh a
 
aual, bu hh

evl, o a

g 

omeh
g due o , 

o fa a
he pvao

hh e have alled evl affe
.

Bu evl ha

o _fomal_ au
e: fomally  

o a ealy bu a
pvao
: evl ha

o fomal au
e, bu 
ahe he pvao
of a
fom.(189)
No ha
evl a
y _f
al_ au
e, fo  o



pe
ely 
he falue
of a be
g

aual e
de
y oad

e
d, 
he a
 of adapao

of a
aue o 
e
d:
o ha
evl a f
al au
e, bu 
ahe he
pvao
of a be
g
due elao
o 

aual e
d.(190) Evl a

o

be he
aual e
ul of a be
g
e
de
y oad

e
d, o a mea

o
he aa
me
 of h
e
d. Fo ha hh 
eally a
e
d mu
 be good,
a
d a mea

deve

good
e

fom he e
d o hh  
a mea

. The
good, beau
e  
a
e
d, o a mea

o a
e
d, 
de
able; a
d
o,
oo, mgh evl be def
ed _a po
eo_ a
ha hh 
he obje of

o
aual e
de
y o de
e, ha fom hh all h
g
ae ave
e:
_malum e
 quod
ullum e

appe, vel a quo om
a ave
a
u_. No a

evl be 
elf a
e
d, o be a

uh de
ed o de
able. Real evl 

o
doub ofe

ough a
d de
ed by o

ou
be
g
,
omeme
phy
al
evl,
omeme
moal evl. Bu  
alay
de
ed a
d embaed a
a
good, _
ub
pee bo
_, _.e._ he
appehe
ded a
hee a
d
o good 

he
e

e of gafy
g, plea
ue-gv
g, _bo
um deleable_. Th


po

ble beau
e _plea
ue_, e
peally oga
,
e

ble plea
ue, a

d

 fom he
ae of eal ell-be
g hh haaeze
ue
_happ
e

_, 

o he exlu
ve o
oma
 of
eek
g a
d po

e


g a
_eal_ good:  ofe
aompa
e
he
eek
g a
d po

e


g of a meely
appae
 good: a
d 

uh a
e
 

elf a meely appae
 good, a
d

ealy evl. The u
fou
ae ma
ho omm

ude doe

o embae
evl a

uh. He o
gly judge
deah o be good, a
be
g 
h
ve a
le

e evl ha
he m
ee
of h
ex
e
e, a
d u
de h
a
pe of
good
e

he embae
deah.
F
ally e have o 
que hehe evl ha
a
_effe
_ au
e. See
g
ha  

o meely a logal fgme
,
ee
g ha  eally affe

aual h
g
, ha  eally ou

he aual u
ve
e,  mu
 have
a eal
oue amo
g he effe
 au
e
of he
e aual h
g
ha make
up he u
ve
e. I 
u
doubedly due o he ao
of effe
 au
e
,
_.e._ o he _falue_, he _defeve_ ao
, of effe
 au
e
. Bu
be
g 
elf
omeh
g
egave, a pvao
,  a

o popely be
ad
o have a
effe
 au
e; fo he 
flue
e of a
effe
 au
e 

po
ve ao
, hh 
u
mu
 have fo 
em
omeh
g po
ve,

omeh
g eal, a
d heefoe good. He
e S. Augu

e vey popely
ay

ha evl
hould be de
bed a
hav
g a _defe
_ au
e ahe ha

a
effe
 au
e.(191) I
ohe od
, evl 

o he de,
aual
o
omal e
ul of he avy of effe
 au
e
; fo h
e
ul 

alay
good. I mu
 heefoe be alay
a

de, ab
omal, ade
al
o

eque
e of he avy. Le u

ee ho h
a
bef
ly 

egad o phy
al evl, he


egad o moal evl.
I
he ao
of phy
al au
e
e may d

gu
h beee
he opeave
age
e
hem
elve
a
d he
ubje

hh he effe
of he
e
opeao

ae podued. Someme
he effe 
a

g 
due
pefeo
, o 

ohe od
mpefe, phy
ally evl, beau
e of

ome defe 
he age
e
: he
aue may be defeve beau
e he

ulpo 
u

klled, o h


ume

bad; off
p
g may be eak o
malfomed o
g o
ome o
ge
al o ade
al eak
e

o u
f
e



he pae

. Someme
he evl 
he effe 
aeable
o o he
age

bu o he maeal
o
hh hey have o ok: he
ulpo a
d
h


ume

may be pefe, bu f hee be a fla 
he mable he

aue ll be a falue; he eduao may be effe
, bu f he pupl
be a

g 
apude o applao
he e
ul
a

o be good.
All h
, hoeve, doe

o ay u
vey fa, fo e mu

ll 
que
_hy_ ae he age
e
, o he maeal
, hem
elve
defeve. Moeove,
phy
al evl
omeme
ou
hou a
y defe ehe 
he age
e

o 
he maeal
. The effe podued may be 
ompable h
ome
m
o pefeo
aleady 
he
ubje;  a
he
be podued o
ly a
he
afe of h
m
o pefeo
: hh
afe 
fo he
ubje
_po a
o_ a
evl. I 

he
aual ode of h
g
ha he
poduo
of a
e fom o pefeo
exlude
he aualy of a

pe-ex

g fom o pefeo
. All
aue 

ubje o ha
ge, a
d e
have
ee
ha all ha
ge 
uled by he la: _Ge
eao u
u
e

oupo aleu
_. I mgh pehap
be
ad ha h
pvao
o

uppla

g of pefeo


h
g
by he aualzao

he
e h
g

of 
ompable pefeo

, 

hee
 
he
aue of h
g
a
d
e

e
al o he f
e
e

a lea
, f e egad he h
g

o

dvdually bu a
pa
of a hole, a
membe
of a
y
em, a


ub
ev
g a ge
eal
heme;a
d ha heefoe
uh pvao

hould
o
be egaded a
phy
al evl pope, bu ahe a
meaphy
al evl,
mpopely
o alled. Hoeve e egad ,  a
have
o ohe f


oue ha
he Wll of he Ceao deee
g he aual ode of he
ex

g u
ve
e. A
d he
ame mu
 be
ad of he phy
al evl
pope
ha ae 
de
 o he aual ode of h
g
. The
e evl
ae
ade
al he
o

deed 
elao
o he 
dvdual
aue
of he
eaed age
e
a
d maeal
. They ae defe
o falue
of
aual
e
de
e
: ee he
e
aual e
de
e
alay
ealzed hee ould be

o
uh evl
. Bu hey ae

o ealzed; a
d he falue o evl 

o ade
al 
egad o God; fo God ha
lled a
d eaed he
e
age
e
h
aual e
de
e
hh He ha
de

ed o be fulflled
o
alay
a
d 
evey deal, bu 

uh mea
ue a
ll
eue he aual
ode of he u
ve
e a
d
ho foh H
pefeo


he f
e degee

hh He ha
feely ho
e
o ma
fe
 he
e pefeo

. The old He
ha
ho
e
o eae 

o he be
 ab
oluely po

ble: hee ae
phy
al evl

; bu  
he be
 fo he exa pupo
e fo hh
He eaed .
Thee 
al
o moal evl 
he u
ve
e. I
ompa
o
h moal evl,
he phy
al defe

God
eao
phy
al pa
a
d
uffe
g,
maeal pvao

a
d had
hp
, deay a
d deah of lv
g h
g
ae

o popely evl
a all. A lea
 hey ae

o evl

he
ame
pofou
d
e

e a
he delbeae u

g aay of he moal age
 fom God,
h
La
 E
d a
d Ulmae Good, 
a
evl. Fo he phy
al evl


de
 o 
dvdual be
g

he u
ve
e a
be
o o
ly foe
ee
by
God bu aeped a
d appoved,
o o
peak, by H
Wll, a

ub
ev
g he
ealzao
of he oal phy
al good hh He ll

he u
ve
e; a
d
a

ubod
ae o, a
d 

ume
al 
he ealzao
of, he moal good
of ma
k
d: fo  
obvou
ha 
he all-
e de
g

of Povde
e
phy
al evl

uh a
pa
,
uffe
g, povey, hu
ge, e., may be he
mea

of ealz
g moal good
e

. Bu moal evl, o
he o
ay, o, 

he la
guage of Ch
a
eh
, _S
_he o

ou
a
d delbeae
ejeo
, by he fee age
, of God ho 
h
ue goodhough

ee

aly foe
ee
by God 
he u
ve
e He ha
aually ho
e
o
eae, a
d heefoe
ee

aly pemed by he Wll of God
o

eque
ly o
h
foe
gh, a

o have bee
a
d a

o be 
e
ded o
appoved by Hm. Hav
g eaed ma
a

ellge
 a
d fee be
g, God
ould
o ll o deee he evol of he lae fom Hm
elf. He love

e

e
ally H
o
I
f
e Good
e

: ee He o de
fy H
Wll h
ha of he



g eaue He ould a he
ame me be u

g aay
fom H
Good
e

: hh 
a o
ado

em
. God, heefoe, doe

o ll moal evl. Nevehele

He pem
: ohe
e  ould

o
ou, fo
oh
g a
happe
aga

 H
ll. He ha
pemed  by
feely hoo

g o eae h
aual u
ve
e of ao
al a
d fee
eaue
, foe
ee
g ha hey ould

. He ould have eaed 

ead a
u
ve
e of
uh be
g
, 
hh hee ould be
o moal evl: fo He 

om
poe
. I
o he
ee
of H
eleo
 

o gve
o f
e
m
d
o pe
eae. Ak
oledg
g H
I
f
e Poe, W
dom a
d Good
e

,
ealz
g a he
ame me he f
e
e

of ou faule
, e
ee ho
ao
al  
o bo do
ou m
d
h S. Paul a
d o exlam 

admao
: O, he deph of he he
of he 
dom a
d of he k
oledge
of God! Ho 
ompehe

ble ae H
judgme

, a
d ho u

eahable H

ay
!(192)
If  be objeed ha God
pem

o
of moal evl 
he u
ve
e 

eally he au
e of h
evl, a
d make
God Hm
elf e
po

ble fo


a
d 
o

eque
e
, a
a
faoy a

e 

o fa o
eek. I 

ab
oluely 
ompable h God
I
f
e Sa
y ha He be
e
po

ble fo

a
d 
o

eque
e
. Fo he
e he fee ll of he
eaue 
_alo
e_ e
po

ble. The eao
of 
ellge
 be
g
,
e
doed h he poe _feely_ o love, ho
ou a
d
eve God, 
he mo

mavellou
of all God
ok
. Fee ll 
he
oble
 e
dome
 of a
eaue of God, a
 
al
o he mo
 my
eou
. Ma
, ho by h


ellge
e ha
he poe o k
o God a
h
Supeme Good, ha
by h

ll he poe _feely_ o e
d oad
God a
d aa
o he po

e

o

of God a
h
La
 E
d. I

o fa a
ma



, _.e._ k
o
gly,
delbeaely, a
d feely volae
he e
de
y of h

aue oad
God
by u

g aay fom Hm, he a
d he alo
e 
e
po

ble fo he
o

eque
e
, beau
e he ha
he poe o aompl
h ha he k
o
o be
God
de
g

h
egad, a
d o be h
ue de

y a
d pah o
happ
e

_vz._ ha he e
d oad
u
o
h God a
d he po

e

o
of
Goda
d he delbeaely fal
o make u
e of h
poe. Suh falue a
d

o

eque
e
ae, heefoe, h
o
; hey leave ab
oluely u
ouhed
a
d u
a

aled he I
f
e Good
e

a
d Be
evole
e of God
ee
al
de
g

h
egad.
I

hola
 fom, he objeo

popo
ed a
d a

eed 
h
ay:
The au
e of a au
e 
he au
e of he lae
effe
; bu God 
he
au
e of ma
, a
d


he lae
effe; heefoe God 
he au
e
of

. Tha he au
e of a _
o
-fee_ au
e 
he au
e of he
lae
effe
, e adm. Tha he au
e of a _fee_ au
e 
he au
e
of he lae
effe
, a lea
 
he
e

e of pem
g, hou

e
d
g a
d be
g heeby e
po

ble fo hem, e al
o adm; alay


he
e

e of 
e
d
g a
d be
g e
po

ble fo hem, e de
y. The
_po
ve effe
_ of a eaed fee au
e, ho
e hh he lae by

aue 

e
ded o podue, ae abuable o he f
 au
e o
eao of he fee au
e, a
d he f
 au
e 
e
po

ble fo hem.
The _falue
_ of he eaed fee au
e o podue 

aual a
d

e
ded effe
, ae
o due o he f
 au
e; hey ae
o 
e
ded
by,
o abuable o, he f
 au
e;
o 
he lae e
po

ble
fo hem: hey ae falue
of he fee au
e, a
d of hm alo
e; hough
hey ae of ou
e foe
ee
a
d pemed by he f
 au
e o eao of
he lae. The m
o pem

of he objeo
e may adm
o
g,
hoeve, ha



o popely alled a
effe, bu ahe, lke all
evl, a _falue_ of
ome au
e o podue 
o

aual effe:  
a
defe, a defe
y, a pvao
of
ome effe, of
ome po
ve
pefeo
, hh he au
e ough
aually o have podued. The
o
lu
o
of he objeo
e d

gu
h, aod
g o ou a
aly

of
he majo pem

: God 
he au
e of


he pope
e

e of

e
d
g , ll
g , a
d podu
g  po
vely, a
d be
g heeby
e
po

ble fo , e de
y; God 
he au
e of


he mpope
e

e
of meely foe
ee
g a
d pem
g  a

de
al o he u
ve
e He
ha
aually lled a
d deeed o eae, a
ou
g 
h
u
ve
e
by he delbeae falue of fee eaue
o o
fom hem
elve
o H

pmay be
evole
 
e
o

he egad, e may ga
. A
d h

Dv
e pem

o
of moal evl a

o be
ho
o be 
ompable h
a
y abue of he Dv
y.
I
he peed
g paagaph
e have baely oul
ed he p
ple
o

hh he phlo
ophy of he
m mee
he poblem of evl 

he u
ve
e.
We have made a

umpo

hh  
he pope pov
e of Naual
Theology o e
abl
h, a
d o ha depame
 al
o e mu
 efe he


ude
 fo a fulle eame
 of he hole poblem.
I ha
bee

omeme

ad ha he fa of evl 
he u
ve
e 
o
e of
he geae
 dffule
aga

 he phlo
ophy of The
m. If h
be
ake
a
a



uao
ha he fa of evl a
be bee expla
edo
eve
a
ell expla
edo
he a

umpo

of Pa
he
m, Mo

m,
Ma
he
m, o a
y ohe phlo
ophy be
de
The
m,  
fal
e. If 
mea


mply ha 
aou

g fo evlhehe o
p
ple
of The
m
o of a
y ohe phlo
ophye ae foed o a
e
ome ulmae que
o



he fae of hh e mu
 adm ha e have ome upo
deph
of
my
ey hh he plumme of ou f
e 
elle
a

o hope o fahom,

h

e

e 
deed he a

eo
may be admed. A
e have aleady
h
ed, eve
h he lgh of he Ch
a
Revelao
o ad he
aual
lgh of ea
o
, hee ae que
o

abou he ex
e
e a
d au
e
of
evl hh e may 
deed a
k, bu hh e a

o adequaely a

e. A
d
obvou
ly h


o efleo
o
The
m; hle 
he lae
y
em e
have a moe 
ellgble a
d moe
a
faoy a
aly

of he poblem
ha

a
y ohe phlo
ophy.
Amo
g he a
e
 Geek phlo
ophe
e f
d mae () entfe
wt v cuum or empty sp ce ( ) a
d h
aga
h

oh
g
e

o
o
-be
g ( ). Nw he 
ep f evi is he

ep f smehi

eaivea privai
f d
ess, f bei
 r
reai. Ths he
i
f evi ame  be assiaed wih he
i
f
maer. B he aer
i
is
 rea
eaive: i is ha f a
frmess, hai, disrder maeria. Whe
, herefre, he Ma
ihea
s
aribed a psiive reai  evi
eivi
 i as he pri
ipe f
a disrder, srife, disrdhe
ara rearded a maer as he
expressi
f he Evi Pri
ipe, i
ppsii
 s r spiri as he
expressi
f he Gd Pri
ipe. The Ma
ihea
phisph f Evi, a
prd f he ear Chrisia
e
ries, has bee
perhaps he ms

abe aer
aive r riva ssem e

ered b he heisi phisph
f Evi; fr,
wihsa
di
 he fa
asi haraer f is 
epi
s
Ma
iheism has reappeared a
d reassered isef repeaed i
afer aes,

ab i
he Midde Aes. Is prevae
e has prbab bee
de par 
he 
ree
ess f is 
epi
s a
d par  a erai
a
a whih
he bear wards he 
epi
f Saa
a
d he fae
a
es i

Chrisia
he. I
bh ases here is he idea f 
fi, srife,
aive a
d irre
iabe ppsii
, bewee
he pwers f d a
d he
pwers f evi. B here he a
a e
ds. Whie i
Chrisia
he
he pwers f evi are prese
ed as esse
ia sbje  he Divi
e
Om
ipe
e, i
Ma
iheism he _Evi Pri
ipe_, he _Smmm Mam_, is
prese
ed as a spreme, sef-exise
 pri
ipe, esse
ia i
depe
de

f, as we as a
a
isi , he Divi
e Bei
, he _Smmm B
m_.
Si
e here is evi i
he wrd, a
d si
e d a

 be he ase f
evis he Ma
ihea
s arehere ms be a
esse
ia Evi Firs
Pri
ipe whih is he primar sre f a he evi i
he 
iverse,
js as here is a
esse
ia Gd Firs Pri
ipe whih is he sre
f a is d. Everhi
 i
he wrda
d espeia ma
himsef,
mpsed f maer a
d spiriis he expressi
a
d he heare f he
esse
ia 
fi whih is bei
 ever waed bewee
he Gd a
d he Evi
Pri
ipe. Everwhere hrh he 
iverse we fi
d his daism:
bewee
spiri a
d maer, ih a
d dark
ess, rder a
d disrder, e.
Frm a ha has bee
said i
he preedi
 pararaphs reardi
 he

are a
d ases f d a
d evi he errrs f he Ma
ihea
ssem wi
be appare
. Is f
dame
a errr is he 
epi
f evi as a psiive
e
i. Evi is
 a psiive e
i b a privai
. A
d his bei
 s,
is rre
e des
 dema
d a psiive effiie
 ase. I a
be
expai
ed a
d a
ed fr b defiie
 r faire i
ases ha are

d i
s far frh as he are peraive, b whih have
 a he
d
ess heir
are dema
ds. A
d we have see
hw his faire f
reaed ases is permied b he Firs Case, a
d is
 i
mpaibe
wih His I
fi
ie Gd
ess.
Besides, he Ma
ihea

epi
f a
i
ri
sia evi ase, a ase
ha d prde 
 evi, is a 
radii
i
erms. The perai

f a
effiie
 ase ms have a psiive erm: i
s far as he erm is
psiive i is d: a
d herefre is ase a

 have bee
a
evi, b ms have bee
i
sme deree d. The ria pi
 i
he
whe debae is his, ha we a

 
eive evi as a psiive e
i.
B di
 s we re
der reai 
i
eiibe; we desr he f
dame
a
r
d f a
 pssibe disi
i
bewee
d a
d evi, hs re
deri

bh aike i

eivabe. Eah is rreaive  he her; we a



dersa
d he 
e wih he her. If, herefre, d
ess is a
aspe
f rea bei
, a
d ide
ia wih reai, evi ms be a
eai
f
reai, a
d a

 be made i
eiibe herwise.
Fi
a, he Ma
ihea

epi
f w Spreme, Sef-Exise
,
I
depe
de
 Firs Pri
ipes is bvis sef-
radir. As is shw

i
Nara The, Bei
 ha is abse Spreme, Sef-Exise
 a
d
Neessar, ms b Is ver
are be 
iqe: here d
 be w sh
Bei
s.

CHAPTER II. REALITY AND THE BEAUTIFUL.

53. THE CONCEPT OF THE BEAUTIFUL FROM THE STANDPOINT OF EXPERIENCE.Trh
a
d Gd
ess haraerize reai as reaed  i
ee a
d  wi.
I
imae 

eed wih hese

i
s is ha f _he beaif_,(193)
whih we ms
w brief a
ase. The fi
e ars have fr heir mm

bje he expressi

f he beaif; a
d he deparme
 f phisph
whih sdies hese, he phisph f he beaif, is e
era
desribed as _Esheis_.(194)
Like he erms re a
d d, he erm beaif (; _pulhum_,
_beau_, _
h
_, e.) 
famla o all. To eah a def
o
of  le
u
que
o
expee
e. Wha do me
ommo
ly mea
he
, fae o fae h

ome obje o eve
, hey
ay Tha 
_beauful_? They gve expe

o

o h

e
me
 
he pe
e
e of a
aual obje
uh a
a la
d
ape
eveal
g mou
a
a
d valley, lake a
d ve a
d pla
a
d oodla
d,
glo
g 
he golde
glo of he
e
g
u
; o 
o
empla
g
ome
ok of apa

g,
ulpue, aheue, mu
: he _S

e
Mado

a_, he _Mo
e
_ of Mhael A

gelo, he Cahedal of _Noe Dame_, a

ympho
y of Beehove
; o
ome leay ma
epee: Shake
peae

_Mabeh_, o Da
e
_Dv
a Commeda_, o Nema

_Apologa_, o
Kkham
_K
ok
ago_. Thee ae ohe h
g
he
gh of hh aou
e

o
uh
e
me
, bu leave
u

dffee
; a
d ohe
aga
, he
gh
of hh aou
e
a o
ay
e
me
, o hh e gve expe

o
by
de
g
a
g hem a
ommo
plae, vulga, ugly. The
e
me
 

que
o

o
e of _plea
ue_ a
d _appoval_, o of _d
plea
ue_ a
d
_d
appoval_.
He
e he f
 fa o
oe 
ha _he beauful plea
e
u
_, _affe

u
ageeably_, hle he ommo
plae o he ugly leave
u

dffee
 o
_d
plea
e
u
_, _affe
u
d
ageeably_.

Bu he _good_ plea
e
u
a

d affe
u
ageeably. I
he beauful,
he
, de
al h he good? No; he eally beauful 

deed alay

good; bu
o eveyh
g ha 
good 
beauful;
o 
he plea
ue
aou
ed by he good de
al h ha aou
ed by he beauful. Whaeve
gafe
he loe
e

e appee
a
d au
e
oga
 plea
ue 

good_bo
um deleable_bu 

o deemed beauful. Ea
g a
d d
k
g,
e

g a
d
leep
g, 
dulg
g he
e

e
of ouh, a
e a
d
mell, ae

deed plea
ue-gv
g, bu hey have
o a

oao
h he beauful.
Aga
, he defomed hld may be he obje of he mohe

peal love.
Bu he plea
ue hu
deved fom he good, a
he obje of appee,
de
e, delgh, 

o e
he plea
ue. If e exam
e he lae, he
plea
ue au
ed by he beauful, e
hall f
d ha  

vaably a
plea
ue peula o _k
oledge_, o appehe

o
, peepo
,
mag
ao
, o
emplao
. He
e 
he doma
of he
e

e
e de
g
ae
a
beauful o
ly ha a
be appehe
ded by he o hghe
e

e
,

ee
g a
d hea
g, hh appoxmae mo
 lo
ely o 
elle, a
d
hh, hough he mag
ao
, fu

h daa fo _o
emplao
_ o he

elle.(195) Th
b
g
u
o S. Thoma

def
o
: _Pulha
u

qu v
a plae
_: ho
e h
g
ae beauful ho
e v
o
plea
e

u
,hee v
o

o be u
de
ood 
he de
e

e of appehe

o
,
o
emplao
.(196) The o
e of a beauful deme

e, o of a
a
ea
ue, may deve plea
ue fom h

e

e of popeo
hp; bu h


d

 fom he e
he plea
ue ha may be deved by ohe
,
o
le

ha
by hm
elf, fom he mee o
emplao
of ho
e obje
.
E
he plea
ue 
d

ee
ed: 
p
g
fom he mee
_o
emplao
_ of a
obje a
beauful; heea
he plea
ue ha

p
g
fom he obje a
good 
a

ee
ed plea
ue, a plea
ue of
_po

e

o
_. No doub he beauful 
eally de
al h he good,
hough logally d

 fom he lae.(197) The _odel
e

_ hh e

hall
ee o be he hef objeve fao of beauy, 

elf a
pefeo
of he obje, a
d a

uh 
good a
d de
able. He
e he
beauful a
be a
obje of 
ee
ed de
e, bu o
ly u
de he a
pe
of good
e

. U
de he a
pe of beauy he obje a
exe o
ly he
d

ee
ed e
he plea
ue of o
emplao
.
Bu f e
he plea
ue 
deved fom o
emplao
, 

o h

de
fy
g he beauful h he ue, a
d
uppla

g a by
e
e?
Aga
he o

eque
e 

adm

ble; fo
o evey plea
ue peula o
k
oledge 
e
he. Thee 
a plea
ue 

eek
g a
d d
ove
g
uh, he plea
ue hh gafe
he
hola a
d he
e

: he
plea
ue of he phlolog
 
a
g oo
a
d paadgm
, of he hem


a
aly

g u

avouy maeal
, of he a
aom
 
explo
g he

uue of oga

m
_po
 moem_. Bu he
e h
g
ae
o
beauful. The eally beauful 

deed alay
ue, bu  a

o
ell be ma
a
ed ha all uh
ae beauful. Tha o a
d o ae
fou 
a uh, bu 
ha 
ellgble
e

e ould  be
ad o be
beauful?
Bu be
de
he
e
f plea
ue of
eek
g a
d d
ove
g uh,
hee 
he plea
ue hh ome
fom o
empla
g he obje k
o
. The
am of he
e

 o
hola 
_o d
ove uh_; ha of he a


, hough k
oledge o deve omplae
y fom _o
empla
g he h
g
k
o
_. The
e

 o
hola may be al
o a
a
, o _ve ve
a_;
bu he
e


plea
ue pope le
exlu
vely 
d
ove
g uh,
heea
ha of he a
 le

o
empla
g
omeh
g appehe
ded,
mag
ed, o
eved. The a
 

o o
e
ed a
o hehe ha he
appehe
d

eal o mag
ay, ea
o o
jeual, bu o
ly a
o
hehe o ho fa he o
emplao
of  ll aou
e emoo

of
plea
ue, admao
, e
hu
a
m; hle he
e



upeme o
e


o k
o h
g
, o
ee hem a
hey ae. The beauful, he
, 
alay

ue, ehe a
aual o a
deal; bu he ue 
beauful o
ly he


o eveal

elf a
o aou
e 
u
he de
e o
ee o hea , o
o

de , o dell a
d e
 
he o
emplao
of .
Le u
aep, he
, he _a po
eo_ def
o
of he beauful a

_ha hh  
plea

g o o
emplae_; a
d befoe 
qu
g ha
pe
ely 
, o
he
de of he obje, ha make
he lae
ageeable o o
emplae, le u
exam
e he
ubjeve fao
a
d
o
do

of e
he expee
e.
54. THE ESTHETIC SENTIMENT. APPREHENSION OF THE BEAUTIFUL.We have
ee

ha boh he appeve a

d he og
ve faule
ae 
volved 
he
expee
e of he beauful. Co
emplao
mple
og
o
; hle he
feel
g of plea
ue, omplae
y,
a
fao
, delgh, 
dae
he
opeao
of appee o ll. No he
oo
of he beauful, lke all
ou
oo

, ha

og


e

e expee
e; bu  

elf

upa
e

ble fo  
eahed by ab
ao
, a
d h

above he
poe of
e

e faule
. Whle he
e

e
a
d mag
ao
appehe
d
beauful obje
he 
elle aa

o ha hh make
he
e obje

beauful, o he _ao pulh_ ha 

hem. No doub, he
peepo
o mag
ao
of beauful h
g
, 

aue o 
a,
podue
a


aual o
oma
, a feel
g of
e

ble plea
ue. To
hea
ee mu
, o gaze o
he blla
 vaey of olou

a
gogeou
pagea
, o 
hale delou
pefume
, o a
e
avouy
d
he
all
uh expee
e
gafy he
e

e
. Bu he feel
g of
uh

e

ble plea
ue 
que d

 fom he e
he e
joyme
 hh
aompa
e
he appehe

o
of he beauful; hough  
vey ofe

o
fou
ded h he lae. Suh _
e
e
_
ae
of ageeable feel
g
ae ma
ly _pa

ve_, oga
, phy
ologal; hle e
he e
joyme
,
he appeao
of he beauful, 
em
e
ly _ave_. I mple
he
opeao
of a
upa
e

ble fauly, he _
ellge
e_;  aompa
e

he eao
of he lae fauly o
ome appopae objeve
mulu

of he
upa
e

ble, 
ellgble ode, o
ome dea emboded 
he
obje of
e

e.(198)
The eo of o
fou
d
g e
he e
joyme
 h mee oga

e

e
plea
ue 
haae
 of all
e


 a
d maeal
 phlo
ophe
. A
feel
g of
e

ble gafao
alay
,
o doub, aompa
e
ou
appehe

o
a
d e
joyme
 of he beauful; fo ju
 a
ma


o a
meely
e
e
 be
g
o
ehe 
he a pue 
ellge
e. Beauy eahe

hm hough he
e

e
; 
ode ha a
obje be beauful fo hm, 

ode ha he o

emplao
of  may plea
e hm,  mu
 be 
hamo
y
h h
hole _huma
_
aue, hh 
boh
e
e
 a
d 
ellge
; 
mu
, heefoe, be ageeable o he
e

e
a
d mag
ao
a
ell a
o
he 
elle. Thee 

o pa

g, e
M. Bu
ee,(199) bu

hould be above all a joy o he eye!
o mu
 bu
hould be a delgh fo
he ea! Ohe
e e
hall
o appehe
d 
 he ode, pefeo
,
hamo
y, adapao
o huma

aue, heeby e po
ou
e a
obje
beauful a
d ejoe 
he o
emplao
of . A
d  
h


elleual avy ha 
popely e
he. Wha make
u
o

de a
olou beauful, e
Bo

ue,(200) 
he
ee judgme
 e
po
ou
e upo

adapao
o he eye hh  plea
e
. Beauful

ou
d
,
o
g
, ade
e
, have a
mla adapao
o he ea. To
appehe
d h
adapao
pomply a
d auaely 
ha 
de
bed a

hav
g a good ea, hough popely
peak
g h
judgme

hould be
abued o he 
elle.
Aod
g o
ome he e
he
e
me
, he appeao
a
d e
joyme

of he beauful, 
a
exlu
vely
ubjeve expee
e, a
emoo
al


ae hh ha
all 

oue
h

he o

ou

ubje, a
d hh
ha

o eal, exame
al oelave 
h
g
. Aod
g o ohe
beauy

aleady 
he exame
al ealy 
depe
de
ly of a
y
ubjeve
o
do

, a
d ha

o me
al fao


o

uo
a
a
obje of
expee
e. Boh of he
e exeme ve
ae eo
eou
. E
he plea
ue,
lke all plea
ue, 
he
aual o
oma
 of he full, odely,
omal
exe
e of he
ubje
o

ou
ave
. The
e ave
ae
alled foh by, a
d exe
ed upo
,
ome _obje_. Fo e
he plea
ue
hee mu
 be 
he obje
omeh
g he o
emplao
of hh ll
el
uh hamo
ou
exe
e of he faule
. E
he plea
ue,
heefoe, a

o be puely
ubjeve: hee mu
 be a

objeve fao


ealzao
. Bu o
he ohe ha
d h
objeve fao a

o
povoke e
he e
joyme
 
depe
de
ly of he d
po
o

of he

ubje. I mu
 be 
hamo
y h ho
e d
po
o

og
ve,
appeve, affeve, emoo
al, empeame
al
ode o evoke
uh a
me
al ve of he obje ha he o
emplao
of he lae ll au
e
e
he plea
ue. A
d  
pe
ely beau
e he
e d
po
o

, hh
ae
o vaable fom o
e 
dvdual o a
ohe, 
ge a
d olou he
me
al ve, hle h

u
deem
e
he qualy of he e
he
judgme
 a
d feel
g, ha people d
agee a
d d
pue 
em
ably abou
que
o

of beauy 
a a
d
aue. Hee
beauy dffe
fom uh.
No doub people d
pue abou he lae al
o; bu a all eve

hey
eog
ze 
objeve haae a
d he popey of a
appeal o he

depe
de
, mpe
o
al
a
dad of evde
e. No
o, hoeve, 
egad
o beauy: _De gu
bu

o
e
 d
pua
dum_: hee 

o d
pu
g abou
a
e
. The peepo
of beauy, he judgme
 ha
omeh
g 
o 

o
beauful, 
he podu of a
a of _a
e_, _.e._ of he 
dvdual


ellge
e affeed by
umeou
o
ee pe
o
al d
po
o

boh of
he
e
e
 a
d of he
pual ode,
o o
ly og
ve a
d appeve
bu empeame
al a
d emoo
al. Moeove, be
de
h
vaey 

ubjeve d
po
o

, e have o bea 
m
d he effe
of a

ulue, of edua
g he a
e. The eye a
d he ea, hh ae he o
ma
ha

el
of daa fo he 

elle, a
be made by a

g moe
delae a
d exa
g,
o ha he
ame level of e
he appeao
a

be ma
a
ed o
ly by a o

a
ly 
ea

g mea
ue of a


mulao
. F
ally, apa fom all ha a beauful obje _dely
o
vey
_ o u
fo o
emplao
, hee 

omeh
g moe hh  may
_
dely
ugge
_:  aou
e
a d

 avy of he mag
ao

heeby e fll up, 
ou o

dvdual degee a
d aod
g o ou o


epeao
, ha ha

o bee
aually
uppled 
 by
aue o
a.
All ho
e 
flue
e
aou

uffe
ly fo he
ubjevy a
d
vaably of he e
he
e
me
, fo dve
y of a
 a
e

amo
g 
dvdual
, fo he a

o

of fa
ho

a fom epoh o
epoh a
d fom ae o ae. Bu  mu

o be o
luded ha he

ubjeve fao

he o

uo
of he beauful ae holly
ha
geable. S
e huma

aue 
fu
dame
ally he
ame 
all me
hee
ough o be a fu
d of e
he judgme

a
d plea
ue
ommo
o all;
hee ough o be 

aue a
d 
a
ome h
g
hh ae eog
zed
a
d e
joyed a
beauful by all. A
d hee ae
uh. I
mae
_of
deal_ he maxm hold
: _De gu
bu

o
d
pua
dum_. Bu hee ae
fu
dame
al e
he judgme

fo hh  doe

o hold. S
e me
have
a ommo

aue, a
d

e, a
e
hall
ee pe
e
ly, hee ae
eog
zable a
d
able objeve fao
o deem
e e
he judgme

,
hee 
a legmae fou
dao
o
hh o d
u

a
d e
abl
h
ome
e
he a
o

of u
ve
al valdy.
55. OBJECTIE FACTORS IN THE CONSTITUTION OF THE BEAUTIFUL.A
k he
a
, e
S. Augu

e,(201) hehe beauful h
g
ae

beauful beau
e hey plea
e u
, o ahe plea
e u
beau
e hey ae
beauful, a
d he ll eply u
he
a
gly ha hey plea
e u
beau
e
hey ae beauful. Wha, he

 ha make
hem beauful, a
d
o
au
e
he e
he plea
ue e expee
e 
o
empla
g hem? I
ode
ha a
obje podue plea
ue of a
y
o 
a o

ou
be
g  mu

evoke he exe
e of h
be
g
faule
; fo he o

ou
o
do

hh e de
be a
plea
ue 
alay
a eflex of o

ou
avy.
Fuhemoe, h
avy mu
 be _full_ a
d _
e

e_ a
d
_ell-odeed_: f  be exe

ve o defeve, f  be ll-egulaed,
o
gly d
bued amo
g he faule
,  ll
o have plea
ue fo 

eflex, bu ehe 
dffee
e o pa
.
He
e he obje hh evoke
he e
he plea
ue of o
emplao
mu


he _f
_ plae be _omplee_ o _pefe_ of 
k
d (46). The
u
aed
aue, he
u
ed oak, he defomed a
mal, he ppled huma

be
g, ae
o beauful. They ae a

g 
he 
egy due o he

aue.
Bu h


o e
ough. To be beauful, he obje mu
 
he _
eo
d_
plae have a ea
_lage
e

_ o amplude, a ea
gea
e

o
poe, heeby  a
a _e
egeally_ o
ou og
ve faule
a
d

mulae hem o _vgoou
_ ao
. The lle, he fl
g, he
ommo
plae, he 

g
fa
, evoke

o feel
g of admao
. The
gh
of a
mall pa
ue-feld leave
u

dffee
; bu he v
o
of va

expa

e
of meado a
d o
feld a
d oodla
d exhlaae
u
. A olleo

of pey hllok

u

ee

g, hle he oe
g

o-lad Alp
ae
mag
fe
. The mulplao
able el

o emoo
; bu he
umpha
 d
ovey a
d poof of
ome
e uh 

e
e,
ome
fa-eah
g heoem ha ope

up
e v
a
of e
eah o
hed
a
e
lgh o
lo
g famla fa
, may fll he m
d h e
a
e
of pue
e
he e
joyme
.(202) Thee 

o moal beauy 
help
g up a hld
ha ha

umbled a
d falle

he mud, bu hee 


k
g o
e

lfe o
ave he hld fom bu

g o do

g. Thee mu
, he
, be 

he obje a ea

lage
e

hh ll
eue e
egy of appeal o ou
og
ve faule
; bu h
e
egy mu

o be exe

ve,  mu

o
dazzle,  mu
 be 
popoo
o he apay of ou faule
.(203)
A _hd_ equ
e fo beauy 
ha he obje be 

elf _duly
popoo
ed_, _odely_, _ell aa
ged_. _Ode_ ge
eally may be
def
ed a
gh o pope aa
geme
. We a

ee 
h
g
a ofold
ode, _dy
am_, o ha of _
ubod
ao
_, a
d _
a_, o ha of
_o-od
ao
_: he gh aa
geme
 of mea

oad
e
d
, a
d he
gh aa
geme
 of pa

a hole, o membe

a
y
em. The fome

dae
he 
flue
e of _f
al_ au
e
a
d expe

e
pmaly he
_good
e

_ of h
g
. The lae 
deem
ed by he _fomal_ au
e
of
h
g
a
d expe

e
pmaly he _beauy_. The ode e

e
al o
beauy o




h
, ha he ma
fold a
d d

 h
g
o a

hh o
bue o  mu
 fom o
e hole. He
e ode ha
bee
def
ed
a
_u
y 
vaey_: _u
a

vaeae_; vaey be
g he maeal
au
e, a
d u
y he fomal au
e, of ode. Bu e a
appehe
d u
y 

a vaey of h
g
o
ly o
o
do
ha hey ae _aa
ged_, _.e._
ha hey
ho foh lealy o he m
d a
e of muual elao

hh
a
be ea
ly ga
ped. Why 
 ha h
g
muually elaed o o
e
a
ohe 
o
e ay make up ha e delae o be a hao jumble, hle
f elaed 
a
ohe ay e delae hem o be odely? Beau
e u
le


he
e elao

pe
e
 hem
elve

a ea
ay hey ll fal o
u
fy he ma
fold fo u
. We have a

elleual 
uo
of he

umeal
ee
; a

d of _popoo
_, hh 
equaly of
umeal
elao

. I
he doma

of mag
ude a
d mulude he m
d
aually

eek
o dee he
e popoo

. So al
o 
he doma

of
e

ble

quale
,
uh a

ou

d
a
d olou
, e have a
a
alogou

uo
of a
qualave
ee
, a
d e
aually y o dee _hamo
y_, hh 
he
gadao
of qualave elao


h

ee
. The deeo
of
_popoo
_ a
d _hamo
y_ 
a _vaey_ of h
g
plea
e
u
, beau
e e
ae hu
e
abled o ga
p he ma
fold a
exhb
g _u
y_; hle he
ab
e
e of he
e eleme

leave
u
h he d

a
fed feel
g of

omeh
g a

g. Whehe h
be beau
e ode 
h
g

he
expe

o
of a

ellge
 ll, of pupo
e a
d de
g
, a
d heefoe
all
foh ou 
ellge
 a
d volo
al avy, h 
o

eque

a
d o

aual feel
g of
a
fao
, e do
o 
que hee. Bu
ea
 
ha ode 
e

e
al o beauy, ha e
he plea
ue

p
g
o
ly fom he o
emplao
of popoo
a
d hamo
y, hh gve
u
y o vaey.(204) A
d he expla
ao
of h


o fa o
eek. Fo
he full a
d vgoou
exe
e of o
emplave avy e
eed objeve
vaey. Whaeve lak
vaey, a
d
mulae
u

o
e u
fom ma

e,
beome
mo
oo
ou
a
d au
e
_e

u_. Whle o
he ohe ha
d mee
mulply d
a
he m
d, d
pe
e
a
d eake

ae
o
, a
d
bege
fague. We mu
, heefoe, have vaey, bu vaey omb
ed
h he u
y ha ll o
e
ae a
d
u
a
ae
o
, a
d hu
all
foh he hghe
 a
d kee
e
 e
egy of 
elleual avy. He
e he
fu
o
of hyhm 
mu
, poey a
d oaoy; of ompo
o
a
d
pe
peve 
pa

g; of de
g

aheue.
The moe pefe he elao

ae hh o

ue ode, he moe
_lealy_ ll he u
y of he obje _
h
e foh_; he
e he moe fully
a
d ea
ly ll  be ga
ped, a
d he moe 
e

e he e
he plea
ue
of o
empla
g .
S. Thoma
hu

um
up he objeve o
do

of he beauful:
_
egy_ o _pefeo
_, _popoo
_ o _hamo
y_, a
d _lay_ o
_
ple
dou_.(205)
56. SOME DEFINITIONS OF THE BEAUTIFUL.A
obje 
beauful he


o
emplao
plea
e
u
; a
d h
ake
plae he
he obje, omplee
a
d e
e 

elf, po

e

e
ha ode, hamo
y, popoo
of pa
,
hh ll all foh he full a
d vgoou
exe
e of ou og
ve
avy. All h
amou

o
ay
g ha he beauy of a h
g 
he
_evelao
o ma
fe
ao
of 

aual pefeo
_.(206) Pefeo


hu
he _fou

dao
_ of beauy; he
ho
g foh of h
pefeo


ha o

ue
beauy _fomally_. Evey eal be
g ha
a
aue hh
o

ue
, a
d ave
heeby  e
d
o ealze he pupo
e of

ex
e
e. No he pefeo
of a
y
aue 
ma
fe
ed by he
popoo
of 
o

uve pa
a
d by he hamo
y of all 

ave
. He
e e
ee ha ode 
e

e
al o beauy beau
e ode

ho
foh he pefeo
of he beauful. A
obje 
beauful 
he
degee 
hh he popoo
of 
pa
a
d he hamo
y of 

ave

ho foh he pefeo
of 

aue.
Thu
,
a
g h he
ubjeve, _a po
eo_ def
o
of beauy
fom 
effe: _beauy 
ha ho
e o
emplao
plea
e
u
_e have
pa

ed o he objeve a
d
aual def
o
of beauy by 

popee
: _beauy 
he evde
 
egy, ode, popoo
a
d
hamo
y, of a
obje_a
d he
e o ha e may all he _a po_ o

y
he def
o
, hh empha
ze
he pefeo
evealed by he

a a
d dy
am ode of he h
g: _he beauy of a
obje 
he
ma
fe
ao
of 

aual pefeo
by he popoo
of 
pa
a
d
he hamo
y of 
ave
_.(207)
A fe
ample
of he ma
y def
o

ha have bee

e foh by

vaou
auho
ll

o be hou 
ee
. alle(208) def
e

beauy a
_he
ple
dou of pefeo
_. Ohe auho
def
e 
a
_he
ple
dou of ode_. The
e def
o


afe lea
e


o bevy. Beauy 
_he
ple
dou of he ue_. Th

def
o
, ommo
ly abued o Plao, bu hou ea
o
, 


adequae a
d ambguou
. Cou

(209) def
e
beauy a
_u
y 

vaey_. Th
leave
ou a

e

e
al eleme
, he _lay_ o
_lea ma
fe
ao
_ of ode. Ka
 def
e
beauy a
_he poe
a
obje po

e

e
of gv
g fee play o he mag
ao
hou
a

ge


g he la
of he u
de
a
d
g_.(210) Th
def
o

empha
ze
he

ee

ay hamo
y of he beauful h ou
og
ve faule
, a
d he fa ha he e
he
e
me
 

o apou
bu
ubje o he la
of he u

de
a
d
g. I

, hoeve, 
adequae, 
a
muh a
 om
all efee
e o
he objeve fao
of beauy.
57. CLASSIFICATIONS. THE BEAUTIFUL IN NATURE.All eal beauy 
ehe
_
aual_ o _afal_. Naual beauy 
ha hh haaeze
ha
e all he ok
of Naue o he ok
of God. Afal beauy 

he beauy of ok
of a.
Aga
, ju
 a
e a
d

gu
h he _eal_ beauy of he lae fom he
_deal_ beauy hh he huma
a
 o
eve

h
m
d a


aheype a
d exempla au
e,
o, oo, e a
d

gu
h beee
he eal
beauy of
aual h
g
a
d he deal beauy of he u
eaed
aheype

he M
d of he Dv
e A
.
We k
o ha he beauy of he huma
a

deal 

upeo o, a
d

eve fully ealzed 

, ha of he aually aheved podu of h
a.
I
he
ame ue of he
aual beauy of God
ok
? Tha he ok
of
God 
ge
eal ae beauful a

o be de
ed; H
W
dom
pead
beauy
aboad houghou H
ok
; He aa
ge
all h
g
aod
g o egh
a
d
umbe a
d mea
ue:_um po
dee,
umeo e me

ua_; H
Povde
e
d
po
e
all h
g

o
gly a
d
eely: _foe e
uave_. Bu
hle eaue
, by eveal
g he o
beauy, efle he U
eaed
beauy of God 
he pe
e degee hh He ha
lled fom all ee
y,
 a

o be
ad ha hey all ealze he beauy of he Dv

e
Exempla
aod
g o H
pmay pupo
e a
d deee. S
e hee 

phy
al a
d moal evl 
he u
ve
e,

e hee ae be
g
hh fal
o ealze he e
d
, o aa
o he pefeo
of he
aue
, 
follo
ha he
e be
g
ae
o beauful. I

o fa foh a
hey have
eal be
g, a
d he good
e

o pefeo
hh 
de
al h he
ealy,  may be admed ha all eal be
g
ae _fu
dame
ally_
beauful; fo good
e

o pefeo

he fou
dao
of beauy.(211)
Bu 

o fa a
hey fal o ealze he pefeo
due o he
aue

hey lak eve
he fou
dao
of beauy. Fuhemoe, 
ode ha a
h
g hh ha
he full pefeo
due o 

aue be _fomally_
beauful,  mu
 aually
ho foh by he lea
e

of 
popoo


a
d he hamo
y of 
ave
he ful
e

of 

aual pefeo

.
Bu hee 

o
eed o pove ha h


o u
ve
ally vefed 

aueo 
a ehe. A
d he
e e mu
 
fe ha fomal beauy 

o
a a

e
de
al abue of ealy.(212)
Real beauy may be fuhe dvded 
o _maeal_ o _
e

ble_ o
_phy
al_, a
d _
elleual_ o _
pual_. The fome eveal

elf
o hea
g,
ee
g a
d mag
ao
; he lae a
be appehe
ded o
ly by

elle; bu 
elle depe
d
fo all 
obje
o
he daa of he
mag
ao
. The beauy of
pual eale

of ou
e of a hghe,

oble a
d moe exelle
 ode ha
ha of he eale
of
e

e. The


pual beauy hh fall
dely h

huma
expee
e 
ha of
he huma

p 
elf; fom he
oul a
d 
expee
e
e a

e o
a
appehe

o
a
alogal a
d 
adequaeof he Beauy of he I
f
e
Be
g. I
he
oul 
elf e a
d

gu
h o
oue
of beauy: ha
e may all 
_
aual_ e
dome


uh a

elle a
d ll, a
d 

_moal_ d
po
o

, 
pefeo

a
d exelle
e
a
a fee,

ellge
, moal age

_vue
_. Beauy of
oul, e
peally he
moal beauy of he vuou

oul, 

ompaably moe peou
ha

beauy of body. The lae, of ou
e, lke all eal beauy 

God

eao
, ha

pope dg
y a
a
expe

o
a
d evelao
, hoeve
fa
 a
d 
adequae, of he U
eaed Beauy of he Dey. Bu 
a
muh
a
 

o 
feo o he moal beauy pope o ma
, 

elf
o fal
a
d eva
e
e
, 


flue
e o
huma
pa

o


o da
geou
o vue,
e a
u
de
a
d hy 
he Poveb
of Solomo
 
polamed o be
va
a
d deeful 
o
a
 h he moal beauy of fea
g he Lod:
_Fallax gaa e va
a e
 pulhudo; mule me

dom
um p
a
laudabu_.(213)
58. THE BEAUTIFUL IN ART. SCOPE AND FUNCTION OF THE FINE ARTS.The
expe

o
of beauy 
he am of he f
e a
. A 
ge
eal 
he
pope o
epo
of a ok o be aompl
hed: a

hl alud e
 quam
ea ao alquoum opeum fae
doum.(214) Whle he _meha
al_
a
am a he poduo
of h
g
u
eful, he _f
e_ a
am a he
poduo
of h
g
beauful, _.e._ of ok
hh by he ode,

ymmey, hamo
y,
ple
dou, e., ll gve
uh ap expe

o
o huma

deal
of
aual beauy a
o el e
he e
joyme
 
he hghe

po

ble degee. The a
, he
, mu
 be a fahful
ude
 a
d adme
of all
aual beauy;
o 
deed o am a exa epoduo
o
mao
of he lae; bu o da heefom h


pao
a
d deal
.
Eve
he mo
 beauful h
g
of
aue expe

o
ly 
adequaely he
deal beauy hh he huma
m
d may gahe fom he
udy of hem. Th

deal 
ha he a
 
eve
uggl
g o expe

, h he
eve-pe
e
 a
d ome

g o

ou

e

ha he aheveme
 of h

hghe
 effo ll fall mmea
uably
ho of gv
g adequae expe

o

o .
If eah of he h
g
of
aue ee
o holly
mple a
d 
ellgble a

o pe
e
 he
ame deal ype of beauy o all, a
d leave
o oom fo

dvdual dffee
e
of 
epeao
, hee ould be
o vaey 
he
podu
of a
 ge
u
, exep 
deed ha ould e
ul fom pefe
o mpefe exeuo
. Bu he h
g
of
aue ae omplex, a
d 
pa
a lea
 e
gmaal; hey pe
e
 dffee
 a
pe
o dffee
 m
d

a
d
ugge
 a vaey of 
epeao

; hey leave lage
ope o he
play of he mag
ao
boh a
o o
epo
of he deal 
elf a
d a

o he aa
geme
 a
d ma
pulao
of he
e

ble maeal

hh he
deal 
o f
d expe

o
. By mea

of he
e o fu
o

, _o
epo
_
a
d _expe

o
_, he ge
u
of he a

eek
o 
epe a
d ealze
fo u
deal ype
of
aual beauy.
The quale
of a ok of a, he o
do

 mu
 fulfl, ae ho
e
aleady e
umeaed 
egad o beauy ge
eally. I mu
 have u
y,
ode, popoo
of pa
;  mu
 be ue o
aue,
o 
he
e

e of
a mee opy, bu 
he
e

e of da
g 


pao
fom
aue, a
d

o help
g u
o u
de
a
d a
d appeae he beaue
of
aue;  mu

d
play a poe a
d lea
e

of expe

o
adju
ed o he apay of
he
omal m
d.
We may adda

da
g he o

exo
of a h moalyha he ok
of a mu

o be
uh a
o exe d
appoval o au
e pa
by
hok
g
a
y
omal fauly, o u


g ou
e o a
y fu
dame
al belef,


ympahy,
e
me
 o feel
g, of he huma
m
d. The o
emplao
of
he eally beauful, hehe 

aue o 
a, ough _pe
e_ o have
a
eleva
g, e

obl
g, ef

g 
flue
e o
he m
d. Bu he beauful


o he good;
o doe
he ulvao
of he f
e a

ee

aly
e
h he m
d _moally_. Fom he ehal po
 of ve a 
o
e of
ho
e 
dffee
 h
g
hh he ll a
make moally good o moally
evl. S
e ma

a moal be
g,
o huma

ee
 a
fall ou
de he
moal
phee, o lam 
depe
de
e of he moal la; a
d a 
a huma


ee
. Nehe he eao,
o he ,
o he
ude
 of a ok
of a a
lam ha he lae,
mply beau
e  
a ok of a, 

ehe moally good

o moally bad; o ha he 
h

peal elao

o  

depe
de
 of he moal la.
U
de he
peou
plea ha
e
e 

eek
g uh 

ehe
po
vely moal
o po
vely mmoal, bu ab
a
alogehe fom he
qualy of moaly,  

omeme
lamed ha, _a pa_, a 


pu
u of he beauful
hould be held o ab
a fom moal
d

o

a
d have
o o
e
fo moal good o evl. Bu 
he f

plae, hough
e
e a

uh
eek

mply he ue, a
d 
h

e

e
ab
a
fom he good a
d he evl,
ll he ma
of
e
e boh 

aqu
g a
d ommu
a
g uh 
bou
d by he moal la: he may
o,
u
de he plea ha he 
lea

g o eah
g uh, do a
yh
g _moally
o
g_, a
yh
g ha ll _fofe o e
da
ge moal eude_, hehe

hm
elf o 
ohe
. A
d 
he
eo
d plae, o
g o he dffee

elao

of uh a
d beauy o moal good
e

, e mu
 de
y he pay
o
hh he agume
 e

. Tuh appeal
o he ea
o
alo
e; beauy
appeal
o he
e

e
, he hea, he ll, he pa

o

a
d emoo

:
_Pulhum ah ad
e de
deum_. The
e

 expe

e
uh 

ab
a la
, def

o

a
d fomula
: a la of hem
y ll help he
fame o felze he
ol, o he a
ah
 o a

a


ae
oveeg

.
Bu he a
 expe

e
beauy 
o
ee fom
alulaed o povoke
emoo

of e
he e
joyme
 fom he o
emplao
of hem. No hee
ae ohe plea
ue-gv
g emoo

,
e

ual a
d a
al emoo

, he

d
m
ae exeme
 a
d u
bdled 
dulge
e of hh he moal la
o
dem

a
evl; a
d f a ok of a be of
uh a k
d ha  

dely alulaed o exe hem, he a

a
d
o
dem
ed by he
moal la, a
d ha eve
hough h
am may have bee
o gve expe

o

o beauy a
d all foh e
he e
joyme
 meely. If he pepo
dea
g

flue
e of he a

ok o
he
omal huma

dvdual be a

olao
of he lae

aue oad
ha 
evl, ha 
oppo
ed
o h
eal pefeo
, h
moal poge

, h
la
 e
d, he
ha
a

ok 

o a ok of a o uly beauful. The
e e
ul of

appeal be
g evl a
d u
healhy,  a

o be 
elf a h
g of
beauy.
A fo a

ake 
a y ha 

o
o lo
ge
ovel. Take

leally  
u
mea

g, fo a 
a mea

o a
e
dhe
expe

o
of he beauful; a
d a mea

a

uh a

o be fo

o

ake. Bu  may
g
fy ha a
hould
ub
eve
o
_ex

_ pupo
e, pofe

o
al o ulaa
; ha 
hould
be d

ee
ed; ha he a
 mu
 am a he o
epo
a
d
expe

o
of he beauful hough a d

ee
ed admao
a
d
e
hu
a
m fo he beauful. I
h

e

e he fomula expe

e

a p
ple hh 
ab
oluely ue, a
d hh a

e
he
oble
m

o
of he a
 o ma
k
d. Bu he fomula 
al
o ommo
ly
u
de
ood o lam he ema
pao
of he a
 fom he bo
d

of moaly, a
d h
feedom o o
eve a
d expe

beauy 

haeve fom
he plea
e
, hehe he
e may ad me

o vue o

ol hem o ve. Th

he pe
ou
eo o hh e

have ju
 efeed. A

d e may
o add ha h
eo
eou

o
e
o


o o
ly ehally bu al
o _a
ally_ u

ou
d.
Fo
uely a ough o be ba
ed o
uh: he a

hould
u
de
a
d huma

aue, o hh h
ok appeal
: he
hould
o
egad a
uly beauful a ok he o
emplao
of hh ll
podue a _d
od_ 
he
oul, hh ll _d
ub he gh
ode_ of he
oul
ave
, hh ll
ol he loe
faule
o evol aga

 he hghe; a
d h

ha ake

plae he
he a
 g
oe
moal eude 
he pu
u of
h
a: by de
p

g he fome he 
fal
e o he lae. He
fal
o ealze ha he ok of a mu
 be judged
o meely 

elao
o he oal _amou
_ of plea
ue  may au
e 
ho
e
ho o
emplae , bu al
o 
elao
o he _qualy_ of h

plea
ue; a
d
o meely 
elao
o e
he plea
ue, bu 

elao
o he oal effe, he hole o
ee 
flue
e of he
ok o
all he me
al faule
. He fal
o
ee ha f h

oal 
flue
e 
evl, he ok ha au
e
 a

o be good

o heefoe eally beauful.

Ae e o o
lude, he
, ha he a
 
bou
d o am
po
vely a
d alay
a podu
g a _good moal effe_ hough
h
ok? By
o mea

. E
he plea
ue 
, a
e have
ad,

dffee
. The pu
u of , hough he o
epo
a
d
expe

o
of he beauful, 
he pope a
d 


 e
d of
he f
e a
, a
d 


elf legmae
o lo
g a
 doe

o
u
ou
e o he moal la. I ha

o
eed o u
ou
e o he
moal la,
o a
 do
o hou defea
g 
o
e
d. Ou
de

pope lm
a ea
e
o be a; h

pope lm

 ha
a
oble a
d eleva
g m

o
; a
d  a

eve 
dely
bu poefully he 
ee

of uh a
d good
e

by help
g me

o
ub
ue fo he loe a

d go

e plea
ue
of
e

e he
hghe a
d pue e
he plea
ue
hh 

ue fom he
d

ee
ed o
emplao
of he beauful.

CHAPTER III. THE CATEGORIES OF BEING. SUBSTANCE AND ACCIDENT.

59. THE CONCEPTION OF ULTIMATE CATEGORIES.Hav
g exam
ed
o fa he

oo
of eal be
g 
elf, hh 
he pope
ubje-mae of
o
ology, a
d ho
e de
 o a

e
de
al
oo

hh ae oexe

ve
h ha of ealy, e mu

ex 
que 
o he vaou
mode

hh
e f
d eal be
g expe

ed, deem
ed, aualzed, a
 fall
h

ou expee
e. I
ohe od
, e mu
 exam
e he _hghe
 aegoe
of
be
g_, he _
upema ge
ea e

_. Co

deed fom he po
 of ve of
he logal aa
geme
 of ou o
ep
, eah of he
e aegoe
eveal


elf a
a pmay a
d mmedae lmao
of he exe

o
of he
a

e
de
al o
ep of eal be
g 
elf. Eah 
ulmaely d


fom he ohe

he
e

e ha
o o of hem a
be bough u
de a
y
ohe a
a ge
u
,
o a
e d
ove a
y 
emedae
oo
beee
a
y
o
e of hem a
d he
oo
of be
g 
elf. The lae
oo


o
popely a ge
u
of hh hey ould be
pee
,
o a
 be pedaed
u
voally of a
y o o moe of hem (2). Eah 

elf a
ulmae
ge
u
, a _ge
u

upemum_.
By u

g he
e
oo

a
pedae
of ou judgme

e ae e
abled o

epe h
g
, o oba
a ge
u
e f 
adequae 

gh 
o ealy;

fo e a

ume a
e
abl
hed 

he _Theoy of K
oledge_ ha all ou
u
ve
al o
ep
have eal a
d objeve valdy, ha hey gve u

eal k
oledge of he
aue of ho
e 
dvdual h
g
hh fom he
daa of ou
e

e expee
e. He
e he
udy of he aegoe
, hh 

fo Log a la

fao
of ou de
 o
ep
, beome fo Meaphy


a

quy 
o he mode
hh haaeze eal be
g.(215) By
deem

g ha he
e mode
ae, by
udy
g he haae

, by
a
g hem hough he daa of expee
e, e adva
e 
ou k
oledge
of ealy.
The mo
 dvege
 ve
have pevaled amo
g phlo
ophe
boh a
o ha
a aegoy 
o
g
fe
, a
d a
o ha o ho ma
y he eally ulmae
aegoe
ae. I
a aegoy,
uh a

ub
a
e, o qualy, o qua
y,
a mode of eal be
g evealed o he k
o
g m
d, a
mo
 a
e
 a
d
medeval phlo
ophe
hough, h A
ole a
d S. Thoma
? o 
 a
me
al mode mpo
ed o
ealy by he k
o
g m
d, a
ma
y mode

phlo
ophe
have hough, h Ka

 a
d afe hm? I 
fo he Theoy
of K
oledge o exam
e h
ale
ave;
o
hall e d
u

 hee
exep vey 
de
ally: fo e
hall a

ume a
ue he boad
affmave a

e o he f
 ale
ave. Tha 
o
ay, e
hall hold
ha he m
d 
able o
ee, 
he aegoe
ge
eally, mode
of
ealy; eje
g he
epal o
lu
o

of Ka

m 
egad o he
poe of he Speulave Rea
o
, a
d he p
ple
hh lead o
uh
o
lu
o

.
A
o he
umbe a
d la

fao
of he ulmae aegoe
, h


obvou
ly a que
o
hh a

o be
eled _a po_ by a
y
uh puely
deduve a
aly

of he o
ep of be
g a
Hegel
eem
o have
aemped; bu o
ly _a po
eo_, _.e._ by a
a
aly

of expee
e 


boade

e

e a

lud
g Mae a
d Sp, Naue a
d M
d, Obje
a
d Subje of Though, a
d eve
he Poe

of Though 
elf. Moeove
 

o
up

g ha h he poge

of phlo
ophal efleo
,
ea
aegoe

hould have bee

uded moe deeply a ea
epoh

ha
eve pevou
ly, ha hey
hould have bee
d
oveed
o o
peak,

o of ou
e 
he
e

e ha he huma
m
d had
o bee
pevou
ly 

po

e

o
of hem, bu 
he
e

e ha beau
e of lo
e
udy hey
fu

hed he m
d h a he a
d fulle poe of expla

g h
g
.
I 

aual, oo, ha h
oa

of phlo
ophy, 
e
 o
a
g he
moveme
 of phlo
oph hough,
hould be 
l
ed o ove-empha
ze he
_elavy_ of he aegoe
, a
egad
he expla

g valuehe
elavy o he ge
eal me
aly of a ea
epoh o peod.(216) Bu
hee 
da
ge hee of o
fou
d
g ea
lage _hypoheal
o
epo

_, hh ae fou
d o yeld valuable e
ul
a a ea

age

he poge

of he
e
e
,(217) h he aegoe
pope of eal
be
g. If he m
d of ma

of he
ame
aue 
all me
, f 
o
emplae
he
ame u
ve
e, f  
apable of eah
g uh abou
h
u
ve
eeal uh hh 
mmuable,he
he mode
of be
g hh
 appehe
d

he u
ve
e, a
d by o
ev
g hh  
epe
he
lae, mu
 be 
he u
ve
e a
k
o
, a
d mu
 be hee mmuably.
Nohee do e f
d h
moe lealy llu
aed ha

he fuly of
he
umeou
aemp
of mode
phlo
ophe
o de
y he ealy of he
aegoy of _
ub
a
e_, a
d o gve a

ellgble 
epeao
of
expee
e hou he ad of h
aegoy. We
hall
ee ha a
a mae
of fa  
mpo

ble o de
y _
hough_ he ealy of
ub
a
e, o
o h
k a all hou , hoeve phlo
ophe
may have de
ed  _

la
guage_,o hough ha hey de
ed  he
hey o
ly ejeed
ome
eo
eou
o 
defe

ble mea

g of he em.
60. THE ARISTOTELIAN CATEGORIES.The f
 palpable d

o
e ob
eve

he daa of expee
e 
ha beee
_
ub
a
e_ a
d _ade
_. We

mgh
aually a
k, e
A
ole,(218) hehe ha 

g
fed by

uh em
a
_alk
g_, _

g_, _feel
g ell_, 
a be
g (o
ealy).... A
d e mgh be 
l
ed o doub , fo
o

gle o
e of

uh a
_ex

by 
elf_ ( ),
o o
e of hem 


epaable fom _
ub
a
e_ (); it i
r ther t _him wh_ w k
, r

it
, r ee
we, th t we give the n me  _being_. Th t which i

being _in the prim ry me ning  thi
term_, being _
impy nd
b
utey_, nd nt merey being _in
cert in
en
e_, r with
qu iic tin, i

ub
t nce
.(219) B ma
ifes, hh sbsa
es, r wha i
rdi
ar
a
ae we a pers
s a
d hi
sme
, a
imas, pa
s, mi
erasare
rea bei
s i
he fes se
se,
everheess sii
, waki
, hi
ki
,
wii
, a
d ai
s e
era, are as 
dbed reaiies; s  are
saes a
d qaiies; a
d shape, size, psre, e. A
d e we d

fi
d a
 f hese aer aa exisi
 i
hemseves ike sbsa
es,
b 
 depe
de
 
sbsa
es
pers
s r hi
s ha hi
k r
wak r a, r are are r sma, h r d, r have sme shape r
qai. The are a _aide
s_, i

radisi
i
 sbsa
e.
I is far easier  disi
ish bewee
aide
s a
d sbsa
e ha

ive a
exhasive is f he imae a
d irredibe asses f he
frmer. Arise e
meraes _
i
e_: a
i (), Qualy (),
Reai
( ), Acton (), Passi
(), Where (), Wn
(), Postu (), Extern l Conton or St te (). Mh has
bee
said fr a
d aai
s he exhasive haraer f his assifiai
.
Shasis e
era have defe
ded a
d adped i. S. Thmas ives he
fwi
 reas
ed a
asis f i:(220) Si
e aide
s ma be
disi
ished b heir reai
s  sbsa
e, we see ha sme affe
sbsa
es i
ri
sia, hers exri
sia; a
d i
he frmer ase,
eiher abse r reaive: if reaive we have he aer f
_reai
_; if abse we have eiher _qa
i_ r _qai_ ardi

as he aide
 affes he sbsa
e b reas
f he maer, r he
frm, f he aer. Wha affes a
d de
mi
aes a sbsa
e
exri
sia des s eiher as a ase, r as a measre, r herwise. If
as a ase, he sbsa
e is eiher _sfferi
_ ai
, r _ai
_
isef; if as a measre, i de
mi
aes he sbje as i
_ime_, r i

_pae_, r i
reard  he reaive psii
f is pars, is
_psre_, i
he pae whih i pies. Fi
a, if he aide

affes he sbsa
e exri
sia, hh
 as ase r as measre,
b 
 as haraerizi
 is exer
a 
dii
a
d immediae
srr
di
s, as whe
we desribe a ma
as hed r armed, we have he
aer f _
dii
_.
I mih be said ha a his is mre i
e
is ha

vi
i
; b i
is easier  riiize Arises is ha
 ses a beer 
e. I

addii
 wha we have said f i esewhere,(221) a few remarks wi be
sffiie
 i
he prese
 
ex.
Sme f he aeries, as bei
 f esser impra
e, we ma rea
i
ide
a whe
deai
 wih he mre impra
 
es. _Ubi_, _a
d_,
a
d _Sis_, eher wih he a
asis f r
i
s f Spae a
d Time,
fa
ara i
 he e
era dri
e f _a
i_. The fi
a
aer, , hwever i
erpreed,(222) ma be referred  _ai_,
_a
i_, r _Reai
_.
A mre seris pi
 fr 
siderai
is he fa, e
era admied b
shasis,(223) ha 
e a
d he same rea aide
 ma be
 
differe
 aeries if we reard i frm differe
 sa
dpi
s. _Ai_
a
d _passi_ are 
e a
d he same _ms_ r ha
e, rearded i
reai

 he ae
 a
d  he effe, respeive. _Pae_, i
reard  he

aed bd be

s  he aer _bi_, whereabs; i
reard  he
ai
 bd i is a
aspe f he aers _qa
i_. _Reai
_, as
we sha see, is prbab
 a
e
i rea disi
 frm is
f
dai
qai, qa
i, r asai. The reas
aeed fr his
paria abse
e f rea disi
i
bewee
he Ariseia
aeries is
ha he were hh  primari frm a ia pi
 f viewha f
prediai
.(224) A
d he reas
is a saisfar 
e, fr rea
disi
i
is

eessar fr diversi f prediai
. The
, where
he are
 rea disi
 e
iies hese aeries are a eas
aspes s f
dame
a disi
 a
d ma irredibe ha eah f
hem is i
deed a _smmm e
s_ immediae 
der he 
ep f bei
 i

e
era.
I seems a bd aim  make fr a
 sheme f aeries, ha i
exhass a he k
w
mdes f reai. We fe
experie
e bjes f
hh whih seem a firs sih i
apabe f redi
 a
 f
Arises _sprema e
era_. B mre mare refei
wi awas
e
abe s  fi
d a pae fr hem. I
rder ha a
 exri
si
de
mi
ai
f a sbsa
e 
sie a aer disi
 frm hse
e
meraed, i ms affe he sbsa
e _i
sme rea_ wa disi
 frm
a
 f hse
i
e; a
d i ms mrever _be
 a mere mpex r
areae_ f w r mre f he aer. He
e de
mi
ai
s whih bjes
derive frm he fa ha he are erms f me
a aiviies whih are
rea imma
e
, _ai
es_ _i
e
i
aes_,de
mi
ai
s sh as
bei
 k
w
, bei
 ved,
eiher be
  he aer f _passi_
prper,
r d he 
sie a
 disi
 aer. The are _e
ia
rai
is_, ia reai
s. Aai
, whie effiie
 asai
resves
isef i
 he aeries f _ai_ a
d _passi_, he asai
f
fi
a, frma a
d maeria ases a

 be referred  hese aeries,

b
eiher des i 
sie a

ew aer. The i
fe
e f a fi
a
ase 
siss i

hi
 mre ha
is bei
 a d whih is he erm f
appeie r desire. The asai
f he frma ase 
siss i
is
frma 
sii
 he effe: i is awas eiher a sbsa
ia r a

aide
a frm, a
d s ms be referred  he aeries f sbsa
e,
r qai, r qa
i. Simiar maeria asai 
siss i
his
ha he maer is a paria 
siive pri
ipe f he mpsie
bei
; a
d i herefre refers s  he aer f sbsa
e. I ma be

ed, , ha he 

ia pri
ipes f a mpsie bei
sh as
prima maer a
d sbsa
ia frmsi
e he are hemseves
 prper
bei
s, b 
 pri
ipes f bei
, are said  be
 eah  is
prper aer,
 frma b 
 refere
ia,
 _frmaier_ b

 _rediv_. Fi
a, he varis prperies ha are assi
ed 
erai
aide
s hemseves are eiher ia reai
s (sh as

havi
 a 
rar r bei
 a measre), r rea reai
s, r i
ri
si
mdes f he aide
 isef (as whe
a qai is said  have a erai

i
e
si); b i
a ases where he are
 mere ia e
iies
he wi be f
d  me 
der 
e r her f he Ariseia

aeries.
The rea bei
 whih is hs deermi
ed i
 he spreme mdes r
aeries f sbsa
e a
d aide
s is, f rse, bei
 
sidered
_sbsa
ia_ as _esse
ia_ (wheher pssibe r aa), a
d

mere bei
 ha is aa exise
, _exise
ia_ bei
, i
he
_pariipia_ se
se. Frhermre, i is primari fi
ie r reaed bei

ha is s deermi
ed. The I
fi
ie Bei
 is abve he aeries,
_sper_-sbsa
ia. I is bease sbsa
e is he ms perfe f he
aeries, a
d bease he I
fi
ie Bei
 verifies i
Himsef i
a

i
mprehe
sib perfe ma

er a he perfei

s f sbsa
e, ha we
speak f Him as a sbsa
e: rememberi
 awas ha hese esse
ia
fi
ie hma

eps are  be prediaed f Him 
 _a
aia_ (2,

5).
I ma be i
qired wheher aide
 is a e
s whih shd be
prediaed _
iva_ f he
i
e Ariseia
aeries as speies? r
is he 
ep f aide
 
 _a
aia_, s ha hese
i
e
aeries wd be eah a _smmm e
s_ i
he sri se
se, _i.e._ a

imae a
d immediae deermi
ai
f he 
ep f bei
 isef? We
have see
aread ha he 
ep f bei
 as appied  sbsa
e
a
d aide
 is a
aia (2). S, , i is a
aia as appied 
he varis aeries f aide
s. Fr he haraerisi
e f
aide
, ha f affei
, i
heri
 i
a sbje, a
sare be
said  be verified i
he same wa, 
iva, f he varis ki
ds
f aide
s; i is herefre mre prbab rre
  reard
aide
 as a e
s prper, b  
eive eah ki
d f aide
 as a
_smmm e
s_ mi
 immediae 
der he ra
se
de
a 
ep f
bei
.
61. THE PHENOMENIST ATTACK ON THE TRADITIONAL DOCTRINE OF
SUBSTANCE.Passi

w  he qesi
f he exise
e a
d
are f
sbsa
es, a
d heir reai
 aide
s, we sha fi
d evide
es f
mis
dersa
di
s  whih ma
 phisphia errrs ma be asribed a
eas i
par. I is a fair mm

e
i
ha he disi
i

bewee
sbsa
e a
d aide
 is rea a r
dess disi
i
; ha we
have experie
e mere f ra
sie
 eve
s r happe
i
s, i
er
a a
d
exer
a, wih reai
s f exise
e r seqe
e bewee
hem; ha i
is a
isi
 sppse, 
deri
 hese, a
i
er, abidi
 basis
aed sbsa
e; ha his a
be a bes b a seess
ame fr eah
f he ei
s f exer
a a
d i
er
a appeara
es whih make p r
a experie
e f he er wrd a
d f r w
mi
ds. This is he
e
era psii
f _phe
me
iss_. Wha d  k
w f sbsa
e, he
ask s, exep ha i is a
i
deermi
ae a
d 
k
w
smehi


deri
 phe
me
a? A
d eve
if  d prve is exise
e, wha
wd i avai , si
e i
is
are i is, a
d ms remai
, 
k
w
?
N db he mi
d
ara sppses his smehi
 
deri

phe
me
a; b i is a mere me
a fii
he reai f whih a

 be
prved, a
d he
are f whih is admied, eve
b sme wh beieve i

is rea exise

e,  be 
k
wabe.
Nw here a
be
 db ab he spreme impra
e f his qesi
:
a paries are pre e
era areed ha 
he rea r fiiis
haraer f sbsa
e he ver exise
e f e
i
e meaphsis i
he
radii
a se
se depe
ds. A
d a firs sih he pssibii f sh a

rvers as he prese
 
e seems ver sra
e. Is i redibe, asks
Merier,(225) ha hi
kers f he firs rder, ike Hme, Mi, Spe
er,
Ka
, W
d, Pase
, Lir, Tai
e, shd have faied  re
ize he
sbsa
ia haraer f hi
s, a
d f he _E_ r Sef? Ms he

have see
ha he were pai
 hemseves i
pe
rev aai
s s
d
mm
se
se? A
d 
he her ha
d is i ike ha he e
is f
Arise d have bee
dped b he
ave isi
whih phe
me
iss
ms ia asribe  him? Or ha a hse si
ere a
d ear
es
eahers wh adped a
d preserved i
shasi phisph fr e
ries
he peripaei disi
i
bewee
sbsa
e a
d aide
s shd have
bee
a er asra i
i
erprei
 a
eeme
ar fa f mm

se
se?
There ms have bee
mis
dersa
di
s, pssib 
bh sides, a
d mh
wase f arme
 i
refi
 himeras. Le s e
deavr  fi
d  wha
he are a
d hw he rada arse.
Phe
me
ism has had is rii
i
he _Ideaism_ whih 
fi
es he hma

mi
d  a k
wede f is w
saes, praimi
 he 
k
wabii f
a
 reai her ha
hese; a
d i
he _Psiivism_ whih admis he
reai 
 f ha whih fas dire wihi
exer
a a
d i
er
a
se
se experie
e. Desares did
 de
 he sbsa
iai f he s,

r eve
f bdies; b his ideais her f k
wede re
dered sspe
a i
frmai
derived b his dedive, _a priri_ mehd f reas
i

frm sppsed i

ae ideas, reardi

 he
are a
d prperies f bdies.
Lke rejeed he i

aism f Desares, asribi

  se
se experie
e a
psiive re i
he frmai
f r ideas, a
d prvi
 
sive ha
we have
 sh i
iive a
d dedive derived k
wede f rea
sbsa
es as Desares 
e
ded fr.(226) Lke himsef did
 de
 he
exise
e f sbsa
es,(227) a
 mre ha
Desares. B 
fr
ae
he prp
ded he misake
assmpi
f Ideaism, ha he mi
d a
k
w

 is w
saes; a
d as he errr f hi
ki
 ha bease we have

 a
i
iive i
sih i
 he speifi
are f i
divida sbsa
es
we a
k
w
hi
 a a hrh a
 ha

e ab heir
are: a
d he
ahered frm his aer errr a e
era
i
r defi
ii
f
sbsa
e whih is a disi
 deparre frm wha Arise a
d he
medieva shasis had radii
a 
dersd b sbsa
e. Fr Lke
sbsa
e is mere a sppsed, b 
k
w
, sppr fr aide
s.(228)
Sei
  wih hese w
i
sha a bjes f k
wede ms be
saes r phases f mi
d, a
d ha maeria sbsa
e is a sppsed, b

k
w
a
d 
k
wabe, sbsram f he qaiies reveaed  r mi
ds
i
he press f se
se perepi
i was eas fr Berkee  sppr b
pasibe arme
s his de
ia f he reai f a
 sh hi
s as
maeria sbsa
es. A
d i was js as eas, if smewha mre adais,

he par f Hme  are qie ia ha if he sppsed b

k
wabe sbsa
ia sbsram f exer
a se
se phe
me
a is isr,
s ikewise is he sppsed sbsa
ia _E_ whih is hh  
derie
a
d sppr he i
er
a phe
me
a f 
sis
ess.
Hmes rejei
f sbsa
e is appare
 mpee a
d abse, a
d is
s i
erpreed b ma
 f his disipes. B a hrh-i
 phe
me
ism
is i
reai impssibe;
 phisphers have ever seeded i
hi
ki

 a
i
eiibe her f hi
s wih he 
eps f maer, a
d
spiri, a
d hi
s, a
d he E r Sef, hwever he ma have
ried  dispe
se wih hem; a
d hese are 
eps f sbsa
es. He
e
here are hse wh db ha Hme was seris i
his eabrae reas
i

awa f sbsa
es. The fa is ha Hme reas
ed awa sbsa
e 

i
he se
se f a

k
wabe sbsram f phe
me
a, a
d
 i
he
se
se f a smehi
 ha exiss i
isef.(229) S far frm de
i
 he
exise
e f e
iies ha exis i
hemseves, he seems  have
mipied hese be
d he wides dreams f a previs phisphers
_b sbsa
iaizi
 aide
s_.(230) Wha he des a i
 db is he
apai f he hma
mi
d  aai
 a k
wede f he speifi

ares f sh e
iies; a
d eve
here he arme
s f phe
me
ism
srike he fase Caresia
her f k
wede, raher ha
he sber a
d
mderae eahi
s f shasiism reardi
 he
are a
d imiai
s
f r k
wede f sbsa
es.
62. THE SCHOLASTIC IEW OF OUR KNOWLEDGE IN REGARD TO THE EXISTENCE AND
NATURE OF SUBSTANCES.Wha, he
, are hese aer eahi
s? Tha we have
a dire, i
eea i
sih i
 he speifi esse
e r
are f a
rprea sbsa
e sh as d, simiar  r i
sih i
 he absra
esse
e f a ria
e? B
 mea
s; Lke was qie rih i
rejei
 he
Caresia
aim  i
ii
s whih were sppsed  ied p a
k
wede f hi
s b mahemaia, _i.e._ dedive, _a priri_
reas
i
. The shasi eahi
 is brief as fws:
Firs, as reards r k
wede f he _exise
e_ f sbsa
es, a
d he

ma

er i
whih we bai
r 
ep f sbsa
e. We e his 
ep
frm rprea sbsa
es, a
d aferwards app i  spiria
sbsa
es; s ha r k
wede f he frmer is immediae 
 i
he
reaive se
se f bei
 prir  he aer,
 i
he se
se ha i is a
dire i
ii
f he
ares f rprea sbsa
es. We have
 sh
dire i
sih i
 heir
ares. B r 
ep f hem as aa
exisi
 is as immediae i
he se
se ha _a firs_ we _sp
a
es_

eive _ever_ bje whih mes befre r 
sis
ess _as smehi

exisi
 i
isef_. The hid apprehe
ds eah separae sima
 f is
se
se perepi
resisa
e, r, s
d, e.as a his r a ha,
_i.e._ as a separae smehi
, exisi
 here i
isef; i
her wrds
i apprehe
ds a reaiies as sbsa
es:
, f rse, ha he hid
has e a
 refex k
wede f wha a sbsa
e is, b 
k
wi
 i
appies  a reaiies a firs he 
ep whih i 
dbed
pssesses smehi
 exisi
 i
isef. I ikewise apprehe
ds eah sh
reai as 
e r 
divided i
isef, a
d as disi
 frm her
hi
s. Sh is he hids immediae, dire, a
d impii idea f
sbsa
e. B if we are  beieve Hme, wha is re f he hid
remai
s re f he ma
: fr he aer, , ever perepi
is a
sbsa
e, a
d ever disi
 par f a perepi
a disi

sbsa
e.(231) Nhi
, hwever, d be mre ma
ifes a varia
e
wih he fas. Fr as reas
is deveped a
d refeive a
asis
preeds, he hid ms 
dbed reaizes ha
 everhi
 ha
fas wihi
is experie
e has he haraer f a smehi
 exisi
 i

isef a
d disi
 frm her hi
s. Waki
, aki
, a
d
ai
s e
era, i apprehe
ds as reaiies,as reaiies whih,
hwever, d _
_ exis i
hemseves, b i
her bei
s, i
he
bei
s ha wak a
d ak a
d a. A
d hese aer bei
s i si
apprehe
ds as exisi
 i
hemseves, a
d as hs differi
 frm he
frmer, whih exis
 i
hemseves b i
her hi
s. Ths he
hid mes i
 pssessi
f he
i
f aide
, a
d f he
frher
i
f sbsa
e as smehi
 whih
 
 exiss i
isef
(, _en
in
e
ub
i
ten
_), but which i



upprt r
ubject 
ccident
(, _sbsa
s_, _sbsare_).(232) Nr, i
deed,
eed
he hids reas
be ver hih deveped i
rder  reaize ha if
experie
e fr
ishes i wih bei
s ha d
 exis i
hemseves,
here ms as be bei
s whih d exis i
hemseves: ha if
aide
s exis a a i wd be 
i
eiibe a
d sef-
radir
 de
 he exise
e f sbsa
es.
He
e, _i
he rder f r experie
e_ he firs, _impii_
i
f
sbsa
e is ha f smehi
 exisi
 i
isef (); the ir
t
_expicit_ ntin  it, hwever, i
th t by which it i
pprehended


ubject r
upprt  ccident
(, _sb-sare_, _sbsa
ia_);
he
b refei
we  bak  he _expii_
i
f i as smehi

exisi
 i
isef. I
he _rea_ r _
ia_ rder he perfei

f exisi
 i
isef is ma
ifes mre f
dame
a ha
ha f
sppri
 aide
s. I is i
arda
e wih a
ara aw f a
ae
ha we
ame hi
s afer he prperies whereb he revea hemseves 
s, raher ha
b
ames impi
 wha is mre f
dame
a a
d esse
ia
i
hem. T exis i
isef is a
abse perfei
, esse
ia 
sbsa
e;  sppr aide
s is 
 a reaive perfei
;
r a

we k
w _a priri_ b a sbsa
e mih perhaps exis wih a

aide
s: we 
 k
w ha aide
s a

 exis wih sme

sbsa
e, r sbje, r pwer whih wi ssai
hem i
exise
e.
Ca
sbsa
e be apprehe
ded b he se
ses, r 
 b i
ee? Sri
speaki
, 
 b i
ee: i is
eiher a prper bje f a
 
e
se
se, sh as ase, r r, r s
d;
r a mm
bje f mre
ha

e se
se, as exe
si
is wih reard  sih a
d h: i is, i

shasi a
ae,
 a _se
sibie per se_,
 isef a
bje f
se
se k
wede, b 
 _se
sibie per aide
s_, _i.e._ i ma be
said  be aide
a a
bje f se
se bease f is 
j
i

wih aide
s whih are he prper bjes f se
se: s ha whe
he
se
ses pereive aide
s wha he are rea pereivi
 is he sbsa
e
affeed b he aide
s. B sri a
d prper i is b i
ee we

sis rasp ha whih i
he reai is he sbsa
e: whie he
exer
a a
d i
er
a se
se faies make s aware f varis qaiies,
aiviies, r her aide
s exer
a  he sef, r f varis
saes a
d 
dii
s f he sef, he i
eewhih is a fa f
he same s as he se
se faiesmakes s sima
es aware f
rprea sbsa
es aa exisi
 side s, r f he 
ree
sbsa
e f he e r sef, exisi
 a
d reveai
 isef  s i

a
d hrh is 
sis aiviies, as he sbsa
ia, abidi
, a
d

ifi
 sbje a
d pri
ipe f hese 
sis aiviies.
Ths, he
, d we aai
 he 
ep f sbsa
e i
e
era,  a

vii
f he 
ree aa exise
e f ha mde f bei
 he
esse
ia haraerisi f whih is  exis i
isef.
I
he
ex pae, hw d we reah a k
wede f he _speifi
ares_
f sbsa
es?(233) Wha is he haraer, a
d wha are he imiai
s,
f sh k
wede? Here, espeia, he ver ais a
d mderae
dri
e f shasiism has bee
are mis
eived a
d misreprese
ed
b phe
me
iss a
d hers. Ab he speifi
are f sbsa
es we
k
w js preise wha heir aide
s revea  sha a
d
 mre. We
have
 i
iive i
sih i
 heir
ares; a r k
wede here is
absraive a
d disrsive. As are heir prperiesheir aiviies,
e
eries, qaiies, a
d a heir aide
ss is heir
are. We k
w
f he aer js wha we a
i
fer frm he frmer. _Operari seqir
esse_; we have
 her ke ha
his  k
wede f heir speifi

ares. We have experie

e f hem 
 hrh heir prperies, heir
behavir, heir aiviies; a
asis f his experie
e, _a pseriri_
reas
i
 frm i, i
dive e
eraizai
based p
i: sh are he

 ha

es we pssess, he 

 mea
s a r dispsa, fr reahi
 a
k
wede f heir
ares.
63. PHENOMENIST DIFFICULTIES AGAINST THIS IEW. ITS INDICATION.Nw he
phe
me
is wi rea ra
 a his. His 
 bjei
wi be ha
sh k
wede f sbsa
e is rea
 k
wede a a; r ha, sh
as i is, i is seess. B sre he k
wede ha his mde f bei

_rea exiss_, ha here _is_ a mde f bei
 whih exiss i
isef,
is aread sme k
wede, a
d e
i
e k
wede, f sbsa
e? N db,
he i
frmai

ai
ed i
his ver i
deermi
ae a
d e
eri 
ep
is imperfe; b he
i is 
 a sari
 pi
, a
a-impra

sari
 pi
, hwever; fr
 
 is i perfeibe b ever iem f
k
wede we aher frm experie
e perfes i, whereas wih i he
i
ee is parased i
is aemp  i
erpre experie
e: i
deed s
i
dispe
sabe is his 
ep f sbsa
e  he hma
mi
d ha, as we
have see
,
 phispher has ever bee
rea abe  dispe
se wih i.
Whe
phe
me
iss sa ha wha _we_ a mi
d is 
 a b
de f
perepi
s a
d ideas; whe
he speak f he fw f eve
s, whih is
_rseves_, f whih _we_ are 
sis,(234) he ver a
ae he
hemseves make se f ries  aai
s heir prfessed phe
me
ism. Fr
wh speak f we, rseves, e., if here be
 we r rseves
her ha
he perepi
s, ideas, eve
s, e., referred ?
Of rse he expa
ai
f his sra
e aide 
he par f hese
phisphers is simpe e
h; he have a wr
 
epi
f sbsa
e
a
d f he reai
f aide
s here; he appear  imai
e ha

ardi
  he radii
a eahi

hi
 f a we a
disver ab
aide
sr, as he prefer  erm hem, phe
me
aa
pssib hrw
a
 ih p
he
are f sbsa
e: as if he re f phe
me
a were
 ver p a
d 
ea frm s sme sr f i

er re (whih he a

sbsa
e), a
d
 raher  revea  s he
are f ha bei
,
exisi
 i
isef, f whih hese phe
me
a are he prperies a
d
ma
ifesai
s.
The de
ia f sbsa
e eads i
eviab  he sbsa
iaizi
 f
aide
s. I is pssibe ha he ma

er i
whih sme shasis have
spke
f aide
s has faiiaed his errr.(235) A
hw he errr is

e ha eads i
eviab  
radii
s i
hh isef. Mi, fr
i
sa
e, fwi
  he arbirar psaes f sbjeivism a
d
phe
me
ism, fi
a a
ased a reai i
 prese
 se
sai
s f he
i
divida 
sis
ess, _ps_ perma
e
 pssibiiies f se
sai
s.
Nw, 
sise
 wih he ideaisi psae, hese perma
e

pssibiiies shd be
hi
 mre ha
a erai

e, ri
,
qai f he prese
 se
sai
, de  he fa ha his has i
i,
as par a
d pare f isef, feei
s f memr a
d expeai
; i
whih
ase he prese
 se
sai
, ake
i
is 
ree f
ess, wd be he
se reai, a
d wd exis i
isef. This sipsism is he imae
ia isse f sbjeive ideaism, a
d i is a sffiie
 _redi ad
absrdm_ f he whe ssem. Or ese,  evade his isse, he
perma
e
 pssibiiies are sppsed  be smehi
 rea her ha

he prese
 se
sai
s. I
whih ase we ms ask wha Mi a
mea
b
a perma
e
 _pssibii_. Wheher i be sbjeive r bjeive
pssibii, i is presmab, ardi
  Mis hh, sme prper
r appre
a
e f he i
divida 
sis
ess, _i.e._ a qai prper
 a sbje r sbsa
e.(236) B  de
 ha he 
sis sbje is
a sbsa
e, a
d a he same ime  
e
d ha i is a perma
e

_pssibii_ f se
sai
, _i.e._ ha i has prperies whih a

apperai

  a sbsa
e, is simp  hd wha is
sef-
radir.
Afer hese expa
ai
s i wi be sffiie
 mere  sae frma
he prf ha sbsa
es rea exis. I is exeedi
 simpe, a
d is
fre wi be appreiaed frm a ha has bee
said s far: Whaever we
beme aware f as exisi
 a a ms exis eiher i
isef, r b
bei
 ssai
ed, sppred i
exise
e, i
smehi
 ese i
whih i
i
heres. If i exiss i
isef i is a sbsa
e; if
 i is a

aide
, a
d he
he smehi
 ese whih spprs i, ms i
r

eiher exis i
isef r i
smehi
 ese. B si
e a
i
fi
ie reress
i
hi
s exisi

 i
hemseves b i
her hi
s is impssibe, we
are fred  admi he reai f a mde f bei
 whih exiss i

isef_viz._ sbsa
e.
Or, aai
, we are fred  admi he rea exise
e f aide
sr, if
 wi, phe
me
a r appeara
es_i.e._ f reaiies r mdes f
bei
 whse
are is ma
ifes  mdif r qaif i
sme wa r her
sme sbje i
whih he i
here. Ca
we 
eive a _sae_ whih is

a sae f smehi
? a phe
me

r appeara
e whih is
 a

appeara
e f smehi
? a via a whih is
 a
a f a ivi

hi
? a se
sai
, hh, desire, emi
, 
ess f sme 
sis
bei
 ha fees, hi
ks, desires, experie
es he emi
? N; a
d
herefre si
e sh aide
a mdes f bei
 rea exis, here exiss
as he sbsa
ia mde f bei
 i
whih he i
here.
A
d he experie
ed reaiies whih verif his
i
f sbsa
e as
he mde f bei
 whih exiss i
isef, are ma
ifes _
 
e b
ma
ifd_. I
divida pers
s a
d hi
sme
, a
imas, pa
sare a

s ma
 rea a
d
meria disi
 sbsa
es (38). S, , are he
imae i
divida eeme
s i
he i
ra
i 
iverse, whaever hese ma
be (31). Nr des he 
iversa i
erai
f hese i
dividas 

e
a
her, r heir ma
ifd frms f i
erdepe
de
e 

e a
her
hrh he rse f heir ever-ha
i
 exise
e a
d aiviies,
i
erfere i
a
 wa wih he sbsa
iai f he mde f bei
 f eah.
These ma reai
s f a srs, ver rea a
d aa as he

dbed are, 
 
sie he 
iverse a _sms_, hs e
dwi
 i
wih _
i f rder_, b
 wih _
i f sbsa
e_ (27).
Le s
w mee he bjei
f Hme: ha here is
 sbsa
ia s
disi
 frm is as, ha i is 
 he sm-a f he as, eah f
hese bei
 a sbsa
e. The bjei
has bee
repeaed i
he
meaphria a
ae i
whih Hxe a
d Tai
e speak f he s, he
ivi
 s, as
hi
 mre ha
a _repbi_ f 
sis saes, r he
mveme
 f a _mi
s sheaf_ e. A
d Lke a
d Berkee had aread

e
ded ha a
appe r a
ra
e is
hi
 mre ha
a ei
r
sm-a f se
sibe qaiies, s ha if we 
eive hese remved
here is
hi
 ef, fr be
d hese here was
hi
 here.
Nw we admi ha he sbsa
e f he s is
 _adeqae_ disi

frm is as, r he sbsa
e f he appe r ra
e frm is qaiies.
As a maer f fa we
ever experie
e sbsa
e apar frm aide
s r
aide
s apar frm sbsa
e;(237) we d
 k
w wheher here exiss,
r eve
wheher here a
exis, a reaed sbsa
e devid f a
aide
s;
r a
we k
w, frm he ih f reas
a
e, wheher a

aide
s d exis apar frm sbsa
e.(238) We have, herefre,

r
d i

ara experie
e fr dem
srai
 sh a
_adeqae_ rea
disi
i
(38) bewee
sbsa
e a
d aide
s as wd i
vve he
separabii f he aer frm he frmer. B ha he as f he s
are s ma
 rea disi
 e
iies, eah exisi
 i
isef, eah
herefre a sbsa
e, s ha he erm s is mere a ie we ive
 heir sm-a; a
d simiar he erms appe a
d ra
e mere
ies f ei
s f qaiies eah f whih wd be a
e
i
exisi
 i
isef a
d rea disi
 frm he hers, eah i
her
wrds a sbsa
e,his we e
ire de
. We reard i as er

reas
abe f phe
me
iss hs  mip sbsa
es. Or 
e
i

is ha he i
divida s r mi
d is 
e sbsa
e, a
d ha i is
_paria_ a
d _rea_, hh _
 adeqae_, disi
 frm he
varis 
sis as, saes, presses, f
i
s, whih are erai

hemseves rea e
iies,e
iies, hwever, he reai f whih is
depe
de
 
ha f he s, e
iies whih his depe
de
 r i
heri

mde f bei
 marks ff as disi
 i
heir
are, a
d i
apabe f
a ide
ifiai
wih ha her

-i
heri
 r sbsisi
 mde f
bei
 whih haraerizes he sbsa
e f he s.
We a

 hep hi
ki
 ha his phe
me
is de
ia f sbsa
e, wih
is 
seqe
 i
eviabe sbsa
iaizai
f aide
s, is are de
 a misake
ma

er f reardi
 he 
ree exisi
 bje as a mere
meha
ia b
de f disi
 a
d i
depe
de
 absrai
s. Ever aspe
f i is me
a isaed frm he hers a
d hed apar as a

impressi
, a
idea, e. The
he bje is sppsed  be

sied b, a
d  
sis f, a sm-a f hese separae
eeme
s, i
eraed eher b sme sr f me
a hemisr. The
aemp is
ex made  a
 fr r a 
sis experie
e f
reai b a
mber f pri
ipes r aws f wha is k
w
as assiai

f ideas. A
d phe
me
iss disrse ear
ed ab hese aws i

appare
 bivi
f he fa ha b de
i
 he reai f a

sbsa
ia, abidi
, sef-ide
ia s, disi
 frm he ra
sie


sis saes f he passi
 mme
, he have ef  f a
 he


 reai apabe f assiai
 a
 me
a saes, r maki
 me
a
ife a a i
eiibe. O
e he s is rearded mere as a series f

sis saes, r a sream f 
sis
ess, r a sessi
f
pses f 
iive 
sis
ess, sh eeme
ar fas as memr,

i f 
sis
ess, he feei
 f pers
a ide
i a
d pers
a
resp
sibii, beme abse i
expiabe.(239)
Experie
e, herefre, des revea  s he rea exise
e f sbsa
es,
f hi
s ha exis i
hemseves, a
d ikewise he reai f her
mdes f bei
 whih have heir aai 
 b i
heri
 i
he
sbsa
es whih he affe. A sbsa
e, sas S. Thmas, is a hi

whse
are i is  exis
 i
a
her, whereas a
aide
 is a hi

whse
are i is  exis i
a
her.(240) Ever 
ree bei
 ha
fas wihi
r experie
ea ma
, a
ak, a
appefr
ishes s wih he
daa f hese w 
eps: he bei
 exisi
 i
isef, he sbsa
e;
a
d se
d, is aide
s. The frmer 
ep mprises 


siive pri
ipes whih we see  be _esse
ia_  ha sr f
bei
: he maeria, he veeaive, he se
ie
, he rai
a pri
ipe,
i
a ma
, r his s a
d his bd; he maeria pri
ipe a
d he frma
r via pri
ipe i
a
appe. The aer 
ep, ha f aide
s,
mprises 
 hse haraerisis f he hi
 whih are
 db rea,
b whih d
 
sie he esse
e f he bei
, whih a
ha
e r
be abse
 wih i
vvi
 he desri
f ha esse
e. A

i
eea a
asis f r experie
e e
abes sa
d, as we have
remarked abve, i a
e e
abes s disi
ish bewee
hese w
asses f bjeive 
eps, he 
ep f he pri
ipes ha are
esse
ia  he sbsa
e r bei
 ha exiss i
isef, a
d he 
ep
f he aribes ha are aide
a  his bei
; a
d experie
e a
e
e
abes s, b sdi
 he aer rp, he aide
s f he bei
,
wheher
ara separabe r
ara i
separabe frm he aer, 
i
fer frm hse aide
s whaever we a
k
w ab he frmer rp,
ab he pri
ipes ha 
sie he speifi
are f he pariar
ki
d f sbsa
e ha ma be 
der i
vesiai
.
I ma, perhaps, be red aai
s a his, ha experie
e des _
_
warra
 r pai
 a _rea_ disi
i
bewee
he e
iies we desribe
as aide
s a
d hse whih we aim  be 
siive f he
sbsa
e, r hi
 whih exiss i
isef; ha a he e
iies
wih exepi
, whih we apprehe
d b disi
 
eps i
a
 
ree
exisi
 bei
 sh as a ma
, a
ak, r a
appe, are 
 
e a
d he
same i
divida reai ked a 
der differe
 aspes; ha he
disi
i
bewee
hem is 
 a ia r me
a disi
i
; ha we
separae i
hh wha is 
e i
reai bease we reard eah aspe
i
he absra a
d apar frm he hers; ha  sppse i
a
 sh

ree bei
 he exise
e f w disi
 mdes f reai_viz._ a
reai ha exiss i
isef, a
d her reaiies i
heri
 i
his
aeris simp  make he misake f ra
sferri
  he rea rder f

ree hi
s wha we fi
d i
he ia rder f 
epa
absrai
s.
This bjei
, whih as fr seris 
siderai
, eads  a
differe
 
si
frm he previs bjei
. I sess he

si
,
 ha sbsa
es are 
rea, b ha aide
s are 
rea.
Eve
if i were vaid i wd eave 
hed he exise
e f
sbsa
es. We hpe  mee i saisfari b esabishi
 prese

he exise
e f aide
s rea disi
 frm he sbsa
es i
whih
he i
here. Whie he bjei
draws ae
i
 he impra
 rh
ha disi
i
s re
ized i
he 
epa rder are
 awas rea,
i erai
 des
 prve ha a aide
s are 
 me
a disi

aspes f sbsa
e. Fr sre a ma
s hhs, vii
s, feei
s,

emi
s, his 
sis saes e
era, ha
i
 as he d frm mme

 mme
, are
 rea ide
ia wih he ma
himsef wh 
i
es 
exis hrh his i
essa
 ha
e; e he are reaiies, appeari

a
d disappeari
 a
d havi
 a heir aai i
him, whie he persiss
as a
aa bei
 exisi
 i
himsef.
64. ERRONEOUS IEWS ON THE NATURE OF SUBSTANCE.If we fai  remember
ha he
i
f sbsa
e, as a bei
 exisi
 i
isef a
d
sppri
 he aide
s whih affe i, is a ms absra a
d e
eri

i
; if we ra
sfer i i
his absra 
dii
 he rea rder; if
we imai
e ha he 
ree i
divida sbsa
es whih aa exis i

he rea rder mere verif his wides

i
a
d are devid f a
frher 
e
; ha he pssess i
hemseves
 frher rih
ess f
reai; if we fre ha aa sbsa
es, i
a he varie f heir

ares, as maeria, r ivi

, r se
ie
, r rai
a a
d spiria,
are i
deed f, vibra
, papiai
 wih ma
ifd a
d diversified
reai; if we rb hem f a his perfei
r ae i i
heir
aide
s as 
sidered apar frm hemseves,we are ike  frm ver
err
es
i
s bh f sbsa
es a
d f aide
s, a
d f heir rea
reai
s  
e a
her. I wi hep s  frm arae 
eps f
hem, 
eps rea warra
ed b experie
e, if we exami
e brief sme
f he mre remarkabe mis
epi
s f sbsa
e ha have a 
e ime
r her ai
ed rre
.
(_a_) Sbsa
e is
 a 
ree re 
whih 
ree aide
s are
sperimpsed, r a sr f ker
e f whih he frm he ri
d. Sh a wa
f 
eivi
 hem is as miseadi
 as i is rde a
d maeria. N db
he a
ae whih, fr wa
 f beer, we have  emp i
reard 
sbsa
e a
d aide
s, sess fa
ies f ha ki
d: we speak f
sbsa
e sppri
, ssai
i
 aide
s, a
d f hese as sppred
b, a
d i
heri
 i
he frmer. B his des
 rea si
if a

jxapsii
r sperpsii
f 
ree e
iies. The sbsa
e is a
sbje deermi
abe b is varis aide
s; hese are aaizai
s f
is pe
iai; is reai
 hem is he reai
f he pe
ia 
he aa, f a maeria r deermi
abe sbje  frma r
deermi
i
 pri
ipes. B he appeara
e r disappeara
e f aide
s

ever akes pae i

he same 
ree sbje: b heir variai
s he

ree sbje is ha
ed: a a
 i
sa
 he sbsa
e affeed b is
aide
s is 
e i
divida 
ree bei
 (27), a
d he i
eviabe res
f a
 mdifiai
i
hem is ha his i
divida, 
ree bei
 is
ha
ed, is
 
er he same. N db, i preserves is sbsa
ia
ide
i hrh aide
a ha
e, b
 is 
ree ide
i,ha
is  sa,
 wh. This is he haraerisi f ever fi
ie bei
,
sbje  ha
e a
d exisi
 i
ime: i has he aai f is bei
,

 _a sim_, b 

 rada, sessive (10). Frm his, ,
we see ha ahh sbsa
e is a mre perfe mde f bei
 ha

aide
bease he frmer exiss i
isef whie he aer has is
aai 
 i
smehi
 ese,
everheess, reaed, fi
ie sbsa
e
is a mde f bei
 whih is isef imperfe, a
d perfeibe b
aide
s: a
her israi
f he rh ha a reaed perfei

is 
 reaive,
 abse. T he
i
f i
here
e we sha
rer
i


exi
wih r reame
 f aide
s (65).
(_b_) Aai
, sbsa
e is wr
 
eived as a
_i
er_ sbsram

deri
 aide
s. This fase
i
appears  have rii
aed wih
Desares: he 
eived he w rea asses f reaed sbsa
es,
maer a
d spiri, as esse
ia i
er. Fr him, maer is simp a _res
exe
sa_; exe
si
i
hree dime
si
s 
sies is esse
e, a
d
exe
si
is f rse i
er: a mi
is ive
 maer a
d 
served
i
i b Gd. Spiri r s is simp a _res ia
s_, a bei
 whse

esse
e is hh; b i
hi
ki
 spiri  is passive, fr i simp
reeives ideas as wax des he impress f a sea. Na, eve
whe
s r
spiri wis i is rea i
er r passive, fr Gd ps a is vii
s
i
 i.(241) Frm hese err
es 
epi
s he earier disipes f
Desares k he bvis sep frward i
 Oasi
aism; a
d  hem
ikewise ma be raed he 
vii
f ma
 
emprar phisphers
ha he hma
sa bei
 ha is s emi
e
 via a
d aivea


pssib be a sbsa
e:
eiher i
deed d i be, if sbsa
e were
a
hi
 ike wha Desares 
eived i  be. The Germa
phisphers,
W
d a
d Pase
, fr exampe, are ha he s a

 be a sbsa
e.
B whe
we i
qire wha he mea
b sbsa
e, wha d we fi
d? Tha
wih hem he 
ep f sbsa
e appies 
  he _rprea_

iverse, where i prper si
ifies he ams whih are he abse
perma
e
 sbsram, qaiaive a
d qa
iaive 
ha
eabe, f
a rprea reai.(242) N w
der he wd are ha he s is

 a sbsa
e!
N aa exisi
 sbsa
e is i
er. Wha is re, hwever, is his,
ha whe
we 
eive a bei
 as a sbsa
e, whe
we hi
k f i 
der
he absra 
ep f sbsa
e, we f rse absra frm is 
ree
exise
e as a
aive ae
; i
her wrds we 
sider i
 frm he
_d
ami_, b frm he _sai_ aspe,
 as i is i
he 
ree, b
as 
sii
 a
bje f absra hh: a
d s he errr f
Desares seems  have bee
ha aread referred ,he misake f
ra
sferri
  he rea rder 
dii
s ha bai

 i
he ia
rder.
(__) T he Caresia

epi
f sbsa
es as i
er e
iies e
dwed

 wih mi
s mm
iaed  hem _ab exra_, he meha
ia r
amis 
epi
f reai, as i is aed, Leib
iz ppsed he her
exreme 
epi
f sbsa
es as _esse
ia aive e
iies_. Fr him
sbsa
e is a
_e
s prdim vi ae
di_: aivi is he f
dame
a
e
i
he 
ep f sbsa
e. These esse
ia aive e
iies he

eived as bei
 a _simpe_ a
d _
exe
ded_, he rprea
 ess
ha
he spiria 
es. A
d he ave hem he ie f _m
ads_. I is


eessar fr r prese

 prpse   i
 a
 deais f his
i
e
is d
ami her f he 
iverse as a vas ssem f hese m
ads.
We
eed 
 remark ha whie mbai
 he her f i
er sbsa
es he
himsef erred i
he ppsie exreme. He 
eived ever m
ad as e
dwed
esse
ia wih aive e
de
 r effr whih is
ever wih is
effe,a
exsive _imma
e
_ effe, hwever, whih is he 
sa

res f 
sa
 imma
e
 ai
: fr he de
ied he pssibii f
ra
siive aivi, _ai ra
sie
s_; a
d he 
eived he imma
e

aivi f he m
ad as bei
 i
is
are _perepive_,(243) ha is 
sa, _
iive_ r _represe
aive_, i
he se
se ha eah m
ad, hh
wrap p i
isef, dress a
d wi
dwess, if we ma s desribe i,

everheess mirrrs mre r ess i

haive, vae, r ear, a
her m
ads, a
d is hs isef a mi
iare f he whe 
iverse, a
mirsm f he marsm. Apar frm he fa
if
ess f his whe
ssem, a fa
if
ess whih is, hwever, perhaps mre appare
 ha
rea,
his 
epi
f sbsa
e is mh ess bjei
abe ha
ha f
Desares. Fr as a maer f fa ever i
divida, aa exisi

sbsa
e is e
dwed wih a
i
er
a direive e
de
 wards sme erm
 be reaized r aai
ed b is aiviies. Ever sbsa
e has a
ra
se
de
a reai
 he perai
s whih are
ara  i, a
d
whereb i e
ds  reaize he prpse f is bei
. B
everheess
sbsa
e shd
 be defi
ed b ai
, fr a ai
f reaed
sbsa
es is a
aide
,
 a sbsa
e;
r eve
b is ra
se
de
a
reai
 ai
, fr whe
we 
eive i 
der his aspe we 
eive
i as a
_ae
_ r _ase_,
 as a _sbsa
e_ simp. The aer


ep absras frm ai
a
d reveas is bje simp as a reai
exisi
 i
isef. Whe
we hi
k f a sbsa
e as a pri
ipe f ai

we desribe i b he erm _

are_.
(_d_) A ver widespread
i
f sbsa
e is he 
epi
f i as a
_perma
e
_, _sabe_, _persisi
_ sbje f _ra
sie
_,
_ephemera_ reaiies aed aide
s r phe
me
a. This view f
sbsa
e is mai
 de  he i
fe
e f Ka
s phisph. Ardi

 his eahi
 we a
hi
k he sessi
f phe
me
a whih appear 
r se
se 
sis
ess 
 b he aid f a pre i
ii
i
whih r
se
sibii apprehe
ds hem, _viz._ _ime_. Nw he appiai
f he
aer f sbsa
e  his pre i
ii
f r se
sibii e
e
ders
a _shema_ f he imai
ai
, _viz._ he _persise
e_ f he bje i

ime. Persise
e, herefre, is fr him he esse
ia
e f sbsa
e.
Herber Spe
er, , has ive
ap expressi
 his wide prevae


i
: Exise
e mea
s
hi
 mre ha
persise
e; a
d he
e i
Mi
d
ha whih persiss i
spie f a ha
es, a
d mai
ai
s he 
i f
he areae i
defia
e f a aemps  divide i, is ha f whih
exise
e i
he f se
se f he wrd ms be prediaedha whih we
ms psae as he sbsa
e f Mi
d i

radisi
i
 he
vari
 frms i assmes. B if s, he impssibii f k
wi
 he
sbsa
e f Mi
d is ma
ifes.(244)
Ths, sbsa
e is 
eived as he 
iqe b hidde
a
d 
k
wabe basis
f a he phe
me
a whih 
sie he ai f hma
experie
e.
Wha is  be said f sh a 
epi
? There is js his mh rh i

i: ha sbsa

e is _reaive_ sabe r perma
e
, _i.e._ i

mparis
wih aide
s; he aer a

 srvive he desri

r
disappeara
e f he sbsa
e i
whih he i
here, whie a sbsa
e a

persis hrh i
essa
 ha
e f is aide
s. B aide
s are

_abse_ ephemera,
r is sbsa
e _abse_ perma
e
: were a

aide
  exis fr ever i wd
 ease  be a
aide
,
r wd
a sbsa
e be a
 ess a sbsa
e were i reaed a
d he

i
sa
a
es a

ihiaed. B i
he aer ase he hma
mi
d d

 apprehe
d he sbsa
e; fr si
e a hma

iive experie
e
akes pae _i
ime_, whih i
vves _drai
_, he mi
d a
apprehe
d a
sbsa
e 
 

dii
ha he aer has sme perma
e
e, sme
appreiabe drai
i
exise
e. This fa, , expai
s i
sme
measre he errr f 
eivi
 perma
e
e as esse
ia  a sbsa
e.
B he errr has a
her sre as: U
der he i
fe
e f sbjeive
ideaism phisphers have me  reard he i
dividas 
sis
ess
f his w
sef, he 
sis
ess f he _E_, as he se a
d 
iqe
sre f r 
ep f sbsa
e. The passae we have js qed frm
Spe
er is a
israi
. A
d si
e he spiria pri
ipe f r

sis as is a perma
e
 pri
ipe whih abides hrh a f
hem, hs expai
i
 he 
i f he i
divida hma

sis
ess,
hse wh 
eive sbsa
e i
e
era afer he mde f he _E_,

ara 
eive i as a
esse
ia sabe sbje f i
essa
 a
d
eva
ese
 presses.
B i is qie arbirar hs  
eive he _E_ as he se pe f
sbsa
e. Bdies are sbsa
es as we as spiris, maer as we as
mi
d. A
d he perma
e
e f rprea sbsa
es is mere reaive.
Neverheess he are rea sbsa
es. The reaive sabii f spiri
whih is immra, a
d he reaive i
sabii f maer whih is
rrpibe, have
hi
  d wih he sbsa
iai f eiher. Bh
aike are sbsa
es, fr bh aike have ha mde f bei
 whih

siss i
heir exisi
 i
hemseves, a
d
 b i
heri
 i
her

hi
s as aide
s d.
(_e_) Spe
ers 
epi
f sbsa
e as he perma
e
, 
k
wabe
r
d f phe
me
a, impies ha sbsa
e is 
e,
 ma
ifd, a
d hs
sess he view f reai k
w
as _M
ism_. There is e a
her
misake

i
f sbsa
e, he
i
i
whih he we k
w

pa
heisi phisph f Spi
za has had is rii
. Spi
za appears 
have ive
he ambis defi
ii
f Desares_Sbsa
ia es res qae
ia exisi, 
a aia re i
diea ad exise
dm_a
i
erpreai

whih
arrwed is appiai
dw
 he Neessar Bei
; fr he defi
ed
sbsa
e i
he fwi
 erms: _Per sbsa
iam i
ei id qd es
i
se e per se 
ipir: h es, id js 
eps

i
die

ep aeris rei a q frmari debea_. B he ambis phrase,
ha sbsa
e reqires
 her hi
 fr exisi
, Desares erai

mea
  
ve wha has awas bee

dersd b he shasi
expressi
ha sbsa
e exiss _i
_ isef. He erai
 did
 mea

ha sbsa
e is a reai whih exiss _f_ isef, _i.e._ ha i is
wha shasis mea
b _E
s a se_, he Bei
 ha has is aai frm
is w
esse
e, b vire f is ver
are, a
d i
abse
i
depe
de
e f a her bei
; fr sh Bei
 is O
e a
e, he
Neessar Bei
, Gd Himsef, whereas Desares ear hed a
d ah
he rea exise
e f fi
ie, reaed sbsa
es.(245) Ye Spi
zas
defi
ii
f sbsa
e is appiabe 
  sh a bei
 ha r

ep f his bei
 shws frh he aa exise
e f he aer as
abse expai
ed a
d a
ed fr b refere
e  he esse
e f his
bei
 isef, a
d i
depe
de
 f a
 refere
e  her bei
. I
her
wrds, i appies 
  he Neessar Bei
. This 
epi
f
sbsa
e is he sari
-pi
 f Spi
zas pa
heisi phisph.
Nw, he shasi defi
ii
f sbsa
e a
d Spi
zas defi
ii

embd w e
ire disi

i
s. Spi
zas defi
ii

ves wha
shasis mea
b he Sef-Exise
 Bei
, _E
s a se_; a
d his he
shasis disi
ish frm ased r reaed bei
, _e
s ab ai_. Bh
phrases refer frma a
d primari,
  he mde f a bei
s
exise
e whe
i des exis, b  he rii
f his exise
e i

reai
 he bei
s esse
e; a
d speifia i marks he disi
i

bewee
he Esse
e ha is sef-expai
i
, sef-exise
, esse
ia
aa (_a_ se), he Neessar Bei
, a
d esse
es ha d

hemseves expai
r a
 fr heir w
aa exise
e, esse
es
ha have
 heir aa exise
e frm hemseves r f hemseves,
esse
es ha are i
reard  heir aa exise
e 
i
e
 r
depe
de
, esse
es whih, herefre, if he aa exis, a
d s

 depe
de
 
sme her bei
 whe
e he have derived his
exise
e (_ab_ ai) a
d 
whih he esse
ia depe
d fr is

i
a
e.
N he eas evi f Spi
zas defi
ii
is he 
fsi
ased b
rais wresi
 a
impra
 phisphia erm ike _sbsa
e_
frm is radii
a se
se a
d si
 i wih qie a differe
 mea
i
;
a
d he same is re i
is measre f he her misake

i
s f
sbsa
e whih we have bee
exami
i
. B defi
i
 sbsa
e as a
_e
s
i
se_, r _per se sa
s_, shasi phisphers mea
simp ha
sbsa
e des
 depe
d _i
ri
sia_ 
a
 _sbjeive_ r
_maeria_ ase i
whih is aai wd be sppred; he d

mea
 imp ha i des
 depe
d _exri
sia_ 
a
effiie

ase frm whih i has is aai a
d b whih i is 
served i

bei
. The asser ha a _reaed_ sbsa
es,
 ess ha
a
aide
s, have heir bei
 _ab ai_ frm Gd; ha he exis 
 b
he Divi
e reai
a
d 
servai
, a
d a 
 b he Divi
e
_
rss_ r 
rre
e; b whie sbsa
es a
d aide
s are bh

aike depe
de
 
his exri
si 
servi
 a
d 
rri
 i
fe
e f a
Divi
e, Tra
se
de
 Bei
, sbsa
es are exemp frm his her a
d
disi
 mde f depe
de
e whih haraerizes aide
s: i
ri
si
depe
de
e 
a sbje i
whih he have heir aai.(246)
Whe
we sa ha sbsa
e exiss _i
_ isef, bvis we d

 aah  he prepsii

_i
_ a
 _a_ si
ifiai
, as
a par exisi
 i
he whe. Nr d we mea
ha he exis
i
hemseves i
he same se
se as he have heir bei
 i

Gd. I
a erai
re se
se a reares exis i
Gd: _I

ips e
im vivims, e mvemr, e sms_ (As xxii., 28), i
he
se
se ha he are kep i
bei
 b His m
iprese
 
servi

pwer. B He des
 ssai
hem as a sbje i
whih he
i
here, as sbsa
e ssai
s he aide
s whih deermi
e i,
hereb ivi
 expressi
 is 
ree aai.(247) B
sai
 ha sbsa
e exiss i
isef we mea
 exde he

i
f is exisi
 i
a
her hi
, as a
aide
 des.
A
d his we sha 
dersa
d beer b exami
i
 a ie mre
se his peiar mde f bei
 whih haraerizes aide
s.
65. THE NATURE OF ACCIDENT. ITS RELATION TO SUBSTANCE. ITS CAUSES.Frm
a ha has preeded we wi have ahered he e
era
i
f
_aide
_ as ha mde f rea bei
 whih is f
d  have is reai,

 b exisi
 i
isef, b b affei
, deermi
i
, sme sbsa
e
i
whih i i
heres as i
a sbje. Wha d we mea
b sai
 ha
aide
s _i
here i
_ sbsa
es as heir _sbjes_? Here we ms a 
e
a aside as err
es he rde 
epi
f smehi
 as aed
spaia wihi
smehi
 ese, as 
ai
ed i

ai
er, as _e.._
waer i
a vesse; a
d he eqa rde 
epi
f smehi
 bei
 i

smehi
 ese as a par is i
he whe, as _e.._ a
arm is i
he bd.
Sh imai
ai
s are wh miseadi
.
The aa exisi
 sbsa
e has is bei
 r reai; i is a
aa
esse
e. Eah rea aide
 f i is ikewise a reai, a
d has a

esse
e, disi
 frm ha f he sbsa
e, e
 wh i
depe
de

f he aer: i is a deermi
ai
f he deermi
abe bei
 f he
sbsa
e, affei
 r mdifi
 he aer i
sme wa r her, a
d
havi

 her _rais
dre_ ha
his re f aaizi
 i
sme
speifi wa sme reepive pe
iai f he 
ree sbsa
e. A
d
si
e is reai is hs depe
de
 
ha f he sbsa
e whih i
affes, we a

 asribe  i aa esse

e r bei
 i
he same se
se
as we asribe his  sbsa
e, b 
 a
aia(248) (2). He
e
shasis mm
 eah ha we h  
eive a
aide
 raher as
a
e
i _f a
e
i_, e
s _e
is_, ha
as a
e
i simp;
raher as i
heri
, i
dwei
, affei
 (_i
_-esse) sme sbje, ha

simp as exisi
 isef (_esse_); as smehi
 whse esse
e is raher
he deermi
ai
, affei
, mdifiai
f a
esse
e ha
isef a

esse
e prper, he erm esse
e desi
ai
 prper 
 a sbsa
e:
_aide
is esse es i
esse_.(249) This 
epi
mih,
 db, if
pressed  far, be i
appiabe  abse aide
s, ike qa
i,
whih are smehi
 mre ha
mere mdifiai
s f sbsa
e; b i
rih emphasizes he depe
de
e f he reai f aide
 
ha f
sbsa
e, he

-sbsa
ia a
d dimi
ished haraer f he
aide
-mde f bei
; i as heps  shw ha he i
here
e f
aide
 i
sbsa
e is a reai
f deermi
i
  deermi
abe
bei
whih is _si e
eris_; a
d fi
a i ps s 
r ard aai
s
he errrs ha ma be, a
d have bee
, mmied b 
eivi
 aide
s
i
he absra a
d reas
i
 ab hem apar frm heir sbsa
es, as

if he hemseves were sbsa

es.
This i
here
e f aide
 i
sbsa
e, his mde f bei
 whereb i
affes, deermi
es r mdifies he sbsa
e, differs frm aide
 
aide
; hese, i
fa, are assified i
 _sprema e
era_ b reas

f heir differe
 was f affei
 sbsa
e (60). T his we sha
rer
aer. Here we ma i
qire, ab his e
era reai
f aide

 sbsa
e, wheher i is _esse
ia_  a
aide
 _aa  i
here
i
_ a sbsa
e, if
 immediae, he
a eas hrh he medim f
sme her aide
. We ses his aer aer
aive bease as we
sha see prese
 here are sme aide
s, sh as r, ase,
shape, whih immediae affe he _exe
si
_ f a bd, a
d 

hrh his he sbsa
e f he bd isef. Nw he rdi
ar rse f

are
ever prese
s s wih aide
s exep as i
heri
, mediae r
immediae, i
a sbsa
e. Nr is i prbabe ha he
ara ih f
r reas
wd ever ses  s he pssibii f a
exepi

his e
era aw. B he Chrisia
phispher k
ws, frm Divi
e
Reveai
, ha i
he Bessed Eharis he _qa
i_ r _exe
si
_ f
bread a
d wi
e, eher wih he ase, r, frm, e., whih affe
his exe
si
, _remai
i
exise
e_ afer heir 

ara sbsa
e f
bread a
d wi
e has disappeared b ra
sbsa
iai
. I
he sper
ara
rder f His prvide
e Gd preserves hese aide
s i
exise
e wih
a sbje; b i
his sae, hh he d
 _aa i
here_ i
a

sbsa
e, he _reai
heir
ara apide a
d exie
e_ fr sh
i
here
e. The Chrisia
phispher, herefre, wi
 defi
e aide

as he mde f bei
 whih i
heres i
a sbje, b as he mde f
bei
 whih _i
he rdi
ar rse f
are_ i
heres i
a sbje, r
as he mde f bei
 whih has _a
ara exie
e_  i
here i
a
sbje. I is
 _aa i
here
e_, b he _
ara exie
e 
i
here_, ha is esse
ia  a
aide
 as sh.(250)
Frhermre, a
aide

eeds a sbsa
e
 frma _qa_ sbsa
e,
r as a mde f bei

ara exisi
 i
isef; i
eeds a sbsa
e
_as a sbje_ i
whih  i
here, whih i wi i
sme wa affe,
deermi
e, qaif; b he sbje i
whih i immediae i
heres
eed

 awas be a sbsa
e: i ma be sme her aide
, i
whih ase
bh f rse wi
ara reqire sme sbsa
e as heir imae
basis.
Cmpari

w he 
ep f aide
 wih ha f sbsa
e, we fi
d ha
he aer is presppsed b he frmer; ha he aer is prir _i

hh_  he frmer; ha we 

eive aide
 as smehi
 ver a
d
abve, smehi
 speradded  sbsa
e as sbje. Fr i
sa
e, we a

defi
e maer a
d frm wih he prir 
ep f bd, r a
imai a
d
rai
ai wih he prir 
ep f ma
; b we a

 defi
e r
wih he prir 
ep f bd, r he fa f speeh wih he
prir 
ep f ma
.(251)
Sbsa
e, herefre, is prir _i
hh_  aide
; b is he
sbsa
e isef as prir _empra_ (prir _empre_)  is
aide
s? I is prir i
ime  sme f hem,
 db; he i
divida
hma
bei
 is hs prir, fr i
sa
e,  he k
wede he ma aqire
dri
 ife. B here is
 reas
fr sai
 ha a sbsa
e ms be
prir _i
ime_  _a_ is aide
s;(252) s far as we a
disver,

reaed sbsa
e mes i
 exise
e devid f a aide
s: rprea
sbsa
e devid f i
er
a qa
i, r spiria sbsa
e devid f
i
ee a
d wi.
If prir i
hh, hh

eessari i
ime,  is aide
s, is
a sbsa
e prir  is aide
s _rea_, _
ia_ (prir

_
ara_)? Yes; i is he rea r 
ia pri
ipe f is aide
s;
i ssai
s hem, a
d he depe
d 
i. I is a passive r maeria ase
(si
 he erm maeria i
he wide se
se, as appiabe eve

spiria sbsa
es), r a reepive sbje, deermi
ed i
sme wa b
hem as frma pri
ipes. I is a he same ime a
effiie
 a
d passive
ase f sme f is w
aide
s: he s is a
effiie
 ase f is
w
imma
e
 presses f hh a
d vii
, a
d a he same ime a
passive pri
ipe f hem, 
deri
 rea ha
e b heir rre
e. Of
hers i is mere a reepive, deermi
abe sbje, f hse,
ame,
whih have a
adeqae a
d
eessar f
dai
i
is w
esse
e, a
d
whih are aed _prperies_ i
he sri se
se: wih hese i a


exis, hh he d
 
sie is esse
e, r e
er i
 he

ep f he aer; b i is
 prir  hem i
ime,
r is i he
_effiie
 ase_ f hem; i is, hwever, a rea pri
ipe f hem, a

esse
e frm he reai f whih he
eessari res, a
d 
whih
heir w
reai depe
ds. Sh, fr i
sa
e, is he fa f hh,
r vii
, r speeh i
reard  ma
.
The aide
-mde f bei
 is, herefre, a mde f bei
 whih deermi
es
a sbsa
e i
sme rea wa. Is _frma effe_ is  ive he sbsa
e
sme rea a
d defi
ie deermi
ai
:
 _esse simpiier_ b _esse
ae_. Wih he sbsa
e i 
sies a 
ree rea bei
 whih is
_
m per aide
s_,
 _
m per se_.
The aide
 has
 _frma ase_: i is isef a frm a
d is
asai is ha f a frma ase, whih 
siss i
is mm
iai

isef  a sbje, a
d, b is 
i
herewih, 
sii
 sme
ew
reaii
his ase a 
ree bei
 e
dwed wih aide
a 
i.
Aide
s have f rse, a _maeria ase_;
, hwever, i
he se
se
f a _maeria ex qa_, a maeria frm whih he are 
sied,
i
asmh as he are simpe frms; b i
he se
se f a _sbje_ i

whih he are reeived a

d i
whih he i
here; a
d his maeria
ase is, prximae r reme, _sbsa
e_.
Sbsa
e as is he _fi
a ase_, he _rais
dre_, f he reai
f he aide
a mde f bei
. Aide
s exis fr he perfei
 f
sbsa
es: _aide
ia s
 prper sbsa
iam_. As we have see

aread, a
d as wi appear mre ear aer 
, he f
dame
a reas

fr he reai f a

aide
a mde f bei
, rea disi
 frm he
reaed r fi
ie sbsa
e (fr he I
fi
ie Sbsa
e has
 aide
s),
is ha he reaed sbsa
e is imperfe, imied i
is aa
perfei
, des
 exis _a sim_, b deveps, hrh a press
f ha
e i
ime, frm is firs r _esse
ia_ perfei
, hrh
_i
ermediae_ perfei
s, i i reahes he _fi
a_ perfei
(46) f
is bei
.
Have a aide
s _effiie
 ases_? Thse whih are aed mm

aide
s as disi
 frm _prper_ aide
s r _prperies_ (66) have

dbed effiie
 ases: he varis ae
ies whih prde rea b
aide
a ha
es i
he i
divida sbsa
es f he 
iverse. _Prper_
aide
s, hwever, i
asmh as he f
eessi exis sima
es
wih he sbsa
es  whih he be
, a
d fw frm hese sbsa
es
b a
eessi f he ver esse
e f hese aer, a

 be said  have
a
 effiie
 ases her ha
hse whih 
ribe b heir effiie

 he _sbsa
ia ha
es_ b whih hese sbsa
es are brh i

aa exise
e;
r a
he be said  be _ased effiie
_ b hese
sbsa
es hemseves, b 
  fw r res
eessari frm he
aer, i
asmh as he me i
 exise
e sima
es wih, b
depe
de
 
, hese sbsa
es. He
e, whie sbsa
es are 
iversa

rearded as _rea pri

ipes_ f heir prperiesas, fr i
sa
e, he
s i
reard  i
ee a
d wi, r rprea sbsa
e i
reard 
qa
ihe are
 rea effiie
 ases f heir prperies, _i.e._
he d
 _prde_ hese prperies b _ai
_. Fr hese prperies
are a
eede
  a _ai
_ f he sbsa
e;
r a
a reaed
sbsa
e _a_ b is _esse
e_, b 
 hrh aive pwers, r
faies, r fres, whih mediae bewee
he esse
e f a reaed
sbsa
e a
d is ai
s, a
d whih are he prximae pri
ipes f hese
ai
s, whie he sbsa
e r
are is heir reme pri
ipe. He
e
he prperies whih
eessari res frm a sbsa
e r
are, have
as heir effiie
 ases he ae
ies prdive f he sbsa
e
isef.(253)
66. MAIN DIISIONS OF ACCIDENTS.These 
siderai
s wi hep s 

dersa
d he si
ifia
e f a few impra
 divisi
s f aide
s:
i
 prper a
d mm
, i
separabe a
d separabe. We sha he
be i
a
psii
 exami
e he
are f he disi
i
bewee
aide
s a
d
sbsa
e, a
d  esabish he exise
e f aide
s rea disi

frm sbsa
e.
(_a_) The aribes whih we affirm f sbsa
e, her ha
he
es

siive f is esse
e, are divided i
 _prper_ aide
s, r
_prperies_ i
he sri se
se (, _prprim_), a
d _mm
_
aide
s, r aide
s i
he mre rdi
ar se
se (,
_a-de

_). A popey 
a
ade
 hh belo
g
exlu
vely o a
ea
la

o k
d of
ub
a
e, a
d 
fou
d _alay
_ 
_all_ membe

of ha la

, 
a
muh a
 ha
a
adequae fou
dao

he
aue of
ha
ub
a
e a
d a
ee

ay o

exo
heeh. Suh, fo 

a
e,
ae he faule
of 
elle a
d ll 
all
pual be
g
; he
faule
of
peak
g, laugh
g, eep
g 
ma
; he empoal a
d
paal
mode of be
g hh haaeze
all eaed
ub
a
e
.(254) Whe

egaded fom he logal po

 of ve, a
abue
pedable of he

ub
a
e
o

deed a
logal
ubje
, hey ae d

gu
hed o
he
o
e ha
d fom ha o

ue
he e

e
e of h

ubje (a
_ge
u
_,
_dffee
a_, _
pee
_), bu al
o o
he ohe ha
d fom ho
e
abue
hh a

o be
ee
o have a
y ab
oluely
ee

ay o

exo

h h

ubje. The lae abue
alo

e ae alled _logal
ade

_, he e
 be
g he ab
e
e of a
ee

ay o

exo

hough
h he logal
ubje.(255) Bu he fome la

, hh ae
d

gu
hed fom logal ade

a
d alled _logal popee
_
(_popa_) ae
o
e he le

_eal ade

_ he
o

deed fom he
o
ologal
a
dpo
; fo hey do
o o

ue he e

e
e of he

ub
a
e; hey ae ou
de he o
ep of he lae, a
d

upe-addedhough
ee

alyo . Whehe, hoeve, all o a
y of
he
e popee
, hh phlo
ophe
hu
la

fy a
eal o
o
ologal ade

, pope ade

, of ea

ub
a
e
, ae
_eally_ d

 fom he o
ee, 
dvdual
ub
a
e
o hh hey
belo
g, o ae o
ly a
pe
of he lae,
ub
a
al mode
, o
ly
_vually_ d

 
eah a
e fom he 
dvdual
ub
a
e 
elf,

a
ohe a
d moe dfful que
o
(69). Suh a popey 
ea
ly
o
eally
epaable fom 

ub
a
e; e a

o o
eve ehe o ex

eally hou he ohe; hough e a
by ab
ao
h
k, a
d ea
o
,
a
d
peak, abou ehe apa fom he ohe.(256) Real 

epaably 
,
hoeve, egaded by
hola
 phlo
ophe
a
que ompable h ha
hey u
de
a
d by a eal d

o
(38).
A _ommo
_ ade
 
o
e hh ha

o
uh ab
oluely
ee

ay
o

exo
h 

ub
a
e a
a popey ha
; o
e hh, heefoe,
a
be o
eved a
ab
e
 fom he
ub
a
e hou heeby e
al
g
he de
uo
of he lae
e

e
e, o of a
yh
g bou
d up by a


ee

y of hough h h
e

e
e. A
d
uh ommo
ade

ae of
o k
d
.
They may be
uh ha 
he od
ay ou
e of
aue, a
d
o fa a


foe
a
d la
ae o
e
ed, hey ae
eve fou
d o be ab
e
 fom
he o

aual
ub
a
e
_

epaable_ ade

. Thu
he olou of
he Ehopa

a


epaable ade
 of h
huma

aue a
a

Ehopa
; he 

aually blak; bu f bo
of Ehopa
pae

he
ould
ll be a
Ehopa
eve
f he happe
ed o go up he 

ead
of blak. We ould
o, hoeve, o
eve a
Ehopa
, o a
y ohe huma

be
g, ex

g hou he faule
(
o he u
e) of 
elle a
d ll,
o he fauly (
o he oga

, o he aual exe
e of he fauly) of
huma

peeh.
O ommo
ade

may be
uh ha hey ae
omeme
pe
e
 
he

ub
a
e
, a
d
omeme
ab
e
_
epaable_ ade

. The
e ae by fa
he mo

umeou
la

of ade

: h
k
g, ll
g, alk
g, a
d
ao

ge
eally; healh o ll
e

; vue
, ve
, aqued hab
;
e
 o moo
, empeaue, olou, fom, loao
, e.
(_b_) The
ex mpoa
 dv
o
of ade


ha 
o mee
_ex

 de
om
ao

_ a
d 


 ade

; he lae be
g

ubdvded 
o _modal_ a
d _ab
olue_ ade

, e
pevely.
A
_ab
olue_ ade
 
o
e hh
o meely affe


ub
a
e



ally, gv
g he lae a
aual deem
ao
o mode of be
g,
of
ome
o o ohe, bu hh ha
moeove
ome e
y o ealy
pope o 
elf heeby  hu
affe
he
ub
a
e, a
e
y eally
d

 fom he e

e
e of he
ub
a
e hu
deem
ed by . Suh,
fo 

a
e, ae all val ave
of lv
g h
g
;(257) k
oledge,
a
d ohe aqued hab
; qua
y, he fu
dame
al ade
 heeby
opoeal
ub
a
e
ae all apable of ex

g exe
ded 

pae; a
d

uh
e

ble quale
a
d e
ege
of mae a
hea, olou, meha
al
foe, eleal e
egy, e. Suh, oo, aod
g o ma
y, ae

elle, ll, a
d
e

e faule

ma
.
Thee ae, hoeve, ohe 


 deem
ao

of
ub
a
e, ohe
modfao

of he lae, hh do
o
eem o 
volve a
y
e o
addo
al ealy 
he
ub
a
e, ove a
d above he modfao


elf. Suh, fo 

a
e, ae moo
, e
, exe
al fom o fgue, 

bode
. The
e ae alled _modal_ ade


. They ofe
affe
o he

ub
a
e 
elf mmedaely, bu
ome ab
olue ade
 of he lae,
a
d ae he
e alled ade
al mode
. Tho
e e
umeaed ae obvou
ly
mode
of he qua
y of bode
. No he appeaa
e o d
appeaa
e of

uh a
ade
 
a
ub
a
e u
doubedly 
volve
a eal ha
ge 
he
lae, a
d
o meely 
ou hough; he
a body move
, o ome
o
e
, o ale

fom, hee 
a ha
ge 
he ealy a
ell a


ou hough; a
d 
h

e

e he
e ade

ae eal a
d 


 o
he
ub
a
e
. Ye, hough e a

o
ay ha moo

, e
,
hape,
e., ae eally de
al h he body a
d o
ly me
ally d


a
pe
of , a he
ame me
ehe a
e
ay ha by he
appeaa
e o d
appeaa
e he body ga

o lo
e
a
y ealy ohe ha

a
ade
al deem
ao
of 
elf; heea
 doe
ga

omeh
g moe
ha
h
he
 
heaed, o elefed, o 
ea
ed 
qua
y;
ju
 a
a ma
ho aque
k
oledge, o vue, 

o o
ly eally
modfed, bu 
modfed by eal e
e
hh he ha
aqued,
o
hav
g aually po

e

ed hem befoe.
F
ally, hee ae ade

hh do
o affe he
ub
a
e



ally a all, hh do
o deem
e a
y eal ha
ge 
, bu

meely gve  a
ex

 de
om
ao

elao
o
omeh
g ou
de
 (60). Thu
, hle he _qualy_ of hea 
a
ab
olue ade
 
a
body, he _ao
_ heeby he lae hea

eghbou
g bode


o
e
ealy 
he body 
elf, a
d podue

o eal ha
ge 
he lae, bu
o
ly gve
 he ex

 de
om
ao
of _hea
g_ 
efee
e o
he
e ohe bode

hh he effe eally ake
plae. Smlaly he
_loao
_ of a
y opoeal
ub
a
e 
_
pae_ o 
_me_ elavely
o ohe

he
pae o me
ee

_exe
al_ plae (_ub_) o me
(_qua
do_), a
hey ae alledo he elave po
o
of 
pa

(_
u
_) 
he plae ouped by : he
e do
o 


ally
deem
e  o o
fe upo
 a
y 


 modfao
of 


ub
a
e. No, 
deed, ha hey ae mee _e
a ao

_, mee logal
fo

of ou hough. They ae eale
, bu
o eale
hh
affe he
ub
a
e
de
om
aed fom hem; hey ae ade
al mode
of
ohe
ub
a
e
, o of he ab
olue ade

of ohe
ub
a
e
.
F
ally, he ade
 hh e all a _eal_ elao
pe
uppo
e




ubje
ome ab
olue ade

uh a
qua
y o qualy, o
ome eal
a
d 


 ha
ge deem

g he
e, o affe
g he
ub
a
e 
elf;
bu hehe elao


elf a ealy ove a
d above
uh fou
dao
,

a d
pued que
o
.
Fom he
e la

fao

of ade

 ll be a o
e appae
 ha
he ge
eal
oo
of ade
, a
a depe
de
 mode of be
g,
upeadded
o he e

e
e of a
ub
a
e a
d 

ome ay deem

g he lae, 

ealzed 
dely dffee
 a
d meely a
alogal ay

he dffee

ulmae la

e
of ade

.
67. REAL EXISTENCE OF ACCIDENTS. NATURE OF THE DISTINCTION BETWEEN
ACCIDENTS AND SUBSTANCE.I ould be
upefluou
o pove he ge
eal
popo
o
ha ade

eally ex
. I
e
abl
h
g he eal
ex
e
e of
ub
a
e
e have
ee
ha he eal ex
e
e of
ome
ade

a lea
 ha

eve bee

eou
ly de
ed. The
e ae ofe
alled

oaday
_phe
ome
a_; a
d phlo
ophe
ho have de
ed o doubed he eal
ex
e
e of
ub
a
e
have bee
alled phe
ome



mply beau
e
hey have admed he eal ex
e
e o
ly of he
e phe
ome
a; hough, f
hey ee a
logal a
Hume hey mgh have
ee
h hm ha
uh
de
al,
o fa fom abol
h
g
ub
a
e, ould o
ly lead o he

ub
a
alz
g of ade

(63).
Bu hle u
doubedly hee ae eale
hh ex
 
hem
elve
,

uh a

dvdual me
, a
mal
a
d pla

, hee 

o ea
o
fo
abu
g h

ame mode of ex
e
e o e
e

uh a
he hough
,
volo

, emoo

, vue
o ve
, of he 
dvdual ma
; o he



, hu
ge, o ll
e

of he dog; o he olou, pefume, o fom
of he o
e. The o
ee 
dvdual ma
, o dog, o o
e, eveal

elf
o ou m
d
a
a
ub
a
al e
y, affeed h he
e vaou

ade
al e
e
hh ae eally d

 fom he
ub
a
al e
y

elf a
d fom o
e a
ohe. Nay, 
mo
 of he 

a
e
ju
 ed,
hey ae phy
ally
epaable fom he
ub
a
al e
y 
hh hey

hee;
o of ou
e 
he
e

e ha hey ould aually ex
 hou
, bu 
he
e

e ha  a
a
d doe
o

ue o ex
 aually
hou hem (38); fo  o

ue
o ex
 hle hey ome a
d go,
appea a
d d
appea.(258) Of ou
e he _o
ee 
dvdual_ ma
, o
dog, o o
e, doe

o o

ue o _ex
 aually u
ha
ged_, a
d
_oally_ de
al h 
elf houghou he ha
ge of ade

(64),
fo he ade

ae pa of he o
ee 
dvdual ealy;
ay, eve

he
ub
a
e 
elf of he o
ee 
dvdual doe

o ema
oally
u
affeed by he ha
ge of he ade

; beau
e f hey _eally_ affe
, a
hey do, he ha
ge a

o leave  oally u
affeed;
ub
a
e


o a all a ha
gele

, o
ee oe,
uou
ded by a
eve-ha
g
g


d o ve
ue of ade

; o a dak, hdde
, mmuable a
d 

uable
bakgou
d of a pa
oama of phe
ome
a (64). Bu hough  
beyo
d all
doub eally affeed by he ha
ge of 
ade

,  
al
o beyo
d
all doub 
depe
de
 of hem 
egad o he e

e
al mode of 

be
g, 
a
muh a
 ex

a
d o

ue
o ex
 

elf houghou
all fluuao
of 
ade

; hle he
e o
he ohe ha
d have o
ly
ha e

e
ally depe
de
 mode of be
g heeby hey ae aual o
ly by
affe
g a
d deem

g
ome
ubje 
hh hey 
hee a
d hh

uppo
he aualy.
The ex
e
e, heefoe, of
ome ade

, hh ae
o o
ly eally
d

 bu eve
phy
ally
epaable fom he
ub
a
e
, a

o
ea
o
ably be alled 
o que
o
. To de
y he ex
e
e of
uh
ade

, o, ha ome
o he
ame h
g, he eal d

o
fom

ub
a
e, 
o ake up
ome o
e of he
e hee equally u
e
able
po
o

: ha all he ha
ge
hh ake plae h
a
d aou
d u
ae

ub
a
al ha
ge
; o, ha hee 

o
uh h
g a
eal ha
ge, all
ha
ge be
g a me
al llu
o
; o, ha o
adoy
ae
a
be
affmed of he
ame ealy.(259)
Bu he
aue of he eal d

o
beee
ade

a
d
ub
a
e 

o 
all a
e

o ea
y o deem
e. No a
e d
u

he que
o

hee 
efee
e o eah _
ummum ge
u
_ of ade

epaaely. Defe
g
o he hape o
_Relao
_ he que
o
of he d

o
of h

paula ade
 fom
ub
a
e a
d he ohe aegoe
, e may
o
f
e ou ae
o
hee o he d

o
beee

ub
a
e a
d he
hee la

e
of ade

e have alled _ex

 de
om
ao

_,
_modal_ ade

, a
d _ab
olue_ ade

e
pevely. Thee ae
ade

, e
Kleuge
,(260) hh plae
oh
g a
d ha
ge
oh
g

he
ubje 
elf, bu ae a
bed o  by ea
o
of
ome ex


h
g; ohe
, aga
, podue 
deed 
he
ubje 
elf
ome
e mode
of be
g, bu hou he ex

g 
 a
a
e ealy, d

 fom

ealy; ohe
, f
ally, ae hem
elve
a
e ealy, a
d have hu

a be
g hh 
pope o hem
elve
, hough h
be
g 
of ou
e
depe
de
 o
he
ub
a
e. The
e lae alo
e a
be _eally_ d


fom he
ub
a
e, 
he full
e

e 
hh a eal d

o

ha
beee
h
g a
d h
g. No Cae
a
phlo
ophe
have de
ed ha hee
ae a
y
uh ade

a
ho
e of he lae la

; eje
g he
dv
o
of ade


o ab
olue a
d modal, hey eah ha all
ade

ae mee _modfao

_ o deem
ao

of
ub
a
e, ha
hey o



olely of vaou
loao

a
d omb
ao

of he ulmae
pa
of a
ub
a
e, o elao

of he lae o ohe
ub
a
e
.
No all _ex

 de
om
ao

_ of a
ub
a
e do
eem o
a
aly


ulmaely o e
olve hem
elve
paly 
o elao

of he lae o
ohe
ub
a
e
, a
d paly 
o modal o ab
olue ade

of ohe

ub
a
e
. He
e e may o
f
e ou ae
o
hee o he d

o

beee
he
e o la

e
of ade
 a
d he o

aual
ub
a
e
.
A
d, appoah
g h
que
o
,  ll be ell fo u
o bea o
h
g

m
d. I
he f
 plae, ou def
o

boh of

ub
a
e a
d of ade
 ae ab
a a
d ge
e o u
ve
al.
Bu he ab
a a
d u
ve
al doe

o ex
 _a

uh_. The
o
ee, 
dvdual, aually ex

g
ub
a
e 

eve
_meely_ a be
g ha
aually ex



elf,
o 
he
ade
 of
uh a
ub
a
e _meely_ a vefao
of 

def
o
a
a be
g ha
aually 
hee


omeh
g el
e.
I
evey a
e ha eally a
d aually ex


_he 
dvdual_,
a be
g o
eed of
ub
a
e a
d ade

, a be
g hh 

eve a
d alay
a _eal u
y_, ompo
e
o doub, bu eally
o
e; a
d h

o mae ha
o of d

o
e hold o oba

beee
he
ub
a
e a
d 
ade

. Th

mpoa
; 


g
fa
e ll be bee appeaed aod
g a
e exam
e
he d

o


que
o
. Seo
dly, a

hola

u
de
a
d
a eal d

o
, h
a
oba

o meely beee
dffee

pe
o

o h
g
hh ae
epaae fom o
e a
ohe 
me
o
pae, bu al
o beee
dffee
 o

uve p
ple
of
a
y o
e

gle o
ee, ompo
e, 
dvdual be
g (38). We have

ee
ha hey ae
o ageed a
o hehe he e

e
e a
d he
ex
e
e of a
y aual eaue ae eally d

 o
o (24).
A
d  may help u
o lea up ou
oo
of ade
 f e
adve hee o he d
u

o
of he que
o
hehe o
o a

ade
 ough o be egaded a
hav
g a
ex
e
e of 
o
,
a
ex
e
e pope o 
elf.
Tho
e ho h
k ha he d

o
beee
e

e
e a
d ex
e
e

eaed h
g

a eal d

o
, hold ha ade

a


uh have
o ex
e
e of he o
, ha hey ae aualzed by
he ex
e
e of he
ub
a
e, o ahe of he o
ee,
ompo
e 
dvdual; ha

e he lae 
a eal u
y
o a
mee afal aggegao
of e
e
, bu a be
g
aually
o
e a
have o
ly o
e ex
e
e: _Impo

ble e
 quod u
u

e
o

 u
um e

e_;(261) ha by h
o
e ex
e
e he
o
ee, ompo
e e

e
e of he
ub
a
e, a
affeed a
d
deem
ed by 
ade

, 
aualzed. They o
e
d ha f
eah of he p
ple
, hehe
ub
a
al o ade
al, of a
o
ee 
dvdual be
g had 
o
ex
e
e, he u
o
,
o
mae ho 
mae, ould
o fom a
aual u
ay be
g, a


dvdual, bu o
ly a
aggegae of
uh be
g
. I 

ehe
he mae,
o he fom,
o he opoeal
ub
a
e apa fom

ade

, ha ex

:  
he
ub
a
e ompleely
deem
ed by all 
ade

a
d mode
ha 
he pope

ubje of ex
e
e.(262) I alo
e 
aualzed, a
d ha by
_o
e_ ex
e
e, hh 
he ulmae aualy of he
o
ee, ompo
e, 
dvdual e

e
e: _e

e e
 ulmu
au
_.
He
e  
oo, hey uge, ha a
ade

hould be o
eved

o popely a
a be
g, bu o
ly a
ha heeby a be
g 


uh o
uh: Ade


o
e
 e

,
ed _e

e

_. Bu  a

o
be
o o
eved f e abue o  a
ex
e
e of 
o
; fo
he
 ould be a be
g 
he full a
d pope
e

e of he
od.
Th

he ve of S. Thoma
, a
d of Thom

ge
eally. The
agume



uppo of  ae
eou
, bu
o o
v

g. A
d
he
ame may be
ad of he ea
o

addued fo he oppo
e ve:
ha ex
e
e
o be
g eally d

 fom e

e
e, ade




o fa a
hey a
be
ad o have a
e

e
e of he o
have
lke
e a
ex
e
e of he o
.
Suppoe
of h
ve
o o
ly adm bu ma
a
ha he
e
y of a eal, ex

g ade
 
a dm

hed e
y,

a
muh a
 
depe
de
 
a
e

e 
hh a eally ex

g

ub
a
e 

o depe
de
. They
mply de
y he Thom
 a

eo

ha
ub
a
al a
d ade
al p
ple
a

o omb
e o fom
a eal a
d
aual u
, a

dvdual be
g, f eah be aoded
a
ex
e
e appopae a
d popoo
ae o 
paal e

e
e;

o 
deed a
Thom

_pove_ h
a

eo
. Moeove, f
ex
e
e be
o _eally_ d

 fom e

e
e, hee 

o moe

o
ve
e
e 
he lam ha paal ex
e
e
a
omb
e o

fom o
e omplee ex
e
e, _u
um e

e_, ha

he Thom

lam ha paal e

e
e
,
uh a

ub
a
al a
d ade
al
o

uve p
ple
, a
omb
e o fom o
e omplee e

e
e,
o
e 
dvdual
ubje of ex
e
e. The
, fuhemoe,  

uged ha he
ub
a
e ex

po _
me_ o
ome of 

ade

; ha  
po _

aue_ o 
popee
, hh
ae u
de
ood o _poeed_ o _flo_ fom ; a
d ha heefoe

ex
e
e a

o be he
, a
y moe ha

e

e
e a
be
he
. F
ally,  
po
ed ou ha

e ex
e
e 
he
aualy of e

e
e, he ex
e
e hh aualze
a
ub
a
e
a

o be de
al h ha hh aualze
a
ade
. A all
eve

, hehe he o
e ex
e
e of he o
ee 
dvdual

ub
a
e a
deem
ed by 
ade

be a
 ee a
mple
a
d 
dv
ble ex
e
al a, hh aualze
he ompo
e

dvdual
ubje, a
Thom

hold, o hehe  be a ompo
e
ex
e
al a, eally de
al h he ompo
e 
dvdual

ubje, a

he ohe ve,(263) h
o
ee ex
e
e of he

dvdual 
o

a
ly vay
g h he vaao
of he
ade

of he 
dvdual. Th

equally ue o
ehe ve.
I
qu
g 
o he d

o
beee

ub
a
e a
d 




ade

, hehe modal o ab
olue, e have f
 o emak ha all
ade

a

o po

bly be edued o elao

; fo f elao

elf


omeh
g _ex

_ o he h
g
elaed,  mu
 a lea

pe
uppo
e a eal a
d _


_ fou
dao
o ba

fo 
elf 
he
h
g
elaed. Loal moo
, fo 

a
e, 
a ha
ge 
he
paal
elao

of a body o ohe bode
. Bu  a

o be _meely_ h
. Fo
f
paal elao

ae
o mee
ubjeve o me
al fabao

, f
hey ae 
a
y 
ellgble
e

e _eal_, he
a ha
ge 
hem mu


volve a ha
ge of _
omeh
g 


_ o he bode
o
e
ed. No
De
ae
, 
de
y
g he ex
e
e of _ab
olue_ ade

, 
edu
g
all ade

o _mode
_ of
ub
a
e
, u
de
ood by mode

o a
y
_


_ deem
ao

of
ub
a
e, bu o
ly ex

 deem
ao


of he lae. All ade

of _maeal_
ub
a
e ee fo hm mee
loao

, aa
geme

, d
po
o

of 
exe
ded pa
: exe

o

be
g 
e

e
e. Smlaly, all ade

of
pual
ub
a
e ee
fo hm mee modale
a
d muual elao

of 
hough o
o

ou

e

: h
lae be
g fo hm he e

e
e of
p. We have
hee
o o
ly he eo of de
fy
g o o
fou
d
g ade


uh a

hough a
d exe

o
h he o

aual
ub
a
e
,
p a
d mae,
bu al
o he eo of
uppo

g ha ex

 elao

a
d mode
of a

ub
a
e, a
d ha
ge

he
e, a
be eal, hou hee be
g 
he

ub
a
e
hem
elve
a
y 


, eal, ha
geable ade

, hh
ould aou
 fo he ex

 elao

a
d he ha
ge
. If hee ae

o 


 ade

, eally affe
g a
d deem

g
ub
a
e
, a
d
ye eally d

 fom he lae, he
e mu
 adm ehe ha all
ha
ge 
a
llu
o
o el
e ha all ha
ge 

ub
a
al; a
d h


he dlemma ha eally o
fo

he Cae
a
phlo
ophy.
68. MODAL ACCIDENTS AND THE MODAL DISTINCTION.The eal d

o
hh
e lam o ex
 beee
a
ub
a
e a
d 



 ade



o
he
ame 
all a
e
: 
egad o
ome ade

, hh e have alled



 mode
of he
ub
a
e,  
a _m
o_ o _modal_ eal
d

o
; 
egad o ohe
hh e have alled ab
olue ade

,
 
a _majo_ eal d

o
(38). Le u
f
 o

de he fome.
The em _mode_ ha
a vaey of mea

g
,
ome vey de,
ome
e
ed. Whe
o
e o
ep deem
e
o lm
a
ohe 
a
y ay e
may all  a mode of he lae. If hee 

o eal d

o
beee

he deem

g a
d he deem
ed hough-obje, he mode 
alled a
_meaphy
al_ mode: a
ao
aly 
of a
maly 
ma
. Aga
, eaed
h
g
ae all mode
of be
g; a
d he vaou
a
pe
of a eaue may
be alled mode
of he lae: a
f
e
e


a mode of evey
eaed be
g. We do
o u
e he em 
ho
e de
e

e

he pe
e

o
ex. Hee e u
de
a
d by a mode
ome po
ve ealy hh
o
affe
a
ohe a
d d

 ealy a
o deem
e he lae
poxmaely o
ome def
e ay of ex

g o a
g, o hh he
lae 

elf 
dffee
; hou, hoeve, add
g o he lae a
y

e a
d pope e
y ohe ha
he
ad deem
ao
.(264) Suh mode

ae alled _phy
al_ mode
. A
d
ome phlo
ophe
ma
a
ha hee ae

o o
ly _ade
al_ mode
, hu
eally d

 fom he
ub
a
e, bu
ha hee ae eve

ome _
ub
a
al_ mode
eally d

 fom he
e

e
e of he
ub
a
e hh hey affe: fo 

a
e, ha he eally
d

 o

uve p
ple
of a
y 
dvdual opoeal
ub
a
e,
mae a
d fom, ae aually u
ed o
ly 
vue of a
ub
a
al mode
heeby eah 
oda
ed fo u
o
h he ohe; o ha _
ub

e
e_,
heeby he 
dvdual
ub
a
e 
made a
ub

e
 a
d 
ommu
able
pe
o
o h
g, 
a
ub
a
al mode of he 
dvdual
aue.(265)
Wh he
e lae e ae
o o
e
ed hee, bu o
ly h ade
al
mode
,
uh a
exe
al
hape o fgue, loal moo
, po
o
,
ao
,(266) e. No he
a
ub
a
e 
affeed by
uh ade

a

he
e  
mpo

ble o
he o
e ha
d o ma
a
ha hey add a
y
e
po
ve e
y of he o
o ; hey do
o
eem o have a
y ealy
ove a
d above he deem
ao
o modfao

hh he vey
pe
e
e 
he
ub
a
e o



. A
d o
he ohe ha
d  a

o be
de
ed ha hey expe


ome eal pedae hh a
be affmed of he

ub
a
e 
vue of he pe
e
e 
, a
d ha 
depe
de
ly of ou
hough; 
ohe od
 a

o be ma
a
ed ha hey ae mee
fgme

o fom
of hough, mee _e
a ao

_. If a pee of ax ha

a ea
def
e
hape, h

hape 


epaable fom he ax:  

oh
g exep 
he ax, fo  a

o ex
 apa fom he ax; bu 

he ax  

omeh

g 

ome eal
e

e d

 fom he ax, 
a
muh
a
he ax ould pe

 eve
f  d
appeaed. No doub  
e

e
al
o he ax, a
exe
ded 

pae, o have
ome
hape o ohe; bu  


dffee
 o a
y paula
hape, a
d he
e
omeh
g d

 fom 

equed o emove h

dffee
e. Th

omeh
g 
he paula

hape  aually po

e

e
. The
hape, heefoe, 
a
ade
al mode
of he exe

o
of he ax, a mode hh 
eally d

, by a m
o
eal d

o
, fom h
exe

o
hh 

mmedae
ubje.(267)
He
e e o
lude ha hee ae ade
al mode
, o modal ade

,
eally d

 fom he
ubje

hh hey 
hee.
69. DISTINCTION BETWEEN SUBSTANCE AND ITS PROPER ACCIDENTS. UNITY OF THE
CONCRETE BEING.Tu

g
ex o he d

o
beee
ab
olue ade


a
d
ub
a
e, e have
ee
aleady ha
epaable ab
olue ade


uh
a
aqued hab
of m
d a
d ea

e

ble quale
a
d e
ege
of
bode
ae eally d

 fom he
ubje
. Ab
olue ade

hh
ae _
aually 

epaable_ fom he
ubje

uh a
exe
al qua
y
o
paal exe

o
o volume 

egad o he opoeal
ub
a
eae
al
o eally d

 fom he
ubje
; hough e a

o k
o by ea
o

alo
e hehe o ho fa
uh ade

ae _ab
oluely
epaable_ fom
he
e
ubje
: fom Ch
a
Revelao
e k
o ha exe

o
a lea



epaable fom he
ub
a
e of a body, a
d h exe

o
all he
ohe opoeal ade

hh 
hee mmedaely 
exe

o
.(268)
Bu a
peal dffuly a
e

egad o he
aue of he d

o

beee
a
ub
a
e a
d 
_pope_ ade

,(269) _.e._ ho
e hh
have
uh a
adequae a
d
ee

ay gou
d 
he e

e
e of he
ub
a
e
ha he lae a

o ex
 hou hem: ade


hh ae


mula
eou
h he
ub
a
e a
d poeed
ee

aly fom ,
uh a

he 
e
al qua
y of a opoeal
ub
a
e, o he 
elleual a
d
appeve poe
o faule
of a
pual
ub
a
e. The medeval

hola
 phlo
ophe
ee by
o mea

u
a
mou
a
o he
aue of
h
d

o
. The d
u

o
of he que
o
e
e
ma
ly aou
d
he d

o
beee
he
pual huma

oul a
d 

pual
faule
, 
elle a
d ll, a
d beee
he
e faule
hem
elve
. I



uvea
ho
g addo
al lgh o
ha hey u
de
ood by a
eal d

o
o f
d ha hle Thom

ge
eally have held ha he
d

o
hee 
que
o

a eal d

o
, ma
y ohe
hola


have held ha  
o
ly a vual d

o
, hle So

have
ge
eally augh ha  
a fomal d

o
(35-39).
Kleuge
(270) 
epe
he fomal d

o
advoaed by Sou

he
pe
e
 o
ex a
eally equvale
 o he vual d

o
. S.
Bo
ave
ue, afe efe
g o he lae d

o
, a
d o he eal
d

o
popou
ded by S. Thoma
, adop
hm
elf a

emedae ve:
ha he faule
of he
oul ae 
deed eally d

 fom o
e
a
ohe, bu
evehele

ae
o eally d

, a
ade
al e
e
,
fom he
ub
a
e of he
oul 
elf. We
ee ho h
a
be by
o

de
g ha he maeal a
d fomal p
ple
hh o

ue a
opoeal
ub
a
e, hough eally d

 fom eah ohe, ae
o
eally d

 fom he
ub
a
e 
elf. They ae
o ade

of he
lae bu _o

ue_ 
e

e
e, a
d
o ae o be efeed _eduv_
o he aegoy of
ub
a
e. So, by a
alogy, he faule
of he
oul,
hough eally d

 fom eah ohe, do
o belo
g o a
y ade
al
aegoy eally d

 fom he
ub
a
e of he
oul, bu belo
g
_eduv_ o he lae aegoy,
o 
deed a
o

u
g, bu a

flo
g mmedaely a
d
ee

aly fom, he
ub
a
e of he
oul

elf.(271) A
d, lke S. Thoma
, he f
d
he ulmae
oue a
d
expla
ao
of h
mulply of faule
a
d foe
_
he
f
e
e

_ of he eaed
ub
a
e a

uh.(272) Bu S. Thoma
e

fahe ha
S. Bo
ave
ue, fo he augha

deed Thom

ge
eally
eah, a
d ma
y ho ae
o Thom

ha he faule
of he huma

oul
ae eally d

 fom o
e a
ohe,
o meely a
poxmae p
ple

of eally d

 val a
, bu a
ade
al e
e
o e

e
e
; a
d
ha a

uh hey ae eally d

 fom he e

e
e o
ub
a
e 
elf
of he huma

oul. The agume


favou of h
ve ll be gve


he pope plae 

o

exo
h he aegoy of _Qualy_. If hey
ae
o demo

ave 
he foe, hey ae ea
ly
uh ha he
ve fo hh hey make 
vey hghly pobable; bu e ae o
e
ed
hee o
ho, 
h
o
lud
g
eo
, ha he eog
o
of a eal
d

o

ge
eal beee

ub
a
e a
d 
ade

doe

o 
a
y
ay ompom
e he eal u
y of he o
ee 
dvdual be
g. I ha

bee
dely au
ed of do
g
o by phlo
ophe
ho y o d
ed h

ve hou fully u
de
a
d
g . Th
haae
ally mode

aude 
llu
aed by he pe

e

 aemp
ha have bee
made 

ee
 me
o ho dule o
ha hey de
be a
he fauly
p
yhology.(273)
The
oue of h
gou
dle

hage le
paly 
he m
ake

o
epo
of ade
 a
d
ub
a
e a
o
ee e
e

upeadded he
o
e o he ohe; paly 
he m
ake

oo
ha he u
o
of

ub
a
e a
d ade

a

o e
ul 
a eal u
y, ha hee a

o
be moe o le

pefe gade
of eal u
y (27); a
d paly 
he fal
e
a

umpo
ha eal d

o
alay
mple
muual
epaably of
o
ee e
e
. Of he
e eo
e
eed o
ly efe o ha o
e

g
u
y.
Mode
phlo
ophe

o u
ommo
ly o
eve he u
o
of
ub
a
e a
d

ade

a
be
g
ee

aly a mee _meha
al_ u
o
o aggegao
,
a
d oppo
e  o oga
 u
y hh hey egad a
a eal u
y

volv
g he h
e

of a
e
ege, lv
g mulply. Th


volve
a m
epe
e
ao
of he ado
al
hola
 ve. The u
o

of
ub
a
e a
d ade
 

o a meha
al u
o
. Noh
g ould be
fahe fom he m
d
of he
hola
 
epee
of A
ole ha

he o
epo
of he ulmae p
ple
of he u
ve
e of ou
expee
e a

e e
e
moved aod
g o puely meha
al la
; o
of he 
dvdual o
ee be
g a
a mee mah
e, o a mee aggegae of
meha
al eleme

. They eog
zed eve

he 
dvdual 
oga


ub
a
e a

e
al, u
fy
g, ave a
d deve p
ple of all he
e
ege
a
d ave
of he h
g

ub
a
al fom. A
d f h


all ho
e phlo
ophe
mea
by he meaphoal a

fee
e of he em

oga
 u
y, 
e
al lv
g p
ple of developme
, e., o he
m
eal old, hey ae
o fa 
aod h he ado
al
hola

phlo
ophy;(274) hle f hey mea
ha all
ub
a
e
ae p
ple
of
val e
egy, o ha all ealy 
o
e oga
 u
y, 
he leal

e

e of he
e em
, hey ae omm
g hem
elve
ehe o he
palpably fal
e heoy of pa
-p
yh
m, o o he gauou
ea

eo
of
a vey old a
d vey ude fom of mo

m.
By oga
 u
y e u
de
a
d he u
y of a
y lv
g oga

m, a u
y
hh 
muh moe pefe ha
ha of he pa
of a mah
e, o ha

a
y
aual juxapo
o
of maeal pa

a

oga
 hole; fo he
oga

, hough d

 

umbe a
d 

aue fom o
e a
ohe, ae
u
ed by a

e
al p
ple o fom o
e lv
g 
dvdual,
o ha f
a
y oga
ee
epaaed fom he lv
g oga

m  ould ea
e o be a

oga
.(275) Bu oga
 u
y 

o by a
y mea

he mo
 pefe k
d of
u
y o
evable.(276) The lv
g oga

m ex

a
d develop
a
d
aa

o he pefeo
of 
be
g o
ly hough a mulply of

egal pa
exe
ded 

pae. The
pual
ub
a
e 

ubje o
o

uh d
pe
o
of 
be
g. Fom 
u
o
h he faule
heeby 
aa

o 

aual developme
, hee e
ul
a eal u
y of a hghe
ode ha
ha of a
y oga

m.
A
d
evehele

, eve
hough he u
y of he o
ee
pual

ub
a
e a
d 
faule
be
o fa hghe ha
a meha
al o eve
a

oga
 u
y,  

o pefe. Eve
hough he faule
of he
oul be
deem
ao

of 

ub
a
e, eve
hough hey flo fom  a

auale
dema
ded by 
e

e
e fo he
omal a
d
aual developme

of 
be
g,
ll  
a omplee
ub


g e

e
e of 
k
d
hou hem;  po

e

e

_e

e
al_ pefeo
hou hem,
o
ha hoeve 
mae be he u
o
h  hey a

eve fom o
e
e

e
e h ; 
eed
hem o
ly fo he fulle developme
 of 

be
g by aqu
g fuhe _
emedae_ pefeo

a
d hu
aa

g
o 
_f
al_ pefeo
(46).
A
d hee e ouh o
he mo
 fu
dame
al gou
d of he d

o
, 

all eaed h
g
, beee
he
ub
a
e a
d he ade
al
pefeo

. U
lke he Nee

ay, Ab
olue Be
g, ho
e 
f
e
pefeo

he ee
al aualy of H
e

e
e,
o eaue po

e

e

he aualy of 
be
g _oa
mul_, bu o
ly by a poge

ve
developme
 heeby  gadually aque
eally
e 
emedae a
d
f
al pefeo

, eally d

 fom, hough
aually due o, 

e

e
e. He
e, eve
hough
ome of 
ade

popee

uh a
he
poe
a
d faule
e have bee
d
u


gbe
o eally d

 fom
he e

e
e heeh hey ae
ee

aly o

eed, h


o ue of

aqued hab
a
d d
po
o

, o of he ave
hh poeed
fom he
e lae a
he poxmae p
ple
. A he
ame me he
o
ee be
g 
, a evey mome
 of 
ex
e
e a
d developme
, a

eal u
y, bu a u
y hh, 
volv
g 

elf a
 doe
a eal
mulply of d

 p
ple
, mu
 eve fall 
f
ely
ho of
he pefe ype of eal u
yha ealzed o
ly 
he Self-Ex
e
,
Nee

ay Be
g.

CHAPTER IX. NATURE AND PERSON.

70. SOME DIISIONS OF SUBSTANCES.I
he peed
g hape e d
u

ed
he
aue of
ub
a
e a
d ade
 
ge
eal, a
d he elao
beee

a
ub
a
e a
d 
ade

. We mu

ex exam
e he aegoy of

ub
a
e moe 
deal, em
a
g a
 doe

he mpoa
 o
ep
of pe
o
aly o pe
o
. Th
lae o
epo

o
e hh mu
 have

og
fo all phlo
ophe

he
udy of he huma

dvdual, bu
hh, fo
hola
 phlo
ophe
, 
ompleed a
d pefeed by he
lgh of Ch
a
Revelao
. We
hall e
deavou o
ho 
he f

plae ha a
be gaheed fom he lgh of ea
o
abou he o

uo

of pe
o
aly, a
d al
o befly o
oe ho Ch
a
Revelao
ha


ea
ed ou 

gh 
o he pefeo


volved 
. A
lead
g up
o he o
ep of pe
o
, e mu

e foh ea
dv
o

o
la

fao

of
ub
a
e: 
o _f
_ a
d _
eo
d_
ub
a
e
, a
d

o _omplee_ a
d _
omplee_
ub
a
e
.(277)
(_a_) The
pef a
d ge
e
aue
of
ub
a
al e
e
do
o

hee, lke ade

, 

dvdual
ub
a
e
; hey o

ue he
e

e
e of he lae, a
d he
e he
e _u
ve
al
_ ae alled
ub
a
e
.
Bu he u
ve
al a

uh doe

o eally ex
;  
ealzed o
ly 


dvdual
; 
he logal ode  pe-
uppo
e
he 
dvdual a
a
logal
ubje of hh  
affmed, a _
ubjeum abuo


eu
paedao

_. He
e  
alled a _
eo
d_
ub
a
e, hle he

dvdual
ub
a
e 
alled a _f
_
ub
a
e. Of ou
e e a

pedae abue
of u

ve
al
ub
a
e
, a
d u
e he
e a
logal

ubje
, a
he
e
ay _Ma
_ 
moal. Bu
uh popo
o

have
o
eal mea

g, a
d gve u

o 
fomao
abou ealy, exep 

o fa
a
e a
efe he pedae
(moal), hough he medum of he
u
ve
al
ubje
(ma
), bak ulmaely o he 
dvdual
ub
a
e

(Joh
, Jame
, e.) hh alo
e ae eal, a
d 
hh alo
e he u
ve
al
(ma
) ha

ealy. He
e he 
dvdual 
, 
he logal ode,
he ulmae a
d fu
dame
al
ubje of all ou pedao

. A
d
fuhemoe, he 
dvdual
ub
a
e a

o be u
ed a
a logal

pedae of a
yh
g u
dely
g 
elf, hle he u
ve
al
ub
a
e a

be
o u
ed 
elao
o he 
dvdual.
I
he o
ologal ode, of ou
e, he u
ve
al
ub
a
e 


dvdualzed, a
d, a

dvdual,  
he
ubje 
hh all
ade


hee, he _
ubjeum 
hae
o

_: he _o
ly_
ubje of
ma
y of hem, a
d he _emoe_ o _ulmae_
ubje of ho
e of hem
hh 
hee _mmedaely_ 
ohe ade

.
Thu
hle 
he o
ologal ode all
ub
a
e
, hehe e h
k of
hem a
u
ve
al o a

dvdual, ae he ulmae
ubje
of 
he
o

fo all eal ade


, 
he logal ode  
o
ly he 
dvdual

ub
a
e ha 
he ulmae
ubje of abuo
fo all logal
pedae
. He
e  a
ha he 
dvdual
ub
a
e ( ),
vi
diai
 fr isef mre f he re f sbje, was aed b
Arise , _
ub
ana ma_, w  cad  unv
a,


cc  nc
ub
anc, , _subst nt secun _.(278)

Tese re, of course, two w ys of reg rng subst nce, n not two re lly
stnct speces of subst nce s genus. Te stncton between te
_membr vent _ s logc l, not re l.
Te perfectly ntellgble sense n wc Arstotle n te
scol stcs esgn te te unvers l
subst nce, te sense of
moer te re lsm, ccorng to wc te unvers l consttutes,
n s entc l wt, te essence of te nvu l person or
tng, s entrely fferent from te sense n wc m ny
exponents of moern monstc e lsm conceve te unvers l s
te subst nce _p r excellence_, te _ens re lssmum_,
etermnng, expressng, evolvng tself n te nvu l
penomen of mn n of n ture, wc woul be merely ts
m nfest tons.(279)
(_b_) Te vsons of subst nce nto sprtu l n corpore l, of te
l tter nto norg nc n org nc, of tese g n nto veget tve n
nm l, n fn lly of nm l subst nces nto brute nm ls n um n
bengs,offer no spec l ffcultes. All purely n tur l or r ton l
nowlege of te possblty n n ture of purely sprtu l subst nces s
b se on te n logy of our nowlege of te um n soul, wc, toug
sprtu l subst nce, s not pure sprt, but s n tur lly lle wt
m tter n ts moe of exstence. Te nvu l um n beng offers to
um n experence te sole ex mple of te suffcently mysterous
conjuncton n combn ton of m tter n sprt, of te corpore l moe of
beng n te sprtu l moe of beng, to form one composte subst nce,
p rtly corpore l n p rtly sprtu l.
(_c_) Ts n turn suggests te vson of subst nces nto _smple_ n
_composte_. Te l tter re tose wc we unerst n to be consttute by
te n tur l n subst nt l unon of two re lly stnct but ncomplete
subst nt l prncples, form tve, etermnng, specfyng prncple,
n m ter l, etermn ble, nfferent prncple: suc re ll
corpore l subst nces weter norg nc, veget tve, sentent, or r ton l.
Te former, or smple subst nces, re tose wc we unerst n to be
consttute by sole n sngle subst nt l prncple wc etermnes
n specfes ter essence, wtout te conjuncton of ny m ter l,
etermn ble prncple. We  ve no rect n mme te experence of ny
_complete_ cre te subst nce of ts n; but e c of us  s suc rect
experence of n _ncomplete_ smple subst nce, _vz._ s own soul; wle
we c n nfer from our experence te _exstence_ of oter ncomplete
smple subst nces, _vz._ te form tve prncples of corpore l
subst nces, s lso te _possblty_ of suc complete smple subst nces
s pure sprts, n te ctu l _exstence_ of te perfectly smple,
uncre te subst nce of te Infnte Beng.
(__) If tere re suc tngs s composte subst nces, _.e._ subst nces
consttute by te subst nt l unon of two re lly stnct prncples,
ten t follows t t wle te composte subst nce tself s _complete_,
e c of ts subst nt l consttutve prncples s _ncomplete_. Of course
tere re m ny plosopers now  ys wo reject s mere ment l fctons,
s proucts of mere logc l stnctons, n s evo of objectve
v lty, te notons of _composte_ subst nce n _ncomplete_ subst nce.
Nor s ts to be wonere t wen we remember w t
v rety of
grounless n gr tutous notons re current n reg r to subst nce
tself (64). But unerst nng subst nce n te tr ton l sense lre y
expl ne (62), tere s notng w tever nconsstent n te noton of

composte subst nce, or of n ncomplete subst nce,prove tese notons
re unerstoo n te sense to be expl ne presently. N y, more, not only
re tese notons ntrnsc lly possble: we must even ol tem to be
objectvely v l n re l, to be truly expressve of te n ture of
re lty, unless we re prep re to ol t t tere s no suc tng s
subst nt l c nge n te unverse, n t t m n mself s mere
_ ggreg te_ of m ter l toms move ccorng to mec nc l l ws n
n bte by conscous soul, or tn ng prncple, r ter t n n
nvu l beng wt one efnte subst nt l n ture.
W t, ten, re we to unerst n by complete n ncomplete subst nces
respectvely? A subst nce s reg re s complete n te fullest sense
wen t s w ntng n no _subst nt l_ prncple wtout wc t woul be
nc p ble of _exstng_ n sc rgng _ ll_ ts functons n te ctu l
orer s n nvu l of some efnte speces. Of course no cre te
subst nce exsts or sc rges ts functons unless t s enowe wt
some ccents, _e.g._ wt propertes, f cultes, forces, etc. But tere
s no queston of tese ere. We re conserng only te essent l
perfectons of te subst nce. Tus, ten, ny exstng nvu l of ny
speces m n, orse, n o s
complete subst nce n ts fullest
sense. It s complete _n te lne of subst nce_, n _subst nt l_
perfecton, _n orne subst nt lt ts_, n smuc s t c n exst ( n
oes ctu lly exst) wtout beng conjone or unte subst nt lly wt
ny oter subst nce to form composte subst nce oter t n tself. An
t s complete _n te lne of specfc perfecton_, _n orne
spece_, bec use not only c n t exst wtout suc conjuncton wt ny
oter subst nt l prncple, but t c n sc rge _ ll_ te functons
n tur l to ts speces, n tus ten tow rs ts _fn l_ perfecton (47)
wtout suc conjuncton.
But t s concev ble t t subst nce mgt be complete n te lne of
subst nt l perfectons, n tus be c p ble of _exstng_ n te ctu l
orer n sc rgng tere _some_ of te functons of ts speces wtout
conjuncton wt ny oter subst nt l prncple, n yet be nc p ble of
sc rgng _ ll_ te functons n tur l to n nvu l of ts speces
wtout conjuncton wt some oter subst nt l prncple, n wc c se
t woul be _ncomplete_ n te lne of _specfc_ perfecton, toug
complete n everytng pert nng to ts _subst nt lty_. We now of one
suc subst nce,te um n soul. Beng sprtu l n mmort l, t c n exst
p rt from te boy to wc t s unte by n ture, n n ts sep r te
conton ret n n exercse ts sprtu l f cultes of ntellect n
wll; t s terefore complete s reg rs te stnctvely subst nt l
perfecton wereby t s c p ble of exstng n tself. But beng of ts
n ture estne for unon wt
m ter l prncple, consttutng n
nvu l of te um n speces only by me ns of suc unon, n beng
c p ble of sc rgng some of te functons of ts speces, _vz._ te
sentent n veget tve functons, only wen so unte, t  s not _ ll_
te perfectons of ts speces nepenently of te boy; n t s
terefore n ncomplete subst nce n te lne of specfc perfectons,
toug complete n tose essent l to ts subst nt lty.
Ag n, f t be true t t just s m n s compose of two subst nt l
prncples, soul n boy, so every lvng tng s compose of
subst nt l vt l prncple n
subst nt l m ter l prncple, n t t
every norg nc nvu l tng s l ewse compose of two re lly
stnct subst nt l prncples, form tve n p ssve or m ter l
prncple; n f, furtermore, t be true t t p rt from te sprtu l
prncple n m n every oter vt l or form tve prncple of te composte
tngs of our experence s of suc
n ture t t t c nnot ctu lly
exst except n unon wt some m ter l prncple, n _vce vers _,ten

t follows necess rly t t ll suc subst nt l prncples of tese

complete composte subst nces re temselves _ncomplete_ subst nces: n
ncomplete not only n reg r to perfectons wc woul m e tem
subsstng nvu ls of speces, but (unl e te um n soul)
ncomplete even n te lne of subst nt lty tself, n smuc s no one
of tem s c p ble of ctu lly exstng t ll except n unon wt ts
conn tur l n correl tve prncple.
Tus we rrve t te noton of subst nces t t re _ncomplete_ n te
lne of specfc perfectons, or n t t of subst nt l perfectons, or
even n bot lnes. An ncomplete subst nce, terefore, s not one wc
verfes te efnton of subst nce only n p rt. Te ncomplete
subst nce _fully_ verfes te efnton of subst nce.(280) It s
conjone, no oubt, _wt noter_ to form complete subst nce; but t
oes not exst _n te oter_, or n te composte subst nce, s ccents
o. It s _ subst nt l_ prncple of te composte subst nce, not n
_ ccent l_ etermn ton of te l tter, or of te oter subst nt l
prncple wt wc t s conjone. It tus verfes te noton of
subst nce s moe of beng wc n tur lly exsts n tself; n unte
wt ts correl tve subst nt l prncple t sc rges te functon of
supportng ll ccent l etermn tons wc ffect te composte
subst nt l essence. Snce, owever, t oes not exst tself
nepenently s n nvu l of speces, but only forms te complete
nvu l subst nce by unon wt ts correl tve subst nt l prncple,
t m y be, n  s been, ccur tely escrbe s not belongng to te
c tegory of subst nce _form lly_, but only _referent lly_, _reuctv_.
Te concepts of composte subst nce, of complete n ncomplete
subst nces, unerstoo s we  ve just expl ne tem, re terefore
perfectly ntellgble n temselves. An ts s ll we re concerne to
sow n te present context. Ts s not te pl ce to est bls te teses
of psycology n cosmology from wc tey re borrowe. T t te um n
soul s sprtu l n mmort l; t t ts unon wt
re lly stnct
m ter l prncple to form te nvu l um n subst nce or n ture s
subst nt l unon; t t ll lvng org nsms n ll norg nc boes re
re lly composte subst nces n subject to subst nt l c nge: tese
v rous teses of scol stc plosopy we ere ssume to be true. An f
tey re true te concepton of ncomplete subst nces n tur lly unte to
form complete composte subst nce s not only ntellgble s n
ypotess but s objectvely true n v l s tess; n tus te
noton of n ncomplete subst nce s not only consstent n legtm te
noton, but s lso noton wc gves ment l expresson to n objectve
re lty.
We m y  ts conser ton: Te concept of n ccent re lly stnct
from ts subst nce nvolves no ntrnsc repugn nce. Yet n ccent s
moe of beng wc s so we n w ntng n re lty, f we m y spe n
suc terms, t t t c nnot n tur lly exst except by nerng, me tely
or mme tely, n te stronger n more re l moe of beng wc s
subst nce. But n ncomplete subst nce s ger gr e of re lty t n
ny ccent. Terefore f ccents c n be re l, _ fortor_ ncomplete
subst nces c n be re l.
71. SUBSTANCE AND NATURE.We  ve lre y ponte out (13) t t te terms
essence, subst nce, n n ture enote w t s re lly te s me tng,
reg re uner fferent spects. Te term essence s somew t wer
t n subst nce, n smuc s t me ns w t tng s, weter te
tng be subst nce, n ccent, or concrete exstng nvu l
nclung subst nce n ccents.

Te tr ton l me nng of te term n ture n Arstotel n n

scol stc plosopy s unmst ble. It me ns te essence or subst nce
of n nvu l person or tng, reg re s _te fun ment l prncple
of te l tters ctvtes_. Every fnte nvu l comes nto exstence
ncomplete,  vng no oubt ts _essent l_ perfectons n propertes
_ ctu lly_, but ts _nterme te_ n _fn l_ perfectons only
_potent lly_ (47). Tese t re lzes gr u lly, troug te exercse of
ts conn tur l ctvtes. Every beng s essent lly ntene for
ctvty of some sort: Omne ens est propter su m oper tonem, s ys St.
Tom s. An by te const nt nterpl y of ter ctvtes tese bengs
re lze n sust n te unvers l orer wc m es te worl
_cosmos_.
Tere s n ll tngs n mm nent purpose or fn lty wc en bles us to
spe of te wole system wc tey form s Unvers l _N ture_.(281)
Terefore w t we c ll
_subst nce_ or _essence_ from te _st tc_ pont
of vew we c ll _n ture_ wen we conser t from te _yn mc_
st npont, or s n gent.(282) No oubt te forces, f cultes n
powers, te ctve n p ssve ccent l prncples, wereby suc n
gent exerts n unergoes cton, re te _proxm te_ prncples of ll
ts cton n c nge, but te _remote_ n fun ment l prncple of te
l tter s te essence or subst nce of te gent tself, n oter wors ts
_n ture_.
Not ll moern scol stcs, owever, re wllng tus to entfy
n ture wt subst nce. We  ve no ntutve nsgt nto w t ny
re l essence or subst nce s; our nowlege of t s scursve,
erve by nference from te penomen , te oper tons, te
conuct of tngs, n ccor nce wt te prncple, _Oper r
sequtur esse_. Moreover, te ctu lly exstng, concrete
nvu l m n, for nst nce s gre t v rety of ctvtes,
sprtu l, sentent, veget tve, n norg nc; e  s, moreover,
n te consttuton of s boy v rety of stnct org ns n
members; e ssml tes nto s boy
v rety of norg nc
subst nces; te tssues of s boy _ ppe r_ to be fferent _n
n_; te vt l functons wc subserve nutrton, growt n
reproucton re t le st n logous to mec nc l, pysc l n
cemc l c nges, f nee tey re not re lly n smply suc;
t m y be, terefore, t t te _ultm te m ter l_ consttuents of
s boy rem n _subst nt lly un ltere_ n ter p ss ge nto,
n troug, n out of te cycle of s veget tve lfe; t t
tey ret n ter element l _subst nt l forms_ wle tey ssume
_new n ture_ by becomng p rts of te one org nc wole, wose
ger rectve prncple omn tes n co-orn tes ll ter
v rous energes.(283) If ts be so tere s n te s me
nvu l multplcty of re lly n ctu lly stnct
subst nces; e c of tese, moreover,  s ts own exstence
proporton te to ts essence, snce te exstence of cre te
re lty s not re lly stnct from ts essence; nor s tere ny
re son for s yng t t ny of tese subst nces s ncomplete; w t
we  ve rgt to s y s t t no one of tem sep r tely s
complete _n ture_, t t e c beng n _ncomplete n ture_ untes
wt ll te oters to form one _complete n ture_: n smuc s no
one of tem sep r tely s n equ te ntrnsc prncple of ll
te functons wc t c n sc rge, n s n tur lly estne to
sc rge, by ts n tur l unon wt te oters, were s tere
results from ter unon _new fun ment l prncple_ of
co-orn te n  rmonze system of oper tonsn wor, _new
n ture_.

Ts lne of tougt mples mong oter tngs (_ _) te vew

t t were s tere s no groun for mttng te exstence of
_ncomplete subst nces_, tere s groun for stngusng
between _complete n ncomplete n tures_; (_b_) te vew t t
from te unon or conjuncton of n ctu l multplcty of
subst nces, e c rem nng un ltere n persstng n ts
exstence ctu lly stnct from te oters, tere _c n_ rse one
sngle complete n ture n ture wc wll be _one beng_ smply
n re lly, _unum ens per se et smplcter_, n not merely n
ggreg te of bengs or n ccent l unty, _unum per
ccens_, n tere _oes_ rse suc
n ture wenever te
component subst nces not merely co-oper te to sc rge cert n
functons wc none of tem coul sc rge sep r tely (wc
nee s true of n ccent l unon, s of two orses r wng
lo  wc neter coul r w by tself), but wen tey unte n
more perm nent n ntm te w y ccorng to w t we c ll n tur l
l ws or l ws of n ture, so s to form new fun ment l
prncple of suc functons.(284) Tese vews unoubtely owe
ter orgn to te belef t t cert n f cts brougt to lgt by
te pysc l n bologc l scences n moern tmes ffor strong
evence t t te element ry m ter l consttuents of boes,
weter norg nc or lvng, rem n _subst nt lly un ltere_
wle combnng to form te multtunous _n tur l ns_ or
_n tures_ of tose lvng or non-lvng m ter l tngs. It w s to
reconcle ts suppose _plur lty_ of _ ctu lly stnct_ n
_verse_ subst nces n te nvu l wt te nubt ble _re l
unty_ of te l tter, t t tese plosopers stnguse
between subst nce n n ture. But t s not cle r t t te f cts
llege ffor ny suc evence. Of course f te plosoper
ppro ces te conser ton of t wt w t we m y c ll te
tomc preconcepton of m ter l subst nces s perm nent,
unc nge ble enttes, ts vew wll preclue ll recognton of
_subst nt l_ c nge n te unverse; t wll terefore force m
to conclue t t e c nvu l, composte gent  s unty
wc must be _less_ t n subst nt l, n wc, bec use e feels
t to be _more_ t n mere ccent l or rtfc l unty, e
wll escrbe s _n tur l_, s unon to form _one n ture_. But
f e ppro c te evence n queston wt te vew t t
subst nt l c nge s possble, ts vew, nvolvng te
recognton of ncomplete subst nces s re l, wll remove ll
necessty for stngusng between subst nce n n ture, n
wll en ble m to conclue t t owever v rous n m nfol be
te ctvtes of te nvu l, ter co-orn ton n
unfc ton, s proceeng from te nvu l, pont to
_subst nt l_ unty n te l tter s ter fun ment l prncple,
unty resultng from te _unon of ncomplete subst nces_.
Ts l tter s unoubtely te vew of St. Tom s, of pr ctc lly
ll te meev l scol stcs, n of most scol stcs n moern
tmes. Nor o we see ny suffcent re son for receng from t,
or mttng te moern stncton between subst nce n n ture.
An f t be objecte t t te vew wc mts te re lty of
ncomplete subst nces n subst nt l c nge s s muc
preconcepton s w t we  ve c lle te tomc vew of subst nce,
our nswer s, once more, t t snce we  ve no ntellectu l
ntuton nto te re l consttuton of te subst nces wc
consttute te unverse, snce we c n rgue to ts only by
observng n re sonng from ter ctvtes on te prncple
_Oper r requtur esse_, te evence lone must ece wc vew
of tese subst nces s te correct one. Does te evence ffore

us by scentfc n lyss of ll te functons, norg nc,

veget tve, sentent n r ton l, of n nvu l m n, forb us
to conclue t t e s one complete subst nce, resultng from te
unon of two ncomplete subst nt l prncples, sprtu l soul
n
m ter l prncple? n t te s me tme compel us to nfer
t t e s one complete n ture resultng from te unon of
plur lty of prncples suppose to be complete s subst nces n
ncomplete s n tures? We beleve t t t oes not; nor c n we see
t t ny re lly useful purpose s serve by tus settng up re l
stncton between subst nce n n ture. From te evence to
 n t s neter more nor less ffcult to nfer unty of
subst nce t n unty of n ture n te nvu l. Te nference n
queston s n nference from f cts n te penomen l orer, n
te om n of te senses, to w t must be ctu lly tere n te
noumen l orer, n te om n of n ture or subst nce, om n
wc c nnot be re ce by te senses but only by ntellect. Nor
wll ny m gn ton m ges wc pcture for us te pysc l
fuson or co lescence of m ter l tngs n te om n of te
senses elp us n te le st to conceve n ny postve w y te
moe n wc ncomplete n tures or subst nces unte to form
complete n ture or subst nce. For tese l tter f cts belong to te
om n wc te senses c nnot re c t ll, n wc ntellect
c n re c only nferent lly n not by rect nsgt.
Hence we conser te vew wc reg rs re l unty of n ture s
comp tble wt re l n ctu l plur lty of complete subst nces
n te nvu l, s mprob ble. At te s me tme we o not
beleve t t ts vew s necess ry coroll ry from te re l
entfc ton of essence wt exstence n cre te tngs. We
 ve seen t t even f ccents  ve ter own exstence n so
f r s tey  ve ter own essence s tey  ve f essence n
exstence be re lly entc lneverteless te concrete subst nce
s etermne by ts ccents c n  ve
re lly unt ry
exstence, _unum esse_ corresponng to n entc l wt ts
composte consttuton (67). Sml rly, f te exstence of e c
ncomplete subst nce s entc l wt ts ncomplete essence,
ts s no obst cle to te complete subst ncewc results from
te unon of two suc ncomplete subst nt l prncples vng one
complete unt ry exstence entc l wt ts composte essence.
Hence t s useless to rgue g nst te vew t t plur lty of
ctu lly stnct n complete subst nces c n unte to form
complete n ture wc wll be re lly _one beng_, on te groun
t t e c complete subst nce  s lre y ts own exstence n
t t tngs wc  ve n preserve ter own exstence c nnot
form _one beng_. Suc n rgument s nconclusve; for ltoug
_one beng_  s of course only one exstence, t  s not been
prove t t ts one exstence c nnot result from te unon of
m ny ncomplete exstences: espec lly f tese exstences be
entc l wt te ncomplete essences wc re mttely
c p ble of untng to form one complete essence.
It m y, owever, be re son bly urge g nst te opnon uner
crtcsm t t, snce te complete subst nces re suppose to
rem n complete n unc nge n ter st te of combn ton, t s
ffcult to see ow ts combn ton c n be re l unon n not
merely n extrnsc juxt poston,one wc rem ns n re lty
merely ccent l conjuncton, even toug we m y gnfy t wt
te ttle of
n tur l unon.
An fn lly t m y be ponte out t t n ts vew te oper tons

of te nvu l  ve not re lly _one ultm te_ ntrnsc

prncple t ll, snce ben te suppose unty of n ture tere
s more fun ment l plur lty of ctu lly stnct subst nces.
72. SUBSISTENCE AND PERSONALITY.We  ve lre y ex mne te rel ton
between te nvu l n te unvers l, between _frst_ n _secon_
subst nces, n connexon wt te octrne of Invu ton (31-3). An we
ten s w t t w tever t be t t nvu tes te unvers l n ture, t s
t ll events not to be reg re s nytng extrnsc n super e to
ts n ture n te nvu l, s nytng re lly stnct from ts
n ture: t t, for nst nce, w t m es Pl tos um n n ture to be Pl tos
s not nytng re lly stnct from te um n n ture t t s n Pl to. We
 ve now to fx our ttenton on te n ture s nvu lze. We  ve to
conser te complete nvu l n ture or subst nce tself n ctu lly
exstng nvu l tngs or persons.
We must remember t t scol stcs re not gree s to weter tere s
re l stncton or only
vrtu l stncton between te ctu l
exstence n te complete nvu l essence or subst nce or n ture of
cre te nvu l bengs (21-4). Furtermore we  ve seen t t
plosopers wo stuy te met pyscs of te norg nc worl n of te
lower forms of lfe re un ble to s y wt cert nty w t s te
nvu l n tese om ns: weter t s te cemc l molecule or te
cemc l tom or te electron; weter t s te sngle lvng cell or te
lvng m ss consstng of plur lty of suc cells (31). But we  ve lso
seen t t s we scen te sc le of lvng tngs ll ffculty n
esgn tng te genune nvu l s ppe rs: t t m n, orse, n o
tree, re unoubtely nvu l bengs.
Be rng tese tngs n mn we  ve now to nqure nto w t  s been
c lle te _subsstence_ or _person lty_ of te complete nvu l
subst nce or n ture: t t perfecton wc en bles us form lly to
esgn te te l tter subsstng tng(285) or person. By
person lty we me n te subsstence of complete nvu l _r ton l_
n ture. We s ll terefore nqure nto te me nng of te generc term
_subsstent _ (or _suppost lt s_), _subsstence_, n te bstr ct. But
let us loo t t frst n te concrete.
A complete nvu l n ture or subst nce, wen t exsts n te ctu l
orer, re lly stnct n sep r te n ts own complete entty from every
oter exstng beng, exercsng ts powers n sc rgng ts functons
of ts own rgt n ccorng to te l ws of ts own beng, s s  to
_subsst_, or to  ve te perfecton of _subsstence_. In ts st te t
not only _exsts n tself_ s every subst nce oes; t s not only
_ncommunc ble_ to ny oter beng s every nvu l s, n
contr stncton wt _secon_ or _unvers l_ subst nces wc re, s
suc, nefntely communc ble to nvu ls; but t s lso complete
wole, ncommunc ble _ s mere ntegr l or essent l p rt_ to some oter
wole, unl e te ncomplete subst nt l consttuents, or ntegr l p rts,
members or org ns of, s y, n nvu l org nc boy; n fn lly t s
ncommunc ble n te sense t t t s not c p ble of beng ssume nto
te subsstng unty of some oter superor suppostum or person. All
tose c r cterstcs we fn n te nvu l subsstng tng or
person. It exsts n tself n s not communc ble to noter
subst nce _ s n ccent_, bec use t s tself subst nce. It s not
communc ble _to nvu ls s
unvers l_, bec use t s tself n
nvu l. It s not communc ble _ s n ntegr l or essent l p rt to
wole_, bec use t s tself complete subst nce n n ture.(286) Fn lly
t s not communc ble to, n c nnot be ssume nto, te unty of

ger person lty so s to subsst by vrtue of te l tters subsstence,

bec use t  s perfecton ncomp tble wt suc ssumpton, _vz._ ts
own proper subsstence, wereby t s lre y n ctu lly subsstng tng
or person n ts own rgt, or _su jurs_, so to spe .
Te menton of ts l st sort of ncommunc blty woul be
superfluous, n nee unntellgble,  we not now from
Dvne Revel ton t t te um n n ture of our Dvne Lor n
S vour, Jesus Crst, toug t s complete n most perfect
nvu l n ture, s neverteless _not person_, bec use It s
ssume nto te Person lty of te Secon Person of te Dvne
Trnty, n, unte ypost tc lly or person lly wt ts Dvne
Person, subssts by vrtue of te Dvne Subsstence of te
l tter.
We see, terefore, w t subsstence oes for complete nvu l n ture
n te _st tc_ orer. It m es ts n ture _su jurs_, ncommunc ble,
n entrely nepenent n te moe of ts ctu l beng: le vng
untouce, of course, te essent l epenence of te cre te subsstng
tng or person on te Cre tor. In te _yn mc_ orer, te orer of
ctvty n evelopment, subsstence m es te complete nvu l n ture
not only te ultm te prncple _by wc_ ll te functons of te
nvu l re sc rge, but lso te ultm te prncple or gent
_wc_ exercses tese functons: wle te n ture _ s suc_ s te
ultm te _prncpum_ QUO, te n ture _ s subsstng_ s te ultm te
_prncpum_ QUOD, n reg r to ll ctons em n tng from ts n ture.
Hence te scol stc porsm: _Actones sunt suppostorum_. T t s, ll
ctons em n tng from complete nvu l n ture re lw ys scrbe
n ttrbute to te l tter _ s subsstng_, to te subsstng tng or
person. In reg r to n nvu l um n person, for nst nce, weter
s ntellect tn s, or s wll resolves, or s m gn ton pctures
tngs, or s eyes see, or s  n wrtes, or s stom c gests, or
s lungs bre te, or s e  ces, t s te _m n_, te _person_,
properly, t t sc rges or suffers ll tese functons, toug by me ns
of fferent f cultes, org ns n members; n t s to m properly t t
we scrbe ll of tem.(287)
Now te nvu l um n person s neter s soul, nor s boy, nor
even bot conceve s two; e s _one_ beng, one complete subst nce or
n ture compose p rtly of sprtu l prncple or soul n p rtly of
m ter l prncple wc te soul nforms n so consttutes
lvng
um n boy. Hence te um n soul tself, weter we conser t s unte
to te m ter l prncple n te lvng um n person, or s semboe
n sep r te from ts conn tur l m ter l prncple, s not complete
subst nce, s not c p ble of _subsstng_ n  vng ts um n ctvtes
referre ultm tely to tself s te subsstng, person l prncple wc
elcts tese ctvtes. No oubt te semboe soul  s ctu l
_exstence_, but t  s not te perfecton of _subsstence_ or
_person lty_: t s not complete nvu l of te um n speces to
wc t belongs, n terefore t c nnot be properly c lle um n
person, complete subsstng nvu l of te um n speces.(288)
Furtermore, even toug n nvu l n ture be complete s
n ture, enowe wt ll te subst nt l n specfc perfectons
wc consttute t complete nvu l of te speces to wc
t belongs, neverteless f t s ssume nto te person lty of
noter n ger n ture, n subssts n person l unon wt te

l tter n by vrtue of te l tters subsstence, ten t t

n ture, not  vng ts own proper n conn tur l subsstence, s
not tself person. Nor c n te ctons wc re elcte by
me ns of t be scrbe ultm tely to t; tey must be scrbe to
te person by wose subsstence t subssts n nto wose
person lty t  s been ssume. If n nvu l um n n ture be
tus ypost tc lly or person lly ssume nto, n unte wt,
ger Dvne Person lty, n subssts only by ts Person lty,
suc um n n ture wll be re lly n truly n nvu l n ture
of te um n speces; te ctons elcte troug t n
performe by me ns of t wll be re lly n truly um n ctons;
but t wll not be um n person; wle ts ctons wll be
re lly n truly te ctons of te Dvne Person, n wll
terefore be lso re lly n truly vne: tey wll be te
ctons of te Go-M n, vne n um n, _te nrc_. All ts we
now only from Dvne Revel ton concernng te ypost tc unon
of te um n n ture of Crst wt te Person of te Dvne Wor;
nor coul we now t oterwse. But ll ts oes not mofy, t
only supplements n completes, w t te lgt of re son scloses
to us reg rng te subsstence or person lty of ny complete
nvu l n ture.
We re now n poston to gve nomn l efntons of subsstence n
person lty bot n te bstr ct n n te concrete, _.e._ efntons
wc wll nc te to us w t ex ctly t s t t tese terms enote,(289)
n wc wll tus en ble us to nqure nto ter connot ton, or n
oter wors to s w t s t precsely t t consttutes subsstence or
person lty.
By _subsstence_ (_subsstent _, _suppost lt s_) we me n t t
perfecton wereby fully complete nvu l n ture s renere n every
w y, n ts beng n n ts ctons, stnct from n ncommunc ble to
ny n every oter beng, so t t t exsts n cts _su jurs_,
utonomously, nepenently of every oter beng s ve te Cre tor.(290)
By
_subsstng beng_ n te concrete (, _sppsim_,
_hpsasis_), we mea
a bei
 e
dwed wih his perfei
f
sbsise
e; i
her wrds, a bei
 ha is a mpee i
divida
are
exisi
 a
d ai
 i
ever wa disi
 frm a
d i
mm
iabe  a

her bei
, s ha i exiss a
d as _si jris_, a
ms.
_Pers
ai_ is simp he sbsise
e f a mpee i
divida
are
ha is _rai
a_, _i
eie
_.
A _pers
_ is simp a _sbsisi
_
are ha is _rai
a_,
_i
eie
_: _Pers
a es sppsim rai
ae_. The defi
ii
ive
b
Bis is assi: _Pers
a es sbsa
ia i
divida_ RATIONALIS
_
arae_: he i
divida sbsa
e f a rai
a
are,where he
erm _i
divida_ is 
dersd  imp _aa exisi
 a
d
sbsisi
_.
The speia
ame whih has hs bee
radii
a appied  _rai
a_
r _i
eie
_ sbsisi
 bei
s (as disi
 frm a
imas, pa
s, a
d
maeria hi
s)he erm pers
(_pers
a_, a mask: _per-s
s_;
_f._ Gr. , frm , he fae, 
e
a
e)rii
a
mea
i
 a re r haraer i
a drama, ame  be appied  he
sbsisi
 hma
i
divida, a
d  

e a erai
di
i f he
aer as mpared wih he wer r

-rai
a bei
s f he 
iverse.
A
d i
fa he asripi
f is ai
s  he sbsisi
 bei
 is mre

deep r
ded i
he sbsise
e f rai
a, i
eie
 bei
s, wh,
as free ae
s, a
mre prper dire a
d 
r hese ai
s.(291)
73. DISTINCTION BETWEEN THE INDIIDUAL NATURE AND ITS SUBSISTENCE. WHAT
CONSTITUTES PERSONALITY?K
wi

w wha we mea
b he erms
sbsise
e, sppsim, pers
, a
d pers
ai, we have
ex 
i
qire i
wha preise des sbsise
e 
sis. Wha is i ha

sies a mpee i
divida
are a sbsisi
 bei
, r if he

are be rai
a, a pers
? Sbsise
e 

es, ver a
d abve he
mde f exisi
 i
isef whih haraerizes a sbsa
e, he
i

ha he sbsa

e r
are is i
divida, ha i is mpee, ha i
is i
ever wa i
mm
iabe, ha i is _si jris_ r a
ms i

is exise
e a
d aiviies. These
i
s are a psiive; he imp
psiive perfei
s: eve
i
mm
iabii is rea a psiive
perfei
hh he erm is
eaive. B is a
 
e f he psiive
perfei
s, hs 
ai
ed i
he
i
f sbsise
e, a psiive
smehi
 _ver a
d abve_, a
d _rea disi
 frm_, he perfei

aread impied i
he 
ep f _a mpee i
divida
are as sh_?
Sme f hse phisphers wh reard he disi
i
bewee
esse
e a
d
exise
e i
reares as a rea disi
i
, ide
if he _sbsise
e_
f he mpee i
divida
are wih is _aa exise
e_, hs
pai
 a rea disi
i
bewee

are a
d sbsise
e r
pers
ai.(292) Apar frm hese, hwever, i is
 ike ha a

phisphers, ided b he ih f reas
a
e, wd ever have hed,
r eve
sspeed, ha he sbsise
e f a
aa exisi
 i
divida

are is a psiive perfei

rea disi
 frm, a
d speradded ,
he aer. Fr we
ever, i
r
ara experie
e, e

er a
exisi

i
divida sbsa
e, r
are, r ae
, ha is
 disi
,
a
ms, i
depe
de
, _si jris_, a
d i
mm
iabe i
is mde f
bei
 a
d ai
.
Rirs, hwever, his wd 
 prve ha sbsise
e is a
perfei
_
ara i
separabe_ frm he mpee i
divida

are; _
eivab_ i _mih_ si be _rea_ disi
 frm
he aer. B wheher r
 sh rea disi
i
d be
sspeed b he 
aided ih f reas
wrki
 

ara
experie
e, a a eve
s wha we k
w frm Divi
e Reveai


er
i
 he hpsai 
i
f he hma

are f r Lrd
Jess Chris wih he Pers
f he Divi
e Wrd, e
abes s 
reaize ha here _a
_ be, i
he aa rder f hi
s, a
mpee i
divida
are whih is
 a sbsisi
 bei
 r
pers
; fr he hma

are f r Lrd is _de fa_ sh a

are,a
d _ab a ad psse vae 
sei_. This i
frmai
,
hwever, is
 deisive i
deermi
i
 he haraer f he
disi
i
bewee
he i
divida sbsa
e r
are a
d is
sbsise
e.
I ma be ha he mpee i
divida
are is _e ips_ a
d ide
ia
a sbsisi
 bei
 r pers
, ha i is awas i
depe
de
,
a
ms, _si jris_, b he ver fa ha i is a mpee i
divida

are, _
ess i is_ DE FACTO _assmed i
 he pers
ai f a hiher

are_, s ha i
his i
ermm
iai
wih he aer, i
he 
i
f he aers pers
ai, i is
 i
depe
de
, a
ms, _si
jris_, b depe
de
, sbrdi
ae, a
d _aeris jris_. I
his

dii
, i ses
hi
 psiive b he fa ha i is

w a
pers
a
d has
 is w
sbsise
e;
r des i ai
a
 _
ara_
perfei
, fr i was _ex hphesi_ mpee a
d perfe _as a
are_;

b i ai
s smehi
 _sper
ara_ i
asmh as i
w sbsiss i
a
ma

er wh 
de  i.(293) Ardi
  his view, herefre,
sbsise
e wd
 be a perfei
rea disi
 frm he mpee
i
divida
are; i wd be a me
a disi
 aspe f he aer, a
psiive aspe, hwever, 
sisi
 i
his
ares mpee
ess, is
sef-sffii
, a
ms haraer, a
d 
seqe

i
mm
iabii.(294)
The pri
ipa diffi aai
s his view is a heia
diffi. As frmaed b Urrabr,(295) i appears  i
vve
a
ambii i
he expressi
sbsa
ia 
i
. I is brief
his: If he sbsise
e prper  a mpee i
divida
are
adds
 psiive perfei
 he aer, s ha he aer

eessari sbsiss a
d is a pers

ess i is aa assmed
i
 a hiher pers
ai, a
d b he ver fa ha i is

aa s assmed, he
he hma

are f Chris is as
mpee i
ever wa a
d i
ever i
e f sbsa
ia perfei
,
b vire f is w
prper e
i, whe
aa 
ied wih he
Divi
e Pers
, as i wd be were i
 s 
ied, r as he
pers
f Peer, r Pa, r a
 her hma
pers
is. B his
impies ha here are i
Chris w sbsa
es mpee i
ever
respe. Nw bewee
w sh sbsa
es here a

 be a
sbsa
ia 
i
, a 
i
whih wd 
sie 
e bei
,

m per se e
s. He
e he view i
qesi
wd appear  be
i
admissibe.
B i is
 prved ha he 
i
f w sbsa
es mpee i

ever respe a

 res i
he 
sii
f a bei
 ha
is rea a
d e
i
e 
e
m per se e
s_i
he ase i

whih he 
i
is a pers
a 
i
_. The hpsai 
i
f he
hma

are f Chris wih he Divi
e Pers
is primari a
_pers
a_ 
i
whereb he frmer
are sbsiss b a
d i
he
Divi
e Pers
ai. I has he effe f 
sii
 he 
ied
erms 
e sbsisi
 bei
, a
d herefre has speremi
e
, if

 frma, he effe f a sbsa

ia 
i
. Na, i is a
sbsa
ia 
i
i
he se
se ha i is a 
i
f w
sbsa
es,
 f a sbsa
e a
d aide
s; a
d as i
he
se
se ha i is
 a mere aide
a areai
r arifiia
jxapsii
f sbsa
es, resi
 mere i
he 
sii

f eive r arifiia 
i, a _
m per aide
s_. B is
i a sbsa
ia 
i
i
he se
se ha i is sh a 
i
f
sbsa
es as ress i

e
are? Ms erai

; fr
his was he heres f he M
phsies: ha i
Chris here is

 
e
are resi
 frm he 
i
f he hma

are wih
he Divi
e. If he
, wih Urrabr, we mea
b
are simp
sbsa
e rearded as a pri
ipe f ai
(71), a
d if,
frhermre, he hpsai 
i
des
 res i

e
are,

eiher des i res i


e sbsa
e,
r a
i be a
sbsa
ia r
ara 
i
i
his se
se.(296) He des

sa, f rse, ha he hpsai 
i
is a sbsa
ia 
i

whih ress i

e
are, r eve
expii ha i ress
i

e sbsa
e, b he sas ha he w sbsa
es are
sbsa
ia 
ji
ed, sbsa
iaier 
j

r; a
d he

i
es, a sbsa
ia 
i
is sh a 
j
i
f w
sbsa
ia reaiies ha here ress frm i 
e sbsa
ia
smehi
, whih is r a
d prper 
e
i e
im
sbsa
iais, es ais darm rerm sbsa
iaim 
j
i,
per qam resa 
m aiqid sbsa
iae qd vere e prprie
si 
m,(297)a
d he 
des ha here is smehi


sbsa
ia wa
i
 i
he hma

are f Chris, _viz._
pers
ai, whih, f rse, is ms ab
da
 sppied i
he
hpsai 
i
b he Divi
e Pers
reiqm es, 
arae
hma
ae i
Chris aiqid desi sbsa
iae,
empe pers
aias,
qd per 
i
em hpsaiam maissime sppear a
erb.(298) Nw, his aiqid sbsa
iae a

 be aiqid

arae i
he se
se ha i is smehi
 _
siive_ f he
hma
sbsa
e r
are; fr he hma
sbsa
e r
are f
Chris is erai
 mpee a
d perfe as a sbsa
e r
are.
I ms be sme mpeme
 r mde, ha is
ara de  i,
b sper
ara sppied b he Pers
f he Divi
e Wrd.(299)
This bri
s s  he view ha sbsise
e is a smehi

psiive, disi
 i
sme rea wa, a
d
 mere i
r

eps, frm he mpee i
divida sbsa
e.
Ardi
  he mre mm
view f ahi phisphers (a
d
heia
s) sbsise
e is sme psiive perfei
rea disi
 frm
he mpee i
divida
are. B he spprers f his e
era view
expai
i i
differe
 was. We have aread referred  he view f
erai
Thmiss wh, ide
ifi
 _sbsise
e_ wih he _aa
exise
e_ f he mpee sbsa
e r
are, pae a rea disi
i

bewee
he exise
e a
d he sbsa
e r
are. Oher Thmiss, whie
defe
di
 he aer disi
i
, pi
  ha aa exise
e 
fers

 rea perfei
, b 
 aaizes he rea; he hd, herefre,
ha sbsise
e is
 exise
e, b is raher a perfei
f he rea,
esse
ia, r sbsa
ia rder, as disi
 frm he exise
ia rdera
perfei
presppsed b aa exise
e, a
d whse prper f
i
is
 _
if_ a he sbsa
ia 
sie
s a
d aide
a deermi
ai
s
f he i
divida sbsa
e r
are, hs maki
 i a rea 
iar
bei

m e
s per seprximae apabe f bei
 aaized b he
simpe exise
ia a: whih aer is he imae aai f he rea
bei
: _esse es ims as_.(300)
The 
ree i
divida
are, 
ai
i
 as i des a prai f
rea disi
 pri
ipes, sbsa
ia a
d aide
a,
eeds sme

ifi
 pri
ipe  make hese 
e i
mm
iabe reai, prximae
apabe f reeivi
 a rresp
di
 
iar exise
ia a: wih sh
a pri
ipe, he sa, eah f he sbsa
ia a
d aide
a pri
ipes
i
he 
ree i
divida
are wd have is w
exise
e: s ha
he res wd be
 _rea_ 
e bei
, b a bei
 rea _ma
ifd_
a
d 
 aide
a 
e
m per aide
s. This pri
ipe is
_sbsise
e_.
The hma

are f r Divi
e Lrd has
 is w


ara
sbsise
e; his is sppied b he sbsise
e f he Divi
e
Pers
. Mrever, si
e he hma

are i
qesi
has
 is
w
sbsise
e,
eiher has i is w
exise
e; exise
e is
he aai f he sbsisi
 bei
; herefre here is i

Chris b 
e exise
e, ha f he Divi
e Pers
, whereb as
he hma

are f Chris exiss.(301)
Of hse wh de
 ha he disi
i
bewee
he exise
e a
d he
esse
e f a
 reaed
are is a rea disi
i
, sme hd i
he
prese
 maer he Sis view ha sbsise
e is
 a psiive
perfei
rea disi
 frm he mpee i
divida
are. Ohers,
hwever, hd wha we have ve
red  reard as he mre mm
view:
ha pers
ai is smehi
 psiive a
d rea disi
 frm
are.

B he expai

wha he 
eive sbsise
e  be wih a

refere
e  exise
e, a
d wih disi
ishi
 bewee
he esse
ia
a
d he exise
ia rder f reai.
The ms mm
expa
ai
seems  be ha sbsise
e is a 
ifi

pri
ipe f he 
ree i
divida
are, as saed abve. Ths

eived, i is
 a
_abse_ reai;
r is he disi
i
bewee

i a
d he
are a _majr_ rea disi
i
. I is a _sbsa
ia mde_
(68),
ara speradded  he sbsa
e a
d mda disi
 frm he
aer. I s mpees a
d deermi
es he sbsa
e r
are ha he
aer
 
 exiss i
isef b is as, b vire f his mde,
i
mm
iabe i
ever wa a
d _si jris_.(302) I ives  he
sbsa
e ha imae deermi
ae
ess whih a
aide
a mde sh as a
defi
ie shape r ai
ives  he aide
 f qa
i.(303)
This mde is abse
 (sper
ara) frm he hma

are f r
Divi
e Lrd; his
are is herefre mm
iabe; a
d he
Pers
ai f he Divi
e Wrd sper
ara sppies he
f
i
f his abse

ara mde.
I ms be 
fessed ha i is
 eas  
dersa
d hw his r a

her _sbsa
ia_ mde a
be _rea_ disi
 frm he sbsa
e i
mdifies. A
d i
rh he disi
i
is
 rea i
he f se
se: i
is
 bewee
_hi
_ a
d _hi
_, _i
er rem e rem_. A ha is
aimed fr i is ha i is
 mere me
a; ha i is
 mere a

_e
s rai
is_ whih he mi
d prjes i
 he reai; ha i is a
psiive perfei
f he
are r sbsa
e, a perfei
whih, hh

ara i
separabe frm he aer, is
 abse i
separabe, a
d
whih, herefre, is _de fa_ sper
ara abse
 frm he hma

are a
d repaed b he Divi
e Pers
ai i
he ase f he
hpsai 
i
.
I be
s, mrever,  he rder f sbsa
e,
  ha f aide
s:
he sbsa
ia mde differs frm he aide
a mde, r mda aide
,
i
his, ha i ives  he sbsa
e sme imae deermi
i

perfei
whih apperai
s  he sbsa
e as sh, a
d whereb he
sbsa
e is mpeed i
he rder f exisi
 i
isef. Sbsise
e
is
 a
aide
, eve
hh i sperve
es 
he mpee
are, fr
i deermi
es he sbsa
e f he aer,
 i
reai
 a
 i
e f
aide
a aivi, as a pwer r fa,
r as smehi
 mdifi
 i
aide
a, b as a mde whih imae deermi
es a
d perfes i i

he rder f sbsa

ia reai isef, i
he rder f exisi
 i

isef i
sh a f a
d perfe ma

er as  be _si jris_ a
d
i
mm
iabe.
The mai
diffi aai
s his view is as heia: If
sbsise
e is a psiive perfei
i eiher be
s  he
mpee i
divida
are r i des
; i
he frmer ase he
hma
i f Chris, assmed b he Divi
e Wrd, was
 a mpee
hma

are; i
he aer ase he i
divida hma

are a

exis wih i: a

d bh 
seqe
es are eqa i
admissabe.
B i ma be repied ha, ra
i
 he firs member f he
disj
ive, he 
seqe
e i
ferred frm i des
 rea
fw: sbsise
e be
s  he mpee i
divida
are as
a
imae
ara mpeme
; b whe
i is abse
 a
d sppied
sper
ara b he Divi
e Pers
ai he
are is si
mpee as a
are: i is wa
i
 i

 abse r e
iaive

perfei
, b 
 i
a mdai whih is speremi
e

sppied b he Divi
e Pers
ai. Neiher is he 
seqe
e
frm he se
d member f he disj
ive a vaid i
fere
e. Fr
hh pers
ai as a mde des
 be
  he esse
e f a

i
divida hma

are,
 sh i
divida
are a
exis
wih _sme_ pers
ai, eiher is w
r a
her: js as
exe
si
a

 exis wih _sme_ shape, hh a

 pariar
shape is
 esse
ia  i.
T sm p, he
, he dri
e f he w preedi
 sei
s: Wha are we
 
dersa
d b a _pers
_, a
d b _pers
ai_? U
qesi
ab r

epi
f pers
a
d pers
ai (
ree a
d absra) is mai

deermi
ed, a
d ver rih s, b a
a
asis f wha 
sies he
aa exisi
 i
divida f he hma
speies. Whaever r 
ep
be, i ms erai
 be reaized a
d verified i
a hma
i
dividas:
hese, befre a her bei
s, ms be i
ded i
he de
ai
f r

ep f pers
. I
fa, fr he phispher, ided b he
ara
ih f reas
a
e, he erm a
have hard a
 her 

ai
. He
wi,
 db, asribe pers
ai, as he hihes mde f bei
 he k
ws
f,  he Spreme Bei
; b he wi here asribe i 
 i
a

a
aia a
d speremi
e
 wa; a
d 
 frm Divi
e Reveai
a
he
k
w ha his Spreme Bei
 has
 a si
e b a hreefd Pers
ai.
Aai
, his 
siderai
f he
are f he hma
s as a
embdied
sbsa
e whih is
everheess spiria a
d immra wi e
abe him 
affirm he pssibii f _pre spiria_ reaed bei
s; a
d hese he
wi f rse 
eive as pers
s. B, 
eivi
 he hma
s isef
as a 
sie
 pri
ipe f he hma
i
divida, he wi
 
eive
he s isef as a pers
.
The phispher wh 
dersa
ds he radii
a Ariseia

epi
s
f sbsa
e, f i
divida sbsa
e (_sbsa
ia prima_), f i
mpee,
mpee, a
d mpsie sbsa
es, f sbsa
e 
sidered as _
are_ r
pri
ipe f ai
, f sbsa
e 
sidered as _hpsasis_, as he
aa exisi
 i
divida bei
 whih is he imae ia sbje
f a prediai
s a
d he imae 
ia sbje f a rea
deermi
ai
s: he phispher wh 
dersa
ds hese 
eps, a
d wh
admis hem  be vaid r
ded i
experie
e, a
d  ffer as far as
he  a rre i
erpreai
f reai, wi have
 diffi i

maki
 p his mi
d ab wha is reqisie  
sie a pers
.
Wherever he fi
ds a
exisi
 i
divida bei
 f a
 speies, a bei

whih, eve
if i is rea mpsie, is
everheess rea 
e, sh a
bei
 he wi pr

e  be a sbsisi
 i
divida bei
. He ma

be abe, i
he i
ra
i wrd r am
 he wer frms f ife, 
disi
ish fr erai
wha is he rea i
divida frm wha ma be
perhaps 
 a
aide
a, if
ara, 
 r rp f rea
i
dividas. As a es he wi awas seek fr he ma
ifesai
f a

i
er
a direive pri
ipe whereb a he via f
i
s f he
ra
ized mass f maer i
qesi
are -rdi
aed i
sh a ma

er as
 make fr he preservai
, rwh a
d devepme
 f he whe
hrh a defi
ie ife e frm birh  deah. This frmaive a
d
direive pri
ipe is evide
e f a
i
divida 
i f
are a
d
sbsise
e; a
d sh evide
e is ab
da
 prese
 i
i
dividas f
a he hiher speies i
ba
 a
d z. The i
divida sbsisi

bei
 wi herefre be a mpee i
divida sbsa
e r
are,
exisi
 a
d ai
 i
ever wa disi
 frm a
d i
mm
iabe  a

her bei
, s ha i exiss a
d as _si jris_, a
ms.
If sh a
i
divida
are is
 mere rprea b ra
i r

a
imae,
 mere a
imae b se
ie
, a
d
 mere se
ie
 b
_rai
a_ r _i
eie
_, _i.e._ 
sied a eas i
par b a
_spiria sbsa
ia pri
ipe_ whereb he i
divida is _i
eie
_
a
d _free_, he
ha i
divida is a pers
. Ever i
divida f he
hma
speies is sh. A
d a ha is esse
ia  his mpee
i
divida hma

are e
ers i
 a
d 
sies his pers
i
he

ree. N mere, herefre, his i
ee a
d wi;
 mere his
s 
sidered as mi
d, _i.e._ as he basis a
d pri
ipe f his whe

sis a
d sb
sis pshi ife; r as as he pri
ipe f his
mere ra
i ife; r as as he aaizi
 pri
ipe f his rprea

are; b
 ess as he rprea pri
ipe isef f his mpsie
bei
, he bd isef wih a is pars a
d members a
d ra
s: a
hese wih exepi
be
 eqa  he hma
pers
; a f hem
wih exepi
  
sie he _E_.(304) This, whih is he
Ariseia
a
d shasi view f he hma
pers
, is i
perfe ard
wih he mm
-se
se view f he maer as evide
ed b he rdi
ar
saes f a
ae. We speak i
eiib
 ess ha
rre whe
we
sa ha a ma
s bd is par f his pers
as we as his s r mi
d.
A
d we make a
 ess arae, i
eiibe, a
d
eessar disi
i
,
whe
we disi
ish bewee
a ha whih _
sies_ he hma
pers

a
d ha _whereb we k
w_ rseves a
d her hma
i
dividas  be
pers
s. Ye his disi
i
is
 kep ear i
mi
d b ma
 mder

phisphers, wh, apprahi

 he sd f pers
ai exsive frm
he side f wha he i
divida 
sis
ess esifies as  he 
i
a
d 
i
i (r herwise) f me
a ife i
he i
divida, are
sa
daized a he asseri
ha he hma
bd a
have a
hi
  d
wih hma
pers
ai.
74. CONSCIOUSNESS OF THE PERSONAL SELF.I
rder  frm he 
ep f
pers
, a
d  fi
d ha 
ep verified i
he daa f r experie
e,
i is abse esse
ia ha we be e
dwed wih he _fa f
i
eie
e_, he spiria pwer f frmi
 absra 
eps; a
d
se
d, ha havi
 frmed he 
ep f pers
as a rai
a r
i
eie
 sbsisi
 bei
, we be apabe, b he exerise f _refex

sis
ess_,  fi
d i
r w
me
a ife he daa frm whih we a


de ha his 
ep f pers
is verified i
eah a
d ever 
e f
rseves. I is bease we are e
dwed wih i
eie
e ha we a
frm
a he absra
i
sf sbsa
e, i
divida, sbsise
e, exise
e,
e.,whih e
er i
 a
d 
sie r 
ep f pers
. A
d i is
bease we a
, b mea
s f his fa, refe 
r w
me
a
perai
s, a
d i
fer frm hem ha eah f s is a mpee i
divida
rai
a
are sbsisi
 i
depe
de
 a
d i
mm
iab, ha we a

k
w rseves  be pers
s.
Hw he hma
i
divida frms hese 
eps a
d fi
ds hem verified i

his w
sef, hw he rada mes i
 
sis pssessi
f he
k
wede f his w
i
divida bei
 as a
_E_, sef, r pers
, are
prbems fr Psh.(305) I wi be sffiie
 here  pi
  ha
here are r
ds fr disi
ishi
 bewee
he i
dividas impii
sbjeive aware
ess f his sbsise
e r sefhda
aware
ess whih
ampa
ies a his 
sis me
a f
i
s, a
d whih bemes mre
expii a
d defi
ie as he pwer f i
rspei
a
d refex

sis
ess devepsa
d he _absra qasi-bjeive
i
_ f his
w
_pers
ai_ habia pssessed b ever hma
bei
.(306)
The i
divida hma
bei
 _immediae_ apprehe
ds his w
exise
e, a
d
his abidi
 
i r same
ess hrh i
essa
 ha
i
 saes, i

he empra series f his 

sis aiviies; b his k
wede f he
_
are_ f his w
bei
 a
be he res 
 f a 
 a
d aref

ded a
asis f his w
aiviies, a
d f i
fere
es based 
he

haraer f hese aiviies. The frmer r impii k

wede f he
sef i
he 
ree is dire a
d i
iive. The i
divida _E_
apprehe
ds _isef_ i
_is saes_. This k
wede mes mai
 frm
wihi
, a
d is sbje  rada devepme
. Faher Maher hs desribes
hw he hid mes rada i
 pssessi
f i:
As hhs f peasres a
d pai
s repeaed i
he pas a
d
expeed i
he fre rw mre disi
, he dissimiari
bewee
hese a
d he perma
e
 abidi
 sef mes  be mre
f reaized. Passi
 emi
s f fear, a
er, va
i, pride, r
smpah, ae
ae he differe
e. B ms prbab i is he
daw
i
 se
se f pwer  resis a
d verme risi
 impse, a
d
he dim
ase
 
sis
ess f resp
sibii, whih ead p 
he fi
a reveai
, 
i a as, i
sme refeive a f
memr r hie, r i
sme vae effr  
dersa
d he
f-heard I, he rea rh is ma
ifesed  him: he hid
e
ers, as i were, i
 pssessi
f his pers
ai, a
d k
ws
himsef as a _Sef-
sis Bei
_. The _E_ des
 _reae_
b _disvers_ isef. I
Jffrs feiis phrase, i
breaks is she, a
d fi
ds ha i is _a Pers
a Ae
 wih a

exise
e a
d i
dividai f is w
_, sa
di
 he
efrward
a
e i
ppsii
 he 
iverse.(307)
Afer his sae is reahed, he hma
i
divida easi disi
ishes
bewee
he sef as he _ase_ r _sbje_ f he saes, a
d he
saes as _mdifiai
s_ f he sef. This disi
i
is impii i
he

mia
 aware
ess f sef whih ampa
ies a exerise f dire

iive 
sis
ess. I is expii i
a deiberae as f refex,
i
rspeive sef-
sis
ess. The daa frm whih we frm he absra

eps f sbsa
e,
are, i
divida, pers
, sef, e., a
d frm
whih we arrive b reas
i
 a a phisphia k
wede f he
are
a
d pers
ai f he hma
i
divida, are fr
ished mai
 b
i
rspei
; b as i
par b exer
a bservai
f he 
iverse
ar
d s.
C
mia
, hwever, wih he press b whih we beme impii b
immediae aware f he _E_ r sef as a
abidi
 sef-ide
ia pers

i
a
d hrh r w
me
a aivi, we rada frm a
qasi-bjeive a
d hisria view f r w
pers
ai as 
e f a

mber f simiar pers

aiies ar
d s i
he 
iverse. This view, sas
Faher Maher,

ahers i
 isef he hisr f m pas ifehe ai
s f m
hidhd, bhd, h, a
d aer ears. I
erwve
wih hem
a is he imae f m bdi ra
ism, a
d seri
 ar
d are
a fri
e f reei
s f m dispsii
s, habis, a
d
haraer, f m hpes a
d reres, f m resi
s a
d
faires, a
 wih a dim 
sis
ess f m psii
i
he
mi
ds f her seves.
U
der he frm f a represe
ai
f his mpsie ar, b
d
eher b he hread f memr, eah f s rdi
ari 
eives
his mpee abidi
 _pers
ai_. This idea is
eessari

deri
 
sa
 mdifiai
; a
d i is i
mpari
 he
prese
 frm f he represe
ai
wih he pas, whis adveri

 
siderabe aerai
s i
m haraer, bdi appeara
e,
a
d he ike, ha I smeimes sa: I am mpee ha
ed, I

am qie a
her pers
, hh I am, f rse, 
vi
ed ha
i is he same I wh am ha
ed i
aide
a qaiies. _I is
bease his mpex
i
f m pers
ai is a
absrai

frm m remembered experie

es __ ha a perversi
f imai
ai

a
d a rpre f memr a
smeimes i
de he s-aed
_isi
s r aerai
s f pers
ai_._(308)
Whe
we remember ha his bjeive 
epi
f he sef is s
depe
de
 
he f
i
f memr, a
d ha he
rma exerise f his
fa is i
r
s depe
de
 
he
rma f
i
i
 f he brai
a
d
he
ervs ssem,(309) we a
hazard a
i
eiibe expa
ai
f he
ab
rma fas rerded b ms mder
pshiss 
er
i
 hp
ism,
sm
ambism a
d dbe r mipe 
sis
ess.(310) Faher Maher,
asribi
 hese phe
me
a par  disai
s f memr, par 

sa rpi
s f me
a saes ardi
  he aws f me
a
assiai
rpi
s ha arise frm peiar phsiia 

exi
s
bewee
he varis
era f
i
i
s f he brai
e
res,a
d par
 semi-
sis r refex
erve presses, emphasizes a
impra
 fa
ha is smeimes s sih f: he fa ha sme sei
a eas f
he i
dividas 
sis me
a ife is mm
, a
d prese

hrh, he w r mre saes r 
dii
s bewee
whih a

sh ab
rma i
divida is f
d  aer
ae. This 
siderai
is
isef sffiie
  disprve he her whih we sha prese

referha here is r ma be i
he i
divida hma
bei
 a dbe, r
eve
a mipe hma
pers
ai.
75. FALSE THEORIES OF PERSONALITY.I is pai
ha 
sis _me
a
aivi_ a

 _
sie_ hma
pers
ai, r sb
sis me
a
aivi eiher, fr a aivi is f he aide
a mde f bei
, is
a
_aide
_, whereas a pers
ms be a _sbsa
e_. Of rse i is he
sef-
sis 
iive aivi f he hma
i
divida ha _reveas_
 he aer his w
sef as a pers
: i is he exerise f refex

sis
ess mbi
ed wih memr ha ives s he feei
 f pers
a
ide
i wih rseves hrh he ha
i
 eve
s f r me
a a
d
bdi ife. Frhermre, his sef-
sis
ess has is r i
he
_rai
a_
are f he hma
i
divida; a
d rai
ai f
are is
he differe
iai
 pri
ipe whih makes he sbsisi
 i
divida a
pers
as disi
 frm a (sbsisi
) hi
. B he
, i is
 he
feei
 f pers
a ide
i ha _
sies_ he pers
. Aa

sis
ess is
eiher he esse
e,
r he sre,
r eve
he i
dex
f pers
ai; fr i is 
 a
aivi, a
d a
aivi whih reveas
immediae
 he _pers
_ as sh, b he _
are_ as rai
a;(311)

r des he rai

a (sbsa
ia) pri
ipe f a mpsie
are

sie he aer a pers
; b 
 he sbsise
e f he mpee
(mpsie) i
divida
are isef.
These 
siderai
s are sffiie
 bvis; he presppse, hwever,
he rh f he radii
a dri
e aread expai
ed i
reard  he
exise
e,
are a
d 
sibii f _sbsa
e_. Phisphers wh have
mis
dersd a
d rejeed a
d s his radii
a dri
e f sbsa
e
have prp
ded ma
 varieies f 
saisfar a
d i

sise
 heries
i
reard  wha 
sies pers
a
d pers
ai. The mai
feare
f a sh heries is heir ide
ifiai
f pers
ai wih he
habia 
sis
ess f sef, r habia feei
 f pers
a ide
i:
a feei
 whih, hwever, ms be admied  i
de _memr_ i
sme
frm, whie he f
i
f memr i
a
 shape r frm a

 be
saisfari expai
ed 
a
 her f he hma
_E_ whih de
ies
ha here is a hma
_sbsa
e_ persisi
 perma
e
 as a 
ifi

pri
ipe f sessive me
a saes (63-4).

S far as E
ish phisph is 
er
ed sh heries appear  have had
heir rii
i
Lkes eahi
 
pers
a
d pers
a ide
i.
Disssi
 he
i
s f ide
i a
d diversi,(312) he disi
ishes
bewee
he ide
i f a
i
divida sbsa
e wih isef i
is
drai
hrh ime, a
d wha he erms pers
a ide
i; whie b
ide
i i
e
era he mea
s
 absra ide
i b he 
ree
perma
e
e f a hi
 hrh ime (34). O
his we have  a
ae
i
 he fa ha js as _drai
_ is
 esse
ia  he
_
sii
_ f a sbsa
e, s
eiher is i esse
ia  he

sii
f a mpee sbsisi
 i
divida sbsa
e r pers
(64);
hh i is, f rse, a
esse
ia 
dii
fr a hma
apprehe
si

wheher f sbsa
e r f pers
. Lke was wr
, herefre, i


f
di
 wha reveas  s he abidi
 perma
e
e, ide
i r
same
ess f a sbsisi
 hi
 r pers
(wheher he sef r a
 her
sbsisi
 hi
 r pers
) hrh is drai
i
ime, wih wha

sies he sbsisi
 hi
 r pers
.
Frhermre, his disi
i
bewee
sbsa
ia ide
i, _i.e._ he
same
ess f a
i
divida sbsa
e wih isef hrh ime, a
d
pers
a ide
i r same
ess, was as a
errr. Fr as 
 as here is
_sbsa
ia_ 
i, 
i
i, r ide
i f he sbsisi
 i
divida
sbsa
e, s 
 is here 
i, 
i
i, r ide
i f is
sbsise
e, r f is pers
ai if i be a rai
a sbsa
e. The
_sbsise
e_ f a mpee i
divida i
ra
i sbsa
e is ha
ed as
s
as he i
divida 
deres _sbsa
ia_ ha
e: we have hem


er _he same_ sbsisi
 i
divida bei
. S, , he sbsise
e f
he ra
i i
divida is ha
ed as s
as he aer 
deres
_sbsa
ia_ ha
e b he dissi
f ife, b he separai
f is
frmaive a
d via sbsa
ia pri
ipe frm is maeria sbsa
ia
pri
ipe: afer sh dissi
we have
 
er _he same_ sbsisi

pa
 r a
ima. A
d, fi
a, he sbsise
e f a
i
divida ma
is
ha
ed, r i
errped, r eases b deah, whih separaes his s, his
via pri
ipe, frm his bd. We sa, mrever, ha i
he aer ase
he hma
_pers
_ eases  exis whe
he ide
i r perma
e
e f his
sbsisi
 sbsa
e r
are ermi
aes a deah; fr _pers
a
ide
i_ we hd  be he ide
i f he mpee sbsisi
 sbsa
e
r
are wih isef. B Lke, wh praia arees wih wha we have
said reardi
 he abidi
 ide
i f he sbsisi
 i
divida bei

wih isefwheher his i
divida be a
i
ra
i i
divida, a pa
, a
bre beas, r a ma
(313)disi
ishes a his pi
 bewee
ide
i f
he sbsisi
 i
divida sbsa
e a
d _pers
a_ ide
i.
Of ide
i i
e
era he sas ha  
eive a
d jde f i arih,
we ms 
sider wha idea he wrd i is appied  sa
ds fr; i bei


e hi
  be he same sbsa
e, a
her he same ma
, a
d a hird he
same pers
, if pers
, ma
, a
d sbsa
e, are hree
ames sa
di
 fr
hree differe
 ideas.(314) A
d, sri
  dissiae pers
frm
sbsa
e, he 
i
es hs:
T fi
d wherei
pers
a ide
i 
siss, we ms 
sider wha
pers
sa
ds fr; whih, I hi
k, is a hi
ki
, i
eie

bei
, ha has reas
a
d refei
, a
d a

sider isef as
isef, he same hi
ki
 hi
 i
differe
 imes a
d paes;
whih i des 
 b ha 
sis
ess whih is i
separabe frm
hi
ki
, a
d, as i seems  me, esse
ia  i. Whe
we see,
hear, sme, ase, fee, mediae, r wi a
 hi
, we k
w
ha we d s. Ths i is awas as  r prese
 se
sai
s a
d
perepi
s, a
d b his ever 
e is  himsef wha he as

sef; i
 bei
 
sidered i
his ase wheher he same sef
be 
i
ed i
he same r divers sbsa
es. Fr si
e

sis
ess awas ampa
ies hi
ki
, a
d i is ha whih
makes ever 
e  be wha he as sef, a
d hereb
disi
ishes himsef frm a her hi
ki
 hi
s; i
his
a
e 
siss pers
a ide
i, _i.e._ he same
ess f a
rai
a bei
: a
d as far as his 
sis
ess a
be exe
ded
bakwards  a
 pas ai
r hh, s far reahes he
ide
i f ha pers
; i is he same sef
w i was he
; a
d
i is b he same sef wih his prese
 
e ha
w refes 

i, ha ha ai

was d
e.(315)
The defi
ii
f pers
i
his passae as a hi
ki
, i
eie

bei
, e., is
 far remved frm r w
defi
ii
; b sre

sis hh is
 ha whih _makes_ ever 
e  be wha he as
sef, seei
 ha 
sis hh is 
 a
_aivi_ r _f
i
_
f he rai
a bei
. I is 
sis hh, f rse, i
di

memr, ha _reveas_ he rai
a bei
  himsef as a sef, a
d as
he same r ide
ia sef hrh ime; b 
ess he rai
a
bei
, r he hi
ki
, i
eie
 bei
, ha has reas
a
d
refei
, e.whih is Lkes w
defi
ii
f pers
were here
a he ime ide
ia wih isef, exerisi
 hse disi
 a
d
sessive as f 
sis
ess a
d memr, a
d 
ifi
 hem, hw d
hese as _eve
revea_ he pers
r his pers
a ide
i 
himsef,
  speak f heir _
sii
_ pers
ai r pers
a
ide
i? I is perfe pai
ha hese as _presppse_ he pers
,
he hi
ki
, i
eie
 bei
, r, as we have expressed i, he
sbsisi
, rai
a, i
divida
are _aread 
sied_; a
d i is
eqa pai
ha he pers
a ide
i whih he _revea_ is
_
sied b_, a
d _
siss simp i
_, he drai
r 
i
ed
exise
e f his same sbsisi
 i
divida rai
a
are;
r d
hese as revea a
 ide
i, pers
a r herwise, 
ess he were
he as f 
e a
d he same aa sbsisi
, exisi
 a
d persisi

sbsa
e.
Ye Lke hi
ks he a
divre pers
a ide
i frm ide
i f
sbsa
e, a
d a
 fr he frmer i
depe
de
 f he aer. I
fae
f he bvis diffi ha aa 
sis
ess is
 
i
s b
i
ermie
, he ries  mai
ai
ha he 
sis
ess whih i
ks
eher prese
 saes wih remembered saes is sffiie
  
sie
pers
a ide
i eve
ahh here ma have i
erve
ed bewee
he
prese
 a
d he pas saes a mpee ha
e f sbsa
e, s ha i is
rea a differe
 sbsa
e whih experie
es he prese
 saes frm
ha whih experie
ed he pas saes. The qesi

Wheher we are he same hi

ki
 hi
, _i.e._ he same sbsa
e
r
 ... 
er
s
 pers
a ide
i a a: he qesi

bei
, wha makes he same pers
, a
d
 wheher i be he same
ide
ia sbsa
e, whih awas hi
ks i
he same pers
:
differe
 sbsa
es, b he same 
sis
ess (where he d
parake i
i), bei
 
ied i
 
e pers
, as we as differe

bdies b he same ife are 
ied i
 
e a
ima, whse ide
i
is preserved, i
ha ha
e f sbsa
es, b he 
i f 
e

i
ed ife ... [fr] a
ima ide
i is preserved i
ide
i
f ife, a
d
 f sbsa
e.(316)
Here he 
e
i
is ha we a
have he same pers
a
d e



eessari he same ide
ia sbsa
e, bease _
sis
ess_ ma
ive a pers
a 
i  disi
 a
d sessive sbsa
es i
he
i
divida ma
js as _a
ima ife_ ives a
a
as 
i  disi

a
d sessive sbsa
es i
he i
divida a
ima. This is ver
sperfiia; fr i 
 sbsies fr he prbem f hma
pers
ai
he simiar prbem f expai
i
 he 
i a
d same
ess f sbsise
e i

he i
divida ivi
 hi
: a prbem whih i
vves he fa f _memr_
i
a
imas. Fr shasi phisphers 
i f ife i
he ivi
 hi
,
i
vvi
 he fa f memr i
a
imas, is expai
ed b he perfe
i
eiibe a
d wi-r
ded eahi
 ha here is i
eah i
divida
ivi
 hi
 a _frmaive a
d via pri
ipe_ whih is _sbsa
ia_, a
_frma sbsa
iais_, whih 
ies, i
he _abidi
 sef-ide
ia 
i
f a mpee i
divida mpsie sbsa
e_, he maeria pri
ipe f
he rprea sbsa
es whih hs , i
he i
essa
 press f
sbsa
ia ha
e k
w
as meabism,  frm paria, a
d  sppr
he sbsa
ia 
i
i f, he ivi
 i
divida. Whie he aer is
hs i

sa
 press f maeria, r paria, sbsa
ia ha
e, i
remai
s, as 
 as i ives, he same mpee i
divida sbsa
e, a
d
his i
vire f he abidi
 _sbsa
ia_ frmaive a
d via pri
ipe
whih aaes a
d a
imaes i. The abidi
 perma
e
e r sef-ide
i f
he _sbsisi
 i
divida sbsa
e_ whih fees r hi
ks, a
d
remembers, is a
i
eiibe, a
d i
deed he 
 i
eiibe, r
d
a
d expa
ai
f memr, a
d f r 
sis
ess f pers
a ide
i.
B if we eave  f a
 his abidi
 
i
i a
d sef-ide
i
f he sbsisi
 i
divida sbsa
e r
are, whih is he sbje,
ase a
d ae
 f hese as f memr a
d 
sis
ess, hw a
hese
aer, i
a
d b hemseves, pssib frm, r eve
i
deed revea  s,
r pers
a ide
i? Lke fe his diffi; a
d he ried i
vai

mee i: i
vai
, fr i is i
sperabe. He mere sess ha he same

sis
ess ... a
be ra
sferred frm 
e hi
ki
 sbsa
e 
a
her, i
whih ase i wi be pssibe ha w hi
ki
 sbsa
es
ma make [sessive] 
e pers
.(317) This is praia his as
wrd 
he qesi
,a
d i is wrh f
e, fr i vira
_sbsa
iaizes 
sis
ess_. I makes 
sis
ess, whih is rea

 a
a r a series f as, a _smehi
 sbsa
ia a
d sbsisi
_.
We have see
aread hw mder
phe
me
iss, 
e he reje he
i

f sbsa
e as i
vaid r sperfs, ms b ha ver fa
eqivae
 _sbsa
iaize aide
s_ (61); fr sbsa
e, bei
 a

eessar aer f hma

hh as exerised 
reai, a

 rea
be dispe
sed wih. A
d we see i
he prese
 
ex a
israi
f
his fa. The abidi
 sef-ide
i f he hma
pers
a

 be
expai
ed herwise ha
b he abidi
 sef-ide
ia sbsise
e f he
i
divida hma
sbsa
e.
If pers
a ide
i were 
sied a
d deermi
ed b 
sis
ess, b
he series f 
sis saes 

eed a
d 
ified b memr, he
i
wd appear ha he hma
bei
 i
i
fa
, i
seep, i



sis
ess, r i
a sae f i
sa
i, is
 a hma
pers
!
Phisphers wh have
 he hardihd  de
 hma
pers
ai  he
i
divida f he hma
speies i
hese saes, a
d wh 
he her ha
d
wi
 re
ize he pssessi
f a _rai
a
are_ r sbsa
e b
he sbsisi
 i
divida as he r
d f he aers pers
ai a
d
pers
a ide
i, have rerse  he hphesis f a _sb-
sis_,
r _sb-imi
a_ _
sis
ess_ i
he i
divida, as a sbsie. If
b his he mere mea
 a
abidi
 _sbsa
ia_ rai
a pri
ipe f
a me
a aiviies, eve
f hse whih ma be semi-
sis r
sb-
sis, he wd be mere ai
 b a
her
ame wha we a
he _rai
a
are_ f ma
. A
d he fa ha he refer  his
pri
ipe as he sb-
sis sef r E shws hw i
sise
 is he

rai
a
eed fr ri
 pers
ai a
d pers
a ide
i i
smehi

whih is a _sbsa
e_. B he d
 a
d wi
 
eive i as a
sbsa
e; whereas if i is
 his, if i is 
 a press, r a
f
i
, r a series r sream f presses r f
i
s, i a


mre 
sie r expai
, r eve
revea, pers
a ide
i, ha
a
series r sream f _
sis_ saes a
.(318)
U
abe as he was  expai
hw he same 
sis
ess d persis
hrh a sessi
f rea a
d adeqae disi
 sbsa
es
(exep b vira sbsa
iaizi
 
sis
ess), Lke
everheess
persised i
hdi
 ha 
sis
ess a
d 
sis
ess a
e (i
di

memr, whih, hwever, is i
expiabe 
a
 her her ha
ha f a
sbsisi
 a
d persisi
 sbsa
e r
are whih remembers),

sies pers
ai a
d pers
a ide
i. We have dwe p
his
eahi
 mai
 bease a mder
phe
me
iss r  expai
pers
ai

he same pri
ipes_i.e._ i
depe
de
 f he dri
e f sbsa
e.
As a rar frm his dri
e he i
ferred ha if a ma

mpee a
d irrevab ses 
sis
ess [r raher memr]
f his pas ife, hh he remai
s he same ma
he is
 
er
he same pers
: if i be pssibe fr he same ma
 have
disi
 i
mm
iabe 
sis
ess a differe
 imes, i is
pas db he same ma
wd a differe
 imes make differe

pers
s;(319) a
d he es 
i
his se
se  ive a iera
i
erpreai
 he mdes f speeh we have referred 
abve.(320) He ikewise admied ha w r mre pers
s,
_i.e._ 
sis
esses, a
be i
ked wih he same i
divida
hma
bei
, r he same i
divida hma
s, aer
ae
appeari
 a
d disappeari
, ivi
 pae sessive  
e
a
her. Whe
a
 
e f hese pers
aiies r 
sis
esses
eases  be aa, i ms i
Lkes view ease  be i
a

se
se rea: s ha here d
 be w r mre pers
aiies
a he same ime i
he same i
divida hma
bei
. Mder

pshiss, hwever, f he phe

me
is sh, 
vi
ed ha
sb-
sis me
a aiviies are
 
 pssibe, b ha
he fa f sh aiviies is we esabished b a varie f
experie
es, have exe
ded Lkes 
epi
f pers
ai (as
aa 
sis
ess)  embrae rps f me
a aiviies whih
ma emere 
 i
ermie
 abve he hreshd f

sis
ess. He
e he expai
he ab
rma ases f dbe r
mipe 
sis
ess aread referred , as bei

ma
ifesai
s f rea disi
 pers
aiies i

e a
d he
same hma
i
divida. I

rma hma
bei
s here is, he sa,

 
e
rma 
sis pers
ai. The sb-
sis
me
a aiviies f sh a
i
divida he bk eher as
frmi
 his i
dividas sb-imi
a r sb-
sis _E_
r sef: presmab a disi
 pers
ai frm he 
sis

e. I
he ab
rma ases f dbe-
sis
ess he
sbimi
a sef sres fr maser ver he 
sis sef a
d
is fr a ime sessf: he w pers
aiies hs fr a ime
ha
i
 paes as i were. I
he rarer r mre ab
rma ases f
rebe r mipe 
sis
ess, here are presmab hree r
mre pers
aiies e
aed i
he sre, eah mi
  he
srfae i
r
a
d sbmeri
 he hers.
I is
 he fa
if
ess f his her ha 
e mih bje 
s mh as is er i
adeqa  expai
he fas,
a, is
er 
i
eiibii _
he pri
ipes f hse wh prp
d
i_. Fr we ms
 se sih f he fa ha i is prp
ded

b phisphers wh prpr  expai

me
a ife a
d hma

pers
ai wih rerse  a _sbsa
ia s_,  a

_sbsa
ia_ basis f me
a ife, r i
deed  he 
ep f
_sbsa
e_ a a: b phisphers wh wi ak f a me
a
press wih admii
 mi
d r s as a _sbsa
e_ r
_sbje_ f ha press, f a series r sream f me
a
f
i
s r aiviies wih awi
 a
 _ae
_ ha wd
exerise hse f
i
s, r a
 _sbsa
ia abidi
 pri
ipe_
ha wd 
if he series r sream a
d k
w i as sh;
phisphers wh reard he _E_, sef, r pers
, as
_
hi
 her ha
_ he rp r series r sream f me
a
saes, a
d
 as a
hi
 f whih hese are he saes; a
d,
fi
a, wh speak f hese rps f f
i
s r aiviies as
pers
aiieswhih he desribe as sri
 wih 
e
a
herappare
 bivis f he fa ha b si
 sh
a
ae he are _i
heir hh a eas_ ra
sfrmi
 hese
_aiviies_ i
 _ae
s_, hese _saes_ i
 _sbjes f
saes_, i
a wrd, hese _aide
s_ i
 _sbsa
es_; r ese
he are maki
 heir a
ae a
d heir hh aike

i
eiibe.(321)
Of rse hse
mers mder
phisphers wh, ike James, r
 fi
d a pae fr a he experie
ia fas 
e
mbered b
a
 hphesis [ike ha f a
i
divida sbsa
ia s,
presmab] save ha f passi
 saes f mi
d [_ibid._, p.
480], d
 rea eave hese saes sspe
ded i
mid-air as
i were. The imperaive
eed fr admii
 he reai f
sbsa
e awas imae assers isef: as whe
James
re
izes he
eessi f admii
 smehi
 mre ha
he
bare fa f -exise
e f a passi
 hh wih a passi

brai
-sae [_Pri
ipes f Psh_, i., p. 346_apd_ MAHER,
_ibid._, p. 483]. O
 his speai
as  wha 
sies his
smehi
 mre whih ies behi
d r me
a saes [_ibid._,
p. 485] is
 pariar 
vi
i
: Fr m w
par, he
sas, I 
fess ha he mme
 I beme meaphsia a
d r 
defi
e he _mre_, I fi
d he
i
f sme sr f a
_a
ima
m
di_ hi
ki
 i
a f s  be a mre prmisi
 hphesis, i

spie f a is diffiies, ha

ha f a  f abse
i
divida ss [_ibid._, p. 346apd MAHER, _ibid._]. This
resaeme
 f he medieva pa
heisi her k
w
as Averrsm,
M
pshism, r he her f he _i
ees separas_ [_f._
DE WULF, _Hisr f Medieva Phisph_, pp. 381 _sqq._], is a
smewha disappi
i
 
ribi
 Meaphsis frm he ms
briia
 f r mder
pshiss. The diffiies f his
mre prmisi
 hphesis had disredied i a raher 
 ime
befre Prfessr James resrreed i [_f._ riiisms_apd_
MAHER, _ibid._].

CHAPTER X. SOME ACCIDENT-MODES OF BEING: UALITY.

76. ONTOLOGY AND THE ACCIDENT-MODES OF BEING.U
der he imae aer
r _e
s spremm_ f Sbsa
e experie
e reveas  s w brad
disi
 sb-asses: rprea sbsa
es, bdies r maeria hi
s,
a
d spiria sbsa
es r spiris. Of hese aer we have dire
experie
e 
 f 
e ass, _viz._ _embdied_ spiris r hma
ss.

The i
vesiai
f he
are f hese be
s  _Psh_, a
d frm
he daa f ha sie
e we ma i
fer, b he ih f reas
, he
_pssibii_ f a
her ass f spiris, _viz._ _pre_ spiris, bei
s
f whse aa exise
e we k
w frm Divi
e Reveai
. The exise
e f
a Spreme Bei
, Whm we ms 
eive a
aia as sbsa
e a
d
spiri, is dem
sraed b he ih f reas
i
_Nara The_. The
i
vesiai
f he
are f rprea sbsa
es be
s prper 
_Csm_. He
e i
he prese
 reaise we have
 frher dire

er
wih he sbsa
e-mde f reai;(322) b 
 wih is
aide
-mdes, a
d
 wih a f hese.
N wih a f hem; fr hse whih be
 prper  spiria
sbsa
es, r prper  rprea sbsa
es, a fr speia
reame
 i
Psh a
d Csm respeive. I
he mai
, 
 sh
speies f aide
s as are mm
 maer a
d spiri aike, wi frm
he sbje f he remai
i
 pri
f he prese
 vme. O
 he
brader aspes f sh aeries as ai, a
i a
d
Casaiaspes whih have a mre dire beari
 
he Ther f Bei

a
d he Ther f K
wede i
e
era,a fr reame
 i
Ge
era
Meaphsis. A mre deaied reame
 ms be sh i
her deparme
s
f Phisph.
77. NATURE OF THE ACCIDENT CALLED UALITY.I
he wides se
se f he
erm, _ai_ is s

ms wih _ia aribe_. I
his se
se
whaever a
be prediaed f a sbje, whaever _ia_ deermi
es a
sbje i
a
 wa fr r hh is a qai r aribe f ha
sbje. I
a se
se ams eqa wide he erm is sed  desi
ae a

_rea_ deermi
ai
, wheher sbsa
ia r aide
a, f a sbje. I

his se
se he differe
ia eeme
, r _differe
ia speifia_,
deermi
es he e
eri eeme
, r e
s, f a sbsa
e: i es s wha
_ki
d_ r _speies_ he sbsa
e is: _e.._ wha ki
d f a
ima a ma
is,
_viz._ rai
a; wha ki
d f ivi
 hi
 a
a
ima is, _viz._ se
ie
;
wha ki
d f bd r rprea hi
 a pa
 is, _viz._ ivi
. A
d he
e
shasis have said f he prediabe _differe
ia speifia_ ha i
is prediaed adjeiva, r as a _qai_,  e s i
_wha he
hi
 
siss_, r wha is is
are: differe
ia speifia praediar
_i
qae qid_: i ives s he deermi
i
 pri
ipe f he speifi

are. Or, aai

, qai is sed s

ms wih a
 _aide
a_
deermi
ai
f a sbsa
e. I
his se
se ma
ide, ai
, ai
,
e., hh he deermi
e a sbje i
differe
 aide
a was,

everheess are a i

disrimi
ae said  qaif i i
he se
se f
deermi
i
 i smehw r her, a
d are herefre aed qaiies i

he wide se
se f aide
s. He
e, aai
, he shasis have said
ha i
asmh as a aide
s deermi
e r qaif heir sbjes, he
are prediaed f hese _qaiaive_, a
d ma be aed i
a wide se
se
qaifiai
s r qaiies: m
ia e
era aide
im qaifia

sbsa
iam e praedia
r _i
qae_.
I is i
his wide se
se ha we se he erm whe
we sa ha he
(speifi)
are (r ki
d) f a hi
 is reveaed b is qaiies;
fr he
are f a hi
 is reveaed b a is aide
s. A
d whe
we
i
fer he
are f a hi
 frm is aiviies, i
arda
e wih he
maxim _ais es perai ais es
ara_, we ms ake he erm
_perai_ r aivi  i
de he perai
f he hi
 
r

iive faies, he saes f 
iive 
sis
ess hs arsed i

s, a
d a he her aide
s hs reveaed  s i
he hi
 b is
k
wede-eiii
 ai

r mi
ds.
B he erm _ai_ has bee
radii
a resried, afer Arise,
 desi
ae prper 
e pariar aer f aide
s disi
 frm

he hers a
d frm sbsa
e.
A defi
ii
prper f a
 _e
s spremm_ is f rse  f he
qesi
. B i is
 eas  ive eve
a desripi
whih wi 
ve
a
arae
i
f he speia aer f ai, a
d mark i ff
frm he her aide
-aeries. If we sa wih Arise ha qai
is ha whereb we are e
abed  desribe _wha sr_ (, _quale_)
a
yh
g 
(323)_e.g._ ha  
he by he
e

,
o
g by

e
gh, e.e ae o
ly llu
a
g he ab
a by he o
ee. Bu
eve
h

eve
he pupo
e of help
g u
o ealze ha qualy 

ge
eal mea

. Fo e ae moe famla h he o
ee ha
h he
ab
a: a
d e a

ee a boad d

o
beee
he que
o
: _Wha

o_ 
ha h
g? _Qual
_ e
 
a e
? (Qualy), a
d he que
o
:
_Ho lage_ 
ha h
g? _Qua
a_ e
 
a e
? (Qua
y), o
_Whee_ 
ha h
g? (Plae), o Wha 
 _do
g_? Wha 

_happe

g_ o ? (_Ao e Pa

o_), o Wha doe
 _e
emble_?
(_Relao
_), e. Th
ll help u
o ealze ha hee ae ade
al
mode
of be
g hh affe
ub
a
e

a dffee
 ay fom all he
ex

 de
om
ao

of he lae (60), a
d al
o 
a dffee
 ay
fom Qua
y, Relao
, a
d Cau
aly; a
d he
e mode
of be
g, heeby
he
ub
a
e 
_of
uh a
o_, o _

uh a o
do
_, e all
_quale
_. A
d f e 
que ha
peal k
d of _deem
ao
_ of he

ub
a
e 
ommo
o quale
, a
d mak
he
e off fom he ohe
ade

, e
hall f
d  o o


 
h
, ha qualy 
a

ade
al mode of be
g hh
o affe
he
ub
a
e ha  d
po
e

he lae ell o ll 
egad o he pefeo


aual o h

paula k
d of
ub
a
e:  _ale
_ he lae ade
ally by

ea

g o dm

h
g 

aual pefeo
. We have
ee
ha
o
eaed
ub
a
e ha
all he pefeo

aual o 
k
d, _oa
mul_
o _ab 
o_ (46); ha  fulfl

le 
ex
e
e by developme
,
by e
d
g oad

full o f
al pefeo
. The ade
al eale

hh
upeve
e o

e

e
e, a
d hu
_ale_ 
pefeo
_h

he lm
of 
k
d o
pee
_, ae ha e all quale
. They
dve
fy he
ub
a
e ade
ally 

pefeo
, 

o
ee
mode of ex

g a
d behav
g: by he appeaa
e a
d d
appeaa
e hey
do
o ha
ge he _e

e
al pefeo
_ of he
ub
a
e (46), hey do

o effe a
ub
a
al ha
ge; bu hey ha
ge 

emedae,
ade
al pefeo
; a
d h
qualave ha
ge 
eh
ally k
o

a
d de
bed a
_aleao
_(324) (11).
He
e e f
d _Qualy_ de
bed by S. Thoma
a
he
o of ade

hh modfe
o d
po
e
he
ub
a
e 

elf: _ade


modfavum
e
d
po
vum
ub
a
ae

ep
a_, a
d by Albeu

Mag
u

omeha moe explly a
he
o of ade
 hh omplee

a
d pefe

ub
a
e 

ex
e
e a
d avy: _ade

omple


a pefe


ub
a
am a

ex
e
do quam 
opea
do_.(325) Th

oo
ll be o
veyed h
uffe
 lea
e

f e de
be _Qualy_
a
_ha ab
olue ade
 hh deem
e
a
ub
a
e afe he ma

e
of a
ade
al _dffee
a,_ affe
g he e

e
al pefeo
of
he
ub
a
e 
egad o 
ex
e
e o o 
avy_.
He
e (1) he Pue Aualy of he I
f
ely Pefe Be
g a

o adm
quale
, 
a
muh a
qualy mple
o
ly a elave a
d lmed
pefeo
; (2) he quale
of a opoeal
ub
a
e ae gou
ded 
he
_fomave_ p
ple hh gve
ha
ub
a
e 

pef
aue a
d

he p
ple of 
e
de
y a
d developme
 oad

f
al
pefeo
, heea

_qua
y_ 
gou
ded 

deem
able o
_maeal_ p
ple; (3) he _e

e
al_ dffee
a
g p
ple
of

ub
a
e
be
g k
o
o u

o 
uvely, bu o
ly ab
avely a
d
d
u
vely, _.e._ by 
fee
e fom he behavou of he
e
ub
a
e
,

fom he effe
of he ave
ae ofe

de
g
aed
o by ha
o

ue
hem 


ally, bu by he _ade
al pefeo

_ o
_quale
_ hh ae ou o
ly key o a k
oledge of hem. Fo 

a
e,
e dffee
ae he
aue of ma
fom ha of he bue bea
 by
de
b
g he fome a
_ao
al_: a em hh eally de
g
ae

o
he e

e
e o
aue 
elf, bu o
e of 
fu
dame
al quale
, _vz._
he fauly of ea
o
.
78. IMMEDIATE SUB-CLASSES OF QUALITY AS _Ge
u
Supemum_.O
aou
 of
he e
omou
vaey of quale
hh haaeze he daa of ou
expee
e, he poblem of la

fy
g quale


o a
mple o
e. I

deal
belo
g o he
peal
e
e
a
d o he ohe depame

of
phlo
ophy. Hee e mu
 o
f
e ou
elve
o a
aemp a 
da
g he
mmedae
ub-la

e
of he _ge
u

upemum_. A
d 
h
o
ex  ll

o be ou of plae o all ae

o
o a emakable, a
d 
ou ve
que eo
eou
, e
d of mode
hough. I aompa
ed he adve
 of
ha 
k
o
a
_aom
m_ o _he meha
al o
epo
of he u
ve
e_,
a o
epo
muh 
vogue abou half a e
uy ago, bu aga

 hh
hee ae aleady abu
da
 evde
e
of a
o
g eao
. We efe o he

l
ao
of
e


a
d phlo
ophe
o elm
ae Qualy alogehe
a
a
ulmaely d

 aegoy of huma
expee
e, by edu
g all
quale
o _qua
y_, _loal elao

_, a
d _meha
al_ o _
paal
moo

_ of mae (_f._ 11). I
h
heoy all he
e

ble quale

of he maeal u
ve
e ould be eally a
d objevely
oh
g moe ha

loao

a
d moo

of he ulmae o

ue

of peepble mae.
All he hemal, phy
al a
d meha
al e
ege
o foe
of exe
al

aue ould be puely qua

ave d
po
o

o o
fguao

of
mae 
moo
: eale
ha ould be _exhau
vely_ k
o
by
mahemaal a
aly

a
d mea
ueme
. A
d he
 a
fou
d ha
_qualave_ o
ep

ubbo
ly e

ed all aemp
a elm
ao
, o
eduo
o _qua
ave_ o
ep
, eve

he 
ve
gao
of he
maeal u
ve
e o exe
al
aue,
e


a
d phlo
ophe
of
exe
al
aue hough o ge d of hem by loa
g hem exlu
vely 

he huma
m
d, a
d hu
pu
h
g hem ove o
p
yholog

a
d
phlo
ophe
of he m
d fo fuhe a
d f
al exo
m. Fo a me
exeme maeal

, le


e ha
da
g, e
deavoued o edue eve

m
d a
d all 
o

ou

ae
a
d poe

e
o a mee
ubjeve
a
pe of ha, looked a objevely, ould be meely mae 

moo
.(326) I a
be
ho

Co
mology, P
yhology, a
d Ep
emology
ha all
uh aemp
o a
aly
e quale

o
omeh
g ohe ha

quale
, ae uely u

a
faoy a
d u

ue

ful. A
d e may
ee
eve
fom a
e
umeao
of
ome of he ma
la

e
of quale
ha

uh aemp
ee foedoomed o falue.
Shola
 Phlo
ophy ha
ge
eally adoped A
ole
dv
o
of
quale

o fou gea goup
:(327) (1) , _habis ve
dispsii_; (2) , ptenti _n tur i
ve
imptenti _; (3) , _na a

va 
a

n
_; (4) , _form vel fgur _. St. Tom s offers te
followng groun for ts cl ssfc ton. Snce qu lty, e s ys,(328) s
n ccent l etermn ton of te subst nce tself, _.e._ of te
perfecton of ts concrete exstence n ctvty, n snce we m y
stngus four spects of te subst nce: ts n ture tself s
perfectble; ts ntrnsc prncples of ctng n recevng cton,
prncples sprngng from te _form tve_, specfc consttuent of ts
n ture; ts receptvty of c nge effecte by suc cton, receptvty
groune n te etermn ble or _m ter l_ prncple of ts n ture; n
fn lly ts qu ntty, f t be
corpore l subst nce,we c n l ewse
stngus between (1) _ cqure  bts or spostons_, suc s e lt,
nowlege, vrtue, vce, etc., wc mme tely etermne te perfecton

of te subst nce, sposng t well or ll n rel ton to ts l st en;

(2) ntrnsc _n tur l forces_, _f cultes_, _powers of cton_,
_ pttues_, _c p ctes_, suc s ntellect, wll, m gn ton, nstnct,
org nc vt l forces, pysc l, cemc l, mec nc l energes; (3) st tes
resultng n corpore l beng from te cton of ts _mleu_ upon t:
te _p ssons_ n emotons of sentent lvng tngs, suc s sens tons
of ple sure, p n, nger, etc.; te _sensble qu ltes_ of m tter, suc
s colour, t ste, smell, temper ture, feel or texture, etc.; n, fn lly
(4) te qu lty of _form or s pe_ wc s
mere etermn ton of te
qu ntty of corpore l subst nce.
Ts cl ssfc ton s not nee perfect, for te s me nvu l qu lty
c n be pl ce n fferent cl sses wen loo e t from fferent
st nponts: e t, for nst nce, m y be reg re s _n tur l oper tve
power_ of subst nce n st te of combuston, or s _sensble qu lty_
prouce n t t subst nce by te oper ton of oter gences. But t  s
te mert of beng n ex ustve cl ssfc ton; n plosopers  ve not
succeee n mprovng on t.
Qu ltes of te tr n fourt cl ss o not c ll for spec l tre tment.
In te tr cl ss, Arstotles stncton between
(_qu it te
p

ibie
_) nd (_a

n
_) 
ba
d un 
avy mann  an
n caac   uay n u
n.
T an
n uay,
uc a
 bu
 ducd by
am   a
ducd by a, wud b a _a

_;(329) wa
 m mann
uay,
uc a
 naua cu   cunnanc, wud b a
_a

b
uaa
._ T a

n

n
b can
wc 
u
m can cn
cu

a
, and ac  an
m  
nn
vn bn, a ncudd n 
ca

a
_a

n
_; w  v
b
man
an
 m mann mna danmn  n
any wud b
ncudd n  a
_a

b
uaa
_. W may, a
,  a ay
ca and cmn
v nn  a a 
cnand n 
ca

a


n
b ua
by azn a 
 mbac wav 

mmda _cau
_   mmda _
u_   _
n
 mdcan
nvvd n any ac  c


n
 cn
cu
n

_. Suc
n
b
ua
, , bn n a   bjc
wc v 
n

cn, and n a  
nn
ubjc wc c

cn
cu
ac. On   m
 man bm
n  Ty 
Knwd, and n wc am
n C
my and P
ycy, 
a
 dmnn  c

ncanc  

n
b ua
,and

cay n dmnn w y a ua
 an xamna
ay,  my
a
  ndvdua mnd  cn
cu
n


.
_Fm_  _u_, wc cn
u
 u ca

 uay, 
a
md   uany  a bdy, bn my  acua
uac
mnan  
xn
n  vum. Cn
dd a
a md  ab
ac
 mamaca uany,  bn
  dman  mamac
.
Cn
dd n  cnc bdy,  
 y
ca,
n
b m,
a,
 u,   a; and   may b  naua  aca,
accdn a
 
u
m  unmdd acn  naua c

m 
 c
a
manuad and dcd by nn an
. I 

wy 
ca n a w xn
n  vum 
ndcav  
_maa_ nc  ca
ub
anc
,  u 
a
nauay a

umd by 
vum 
dmnd by  _mav_
nc, and 
u
ndcav  
cc nau. T


aady ncab n  nanc wd, w many   cmcay
dn
ub
anc
a

um ac 
wn d
ncv cy
an m. Bu
 
acuay n  dman
 bany and zy a  naua
xna m   vn ndvdua an
m 
cnzd a
n 
 m
 man und
 
ca

can and n  
u




 

cc nau.(330)

79. HABITS AND DISPOSITIONS.Evy cad bn 

ubjc  can,
caab  dvmn  

n, ndwd w a naua ndncy
wad

m nd wc  can ac by a naua c

 acvy, and
wc cn
u
 , wn aand, 
u and na cn
(66). Tu 
c

 can  ac u
accdna md
 bn
wc    nd , d

   nd

 , n  xc
 

naua acv
, and  a
 n  cnc cn 

nau a
ndn wad

naua nd. Suc an accdna md 
bn 
ac ud by a

 an
n acn
and xnc
,
_acn
 a

n
_: a 
 av a

d away  man
, and n
my a
a
a  cndn 
un m  can
wu n 

ubjc by 
 xnc
, bu a
a _d

n_ wad
a

n 
uc xnc
. Mv,  may b n a m an
n
d

n, bu
mn
ab and mann, n a
y mvd 
annud, a _d

 dc mb
_. And ju
 a
 


nay
ndcav  a
 acn
wby  wa
ac ud,
, ,  vy
_a
n d_  
acuay 
 d

 

ubjc  u and
uu can
,  an
and c
wc a n y acua bu
ny na n 

ubjc. Suc an accdna md  bn 
wa
A
 cad , a
d he shasis _habis_. Wih Arise, he
defi
e _habi_ as a _mre r ess sabe dispsii
whereb a sbje is
we r i dispsed i
isef r i
reai
 her hi
s_: _Habis
diir dispsii diffiie mbiis se
dm qam be
e ve mae
disp
ir sbjem a se
dm se a i
rdi
e ad aid_.(331)
The differe
e bewee
a _habi_ () a
d a simpe _dispsii
_
() is ha he frmer is b
are a mre r ess _sabe_ qai
whie he aer is 
sabe a
d ra
sie
. Mrever, he faiiies
aqired b repeaed ai
f he ra
s r members f me
r a
imas,
a
d he pariar se aqired b erai
s r i
srme
s frm

i
ed se, are mre prper aed _dispsii
s_ ha
_habis_: he
are
 habis i
he sri se
se, hh he are fe
aed habis i

he rdi
ar a
d ser sae f mm
speeh. A ie refei
wi
shw ha _he 
 prper sbjes f
ara habis i
he sri se
se
are he spiria faies f a
i
eie
 a
d free ae
_.
Si
e a
ara habis are aqired b he pas aiviies, a
d dispse
fr he fre aiviies, f a bei

 abse perfe, b par
pe
ia a
d par aa, a
d sbje  ha
e, i fws ha 

fi
ie bei
s a
have habis. B, frhermre, bei
s ha are
 free,
ha have
 
r r dmi
i
f heir w
ai
s, ha have

freedm f hie, are deermi
ed b heir
are, b a
eessar aw f
heir aivi,  eii he ai
s whih he d aa eii: sh
bei
s are b heir
are _deermi
aa ad 
m
_; he are 
fi
ed

eessari  he pariar i

es f ai
whereb he ffi heir
re i
he aa rder f hi
s. As Arise remarks,  ma hrw
he same s
e repeaed i
he same direi
a
d wih he same
vei: i wi
ever aqire a _habi_ f mvi
 i
ha direi
wih
ha vei.(332) The same is re f pa
s a
d a
imas; fr a habi i

he sri se
se impies
 mere a erai
mabii i
is sbje;
i impies, a
d 
siss i
, a sabe mdifiai
f sme pwer r
fa _whih a
have is aiviies direed i
differe
 i

e r
her f a varie f ha

es r i
es_: he pwer r fa whih is
he prper sbje f a habi ms be a _pe
ia diriibiis ve
deermi
abiis ad diversa_. He
e mere maeria pwers f ai
sh as
he meha
ia, phsia a
d hemia fres f i
ra
i
are, r he
ra
i pwers f ivi
 bdies, wheher veeaive r mere
se
ie
,si
e he are a _f hemseves_, f _heir
are_,

deermi
ed  erai
i
es f ai
, a
d  hese 
,sh pwers
a

 beme he sbjes f habis, f sabe dispsii

s wards 
e
i
e f ai
raher ha
a
her. The pwers f maeria
are, sas
S. Thmas, d
 eii heir perai
s b mea
s f habis, fr he
are f hemseves [aread adeqae] deermi
ed  heir pariar
i
es f ai
.(333)
O
 he spiria faies f free ae
s are, he
, he prper sea f
rea habis. O
 f free ae
s a
we sa sri ha habi is se
d

are. O
 hese a
dire he perai
s f heir i
ee a
d wi,
a
d hrh hese aer he perai
s f heir se
se faies, bh

iive a
d appeiive, i
a wa 
dive  heir as e
d r i
a wa
ha deviaes herefrm, b aahi
 heir i
ees  rh r 
errr, heir wis  vire r  vie, a
d hs frmi
 i
hese
faies sabe dispsii
s r _habis_.(334)
Is here a
 se
se, he
, i
whih we a
speak f he se
ie
 (
iive
a
d appeiive) a
d exeive pwers f ma
as he sea f habis? The
aiviies f hse faies are 
der he 
r f i
ee a
d wi;
he as _eiied_ b he frmer are _mma
ded_ b he aer; he are
as ha isse primari frm he aer faies; a
d he
e he
dispsii
s ha res frm repeii
f hese as a
d ive a faii
fr frher repeii
f hemas f aki
, waki
, si
i
, pai

msia i
srme
s, exerisi
 a
 ha
dirafare par, hh 

se
dari, _dispsii
s_ frmed i
hese se
ie
 faies (he
rai
ed ee, he rai
ed ear, he disrimi
ai
 se
se f ase, he
aer se
se f h i
he deaf, dmb, r bi
d), r i
hese exeive
pwers, whereb he aer mre prmp a
d easi be he mma
d f
he hiher faies; b he are primari a
d pri
ipa _habis_ f
hese hiher faies hemseves re
deri
 he aer perma
e
 ap
 mma
d a
d iize he sbrdi
ae pwers i
he repeii
f sh
as.(335)
U
qesi
ab he bdi ra
s aqire b exerise a defi
ie se
whih faiiaes heir frher exerise. B his se is
 smehi

ha he a
se hemseves;
r is i smehi
 ha remves r esse
s
a
ara i
deermi
ae
ess r i
differe
e f hese pwers; fr he are

 i
differe
: he _ms_ a, a a
 i
sa
, i
he _
e_ wa whih
heir 
ree
are i
a is srr
di
s aa dema
ds. The
hemseves are 
 i
srme
s f he hiher faies; hese a
e have
freedm f hie bewee
i
es f ai
; i is 
 he sabe
mdifiai
s whih hese aqire, whih he hemseves a
se, a
d
whih _dispse_ hem b esse
i
 heir i
deermi
ae
ess, ha are
prper aed habis. There are, herefre, i
he ra
i faies f
ma
_dispsii
s_ whih ive faii f ai
. There are, mrever,
ra
i dispsii
s whih dispse he ra
ism
 fr _ai
_ b fr
is 
i
wih he _frmaive pri
ipe_ r s: _habiaes
dispsii
es maeriae ad frmam_.(336) Arise ives as i
sa
es
bdi heah r bea.(337) B hese _dispsii
es maeriaes ad
frmam_ he des
 a _habis_, a
 mre ha
he ra
i
_dispsii
es ad perai
em_ js referred : a
d fr his reas
, ha
ahh a hese dispsii
s have a erai
deree f sabii i
he
ra
isma sabii whih he derive, mrever, frm he s whih is
he frmaive pri
ipe ha seres he 
i
i a
d i
divida
ide
i f he ra
ism,e he are
 f hemseves, f heir w

are, sabe; whereas he aqired dispsii

s f he spiria
faies, i
ee a
d wi, red as he are i
a sbje ha is
spiria a
d sbsa
ia immabe, are f heir w

are sabe a
d
perma
e
. Nr are a dispsii
s f hese aer faies  be deemed
habis, b 
 hse whih arise frm as whih ive hem he speia

haraer f sabii. He
e mere _pi
i
_ i
he i
eea rder, as
disi
 frm _sie
e_, r a mere _i
i
ai
_ resi
 frm a few
isaed as, as disi
 frm a _vire_ r a _vie_ i
he mra rder,
are
 habis.(338) Habis, herefre, be
 prper  he faies
f a spiria sbsa
e; i
dire, hwever, he exe
d heir i
fe
e
 he wer r ra
i pwers depe
de
 
, a
d 
red b, he
spiria faies.
T he varis dispsii
s a
d faiiies f ai
aqired b a
imas
hrh rai
i
, adapai
, aimaizai
, e., we ma app
wha has bee
said i
reard  he se
se faies a
d exeive pwers
f he hma
bd. Js as we ma reard he i
er
a se
se faies
(memr, imai
ai
, se
se appeie) i
ma
as i
a se
dar a
d
sbrdi
ae wa sbjes f habis, i
s far as hese faies a 
der
he direi
a
d 
r f hma
reas
a
d wi,(339) s as he
ra
i dispsii
s i
ded i
irrai
a a
imas b he direi
a
d
ida
e f hma
reas
ma i
deed be rearded as exe
si
s r effes
f he habis ha dispse he rai
a hma
faies, b
 as
hemseves i
he sri se
se habis.(340)
If, he
, habis be
 prper  i
ee a
d wi, a
d if heir
f
i
is  dispse r i
dispse he hma
ae
 fr he aai
me
 f
he perfei
i
whih his as e
d 
siss, we ms
ara k 
_Psh_ a
d _Ehis_ fr a deaied a
asis f hem. Here we ms be

e
 wih a wrd 
heir rii
, heir effes, a
d heir impra
e.
Habis are prded b as. The a mdifies he fa. If, fr
i
sa
e,
hi
 remai
ed i
r 
iive faies afer eah ra
sie


iive a had passed, memr wd be i
expiabe a
d k
wede
impssibe;
r d he repeii
f a
 a ever beme easier ha

is firs perfrma

e. This smehi
 ha remai
s is a habi, r he
bei

i
 f a habi A habi ma be prded b a si
e a: he mi
ds
firs i
ii
f a
axim r pri
ipe prdes a _habi r habia
k
wede_ f ha pri
ipe. B as a re i reqires a repeii
f
a
 a, a
d ha fr a 
 ime a mparaive shr i
ervas, 
prde a _habi_ f ha a, a sabe dispsii
whereb i a
be
readi repeaed; a
d  sre
he
a
d perfe he habi he as ms be
frmed wih a rwi
 deree f i
e
si a
d e
er. Prress i
vire
dema
ds ssai
ed a
d i
reasi
 ear
es effrs.
The
ara effe f habi is  perfe he fa,(341)  i
rease
is e
er,  make i mre prmp  a, a
d hs  _faiiae_ he
perfrma
e f he a fr whih he habi dispses i. I as e
e
ders
a
d deveps a
ara _
eed_ r _e
de
_ r _desire_  repea he a,
a
d a
ara aversi
frm he as ppsed  he habi. Fi
a,
ardi
 as he habi rws, he perfrma
e f he a dema
ds ess
effr, as fr ess aa ae
i
; hs he habi dimi
ishes he
feei
 f effr a
d e
ds  bri
 ab a qasi-amai a
d
semi-
sis frm f aivi.
Gd habis are hse whih _perfe_ he
are f he ae
, whih
adva
e i wards he reaizai
f is e
d; bad habis are hse whih
reard a
d preve
 he reaizai
f his e
d. He
e he _ehia_
impra
e,  he hma
pers
, f frmi
, fseri
 a
d 
firmi
 d
habis, as as f avidi
, resisi
 a
d eradiai
 bad habis, a

sare be exaeraed.
The prf
d a
d a-pervadi
 i
fe
e f habi i
he me
a a
d mra
ife f ma
is 
fr
ae far frm bei
 adeqae appreiaed eve
b
hse resp
sibe fr he sear, mra a
d reiis edai
f he


. This is perhaps mai
 de  he fa ha he i
fe
e f habi

he 
d f ife, e
rms as i is i
fa, is s sere, s
are 

sis, ha i easi esapes
ie. Caref refei


r ai
s, diie
 sd f he spri
s f ai
i
r everda ife,
are
eeded  revea his i
fe
e. B he mre we a
ase hma

d
i
rseves a
d hers, he mre firm 
vi
ed we beme ha hma

haraer a
d 
d are _mai
_ depe
de
 
_he frmai
f habis_.
Habis are he ra
d 
servi
 a
d perfei
r he erribe 
dermi
i

a
d desri
fre f ife. The are he fri f r pas a
d he seed
f r fre. I
hem he wrds f Leib
iz fi
d heir fes
verifiai
: he prese
 is ade
wih he pas a
d pre
a
 wih he
fre. B frmi
 d habis we esape he disheare
i
 diffiies
f perpea bei

i
s; a
d hs he abr we deve  he aqisii

f wisdm a
d vire has is firs rih rempe
se i
he faii i
ives s  adva
e 
he pah f prress.
I has bee
r a
d rih said ha a e
i
e edai

siss i

he frmai
f d habis.
80. POWERS, FACULTIES AND FORCES.A
ara peraive pwer, fa, r
fre (, _pe
ia_, _faas_, _virs ae
di_) is a qai
whih re
ders he
are f he i
divida ae
 ap  eii erai

ai
s. B _impe
e_ r _i
apai_ (, _imptenti _,
_inc p cit
_) Ari
tte me nt nt n pp
ite kind  qu ity, in
cntr di
tinctin t pwer r  cuty, but ny _pwer 
we ker
rder_, diering _in degree_, nt _in kind_, rm the re  pwer which
render
n gent prxim tey c p be  cting;
uch we ker c p citie
,
r in
t nce,
the in nt
pwer t w k, r the deective eye
ight 
the ged.
It i
t the individu 
ub
i
ting per
n r thing th t  the ctin

prceeding rm the  tter re
cribed: _ ctine

unt
upp
itrum_: the
_
upp
itum_ r per
n i
the _principium_ QUOD _ git_. And it ct
in
ccrd nce with it
n ture; thi
 tter i
the _principium_ QUO _ gen

git_: the n ture i
the
ub
t nce r e

ence

principe  the
ctin
whereby the individu  tend
t re ize it
end. But i

cre ted,
inite n ture the _immedi te_ r _prxim te_ principe  it
ctivitie
,

 th t it i
per tive _per
e_? Or i
it ny their _remte principe_,
eiciting them nt by it
e but _ny_ by me n
 _pwer
_, _ cutie
_,
_rce
_, which re them
eve
ccident  perectin
 the
ub
t nce nd
_re y di
tinct_ rm it, qu itie
intermedi te between the  tter nd
it
ctin
, being the _prxim te_ principe
 the  tter?
N dubt when ny individu  n ture i
cted upn by ther gencie
, when
it underge
re  ch nge under the inuence  it
envirnment, it

_p

ive ptenti ity_ i
being
  r rth ctu ized. Mrever when the
n ture it
e ct
_imm nenty_, the term 
uch ctin rem ining within
the gent it
e t ctu ize r perect it,
me _p

ive ptenti ity_
 the gent i
being ctu ized. In the
e c
e
the n ture bere being
thu
ctu ized w
re y c p be 
uch ctu iz tin. Thi
_p

ive
ptenti ity_, hwever, i
it
e nthing ctu , it impie
n ctu 
perectin in the n ture. But we mu
t di
tingui
h c reuy rm thi

_p

ive r receptive ptenti ity_ 
n ture it
_ ctive r per tive
pwer
__ptenti e per tiv e_. The
e m y be them
eve
_ ctu 
perectin
_ in the n ture, _ ccident _ perectin
ctu y in the
n ture, nd perh p
re y di
tinct rm it.
Th t they re indeed _ ctu _ perectin
 the n ture i
 iry bviu
:
it i
n ctu  perectin 
n ture t be _prxim tey_ nd
_immedi tey_, nd withut ny urther cmpement r dditin t it

re ity, _c p be  cting_; nd thi
i
true whether the ctin in

que
tin be imm nent r tr n
itive: i it be imm nent, the perectin
re
uting rm the ctin, the term  the  tter, wi be perectin 
the gent it
e, nd in thi
c
e the gent by virtue  it
per tive
pwer wi h ve h d _the c p city  perecting it
e_; whie i the
ctin be tr n
itive the gent wi h ve h d, in virtue  it
per tive
pwer, _the c p city  prducing perectin
in ther thing
_. In either
c
e
uch c p city i
undubtedy n ctu  perectin  the gent th t
p

e

e
it. Hence the truth  the
ch
tic rmu : _Omne gen
git
in qu ntum e
t in_ ACTU, _p ti tur ver inqu ntum e
t in_ POTENTIA.
Furthermre, 
uch per tive pwer

ctin
_ which immedi tey prceed rm
whie the per tive pwer i


t be,
gent, the ctin
eicited by me n


re _re y di
tinct rm the

them: thi
, t, i
bviu
, r
biding ch r cteri
tic  the
it re tr n
ient.

But wh t i
the n ture  thi
per tive pwer in re tin t the n ture
it
e  the gent? It i
n ctu  perectin  thi
n ture. It i
,
mrever, unike cquired h bit
, n tive t thi
n ture, brn with it

t
pe k, n tur y in
ep r be rm it. Further
ti, per tive pwer

wud
eem t be  _prpertie
_ (69)  their re
pective n ture
:
in
much
it i
ny in virtue  the per tive pwer th t the n ture
c n ct, nd there c n be n n ture withut cnn tur  per tin
whereby
it tend
t re ize the u nd _in _ perectin  it
being, the
perectin which i
the very _r i
n dtre_  it
pre
ence in the ctu 
rder  thing
. The que
tin therere n rrw
it
e dwn t thi
: Are
per tive pwer
, which perect the n ture  which they re prpertie
,
re y di
tinct rm thi
n ture, r re they ny virtu y di
tinct

pect
under which we view the n ture it
e? Fr ex mpe, when we
pe k
 inteect nd wi
being  cutie
 the hum n
u, d we merey
me n th t inteect i
the
u it
e reg rded
c p be  re
ning,
nd wi the
u it
e reg rded
c p be  wiing? Or d we me n
th t the
u i
nt _by it
e_ nd _in virtue  it
wn e

ence_
c p be  re
ning nd wiing; th t it c n re
n nd wi ny thrugh
the in
trument ity  tw re itie
 the ccident  rder, re y
di
tinct rm, thugh t the
me time _nece

riy_ rted in nd

pringing rm, the
ub
t nce  the
u it
e: re itie
which we c 
_pwer
_ r _ cutie
_? Or g in, when we
pe k 
m n r n nim 

h ving v riu
_
en
e  cutie
_intern  nd extern , cgnitive,
ppetitive, executived we merey me n th t the iving,
entient rg ni
m
i
it
e directy c p be  eiciting ct
 v riu
kind
: 
im gining, de
iring,
eeing, he ring, etc.? Or d we me n th t the
rg ni
m c n eicit the
e v riu
ct
ny by me n

ever  ccident 
re itie
, re y di
tinct rm, nd inhering in, it
e?
I
uch per tive pwer
r  cutie
re n tur y in
ep r be rm the

ub
t nce in which they inhere, i they re
 nece

riy cn
equent n
the n ture  the  tter th t it c nnt exi
t withut them, re they
nything mre th n virtu y di
tinct
pect
 the
ub
t nce it
e? On
thi
que
tin,
we h ve re dy
een (69),
ch
tic
re nt greed.
St. Thm
, nd Thmi
t
gener y, m int in th t inteect nd wi re
re y di
tinct rm the
ub
t nce  the
u, nd ikewi
e th t the

en
e  cutie
re re y di
tinct rm the
ub
t nce  the nim ted
rg ni
m in which they inhere.(342) In thi
view the di
tinctin i
nt
merey virtu  di
tinctin between dierent
pect
 the
u (r the
rg ni
m) it
e, grunded in the v riety nd cmpexity  the ct
which
em n te rm the  tter: the  cutie
re re  entitie
 the ccident 
rder, medi ting between the
ub
t nce nd it
ctin
, nd invving in
the cncrete being pur ity which, hwever, i
nt incmp tibe with
the re  unity  the  tter (69).

The wing re
me  the rgument
urged in pr 

di
tinctin:

re 

(_ _) Exi
tence nd ctin re tw re y di
tinct ctu itie
; therere

the ptenti itie
which they ctu ize mu
t be re y di
tinct: r
uch
i
the tr n
cendent  re tin between the ptenti  nd the ctu  th t
ny ptenti 
ubject nd the crre
pnding perectin which ctu ize
it
mu
t beng t the
me _genu

upremum_: the ne c nnt be
ub
t nce
nd the ther n ccident.(343) Nw exi
tence i
the ctu ity 
_e

ence_ nd ctin i
the ctu ity  _per tive pwer_ r _ cuty_.
But ctin i
cert iny n ccident; therere the per tive pwer which
it ctu ize
mu
t 
 be n ccident, nd mu
t therere be re y
di
tinct rm the
ub
t nce  which it i

pwer, nd  which exi
tence
i
the ctu ity. Thi
ine  rgument ppie
with equ  rce t 
cre ted n ture
.(344)
In the Ininite Being ne re per tin nd
ub
t nce identic . N
cre ture i
per tive in virtue  it

ub
t nce. The ctin

cre ture c nnt be ctu iz tin
_ it

ub
t nce_: _exi
tence_ i
the
ctu iz tin  it

ub
t nce; therere it
ctin
mu
t be
ctu iz tin
 ptenti itie
which re _ ccident
_ di
tinct rm it


ub
t nce; in ther wrd
,  per tive pwer
which beng indeed
nece

riy t it

ub
t nce but re re y di
tinct rm the  tter.
Thi
rgument re
t
n very utim te met phy
ic  cnceptin
. But nt 

ch
tic
wi dmit the

umptin
it invve
. Hw, r in
t nce,
de
it ppe r th t the cre ted r inite
ub
t nce

uch c nnt be
_immedi tey_ per tive? Even were it immedi tey per tive it
ctin

wud
ti be ccident
, nd the di
tinctin between Cre tr nd cre ture
wud
t nd untuched. The per tive pwer mu
t be n ccident bec u
e the
ctin which ctu ize
it, the _ ctu

ecundu
_, i
n ccident. But
the _cn
equenti _ h
nt been prved, nd it i
nt
e-evident. On the
thery  the re  di
tinctin, i
nt the per tive pwer it
e n
_ ctu  perectin_  the
ub
t nce, nd therere in
me
rt n
ctu iz tin  the  tter? And yet they re nt in the
me utim te
c tegry, _in edem genere
uprem_. The n ture which i
the ptenti 

ubject, perected by the per tive pwer, i


ub
t nce, whie the
per tive pwer which perect
the
ub
t nce by ctu izing thi

ptenti ity i
n ccident. O cur
e there i
nt ex cty the
me
crre tin between
ub
t nce nd per tive pwer
between the  tter
nd ctin. But nyhw the ctin i
in
me true
en
e n ctu iz tin
 the
ub
t nce, t e
t thrugh the medium  the pwer, une

we re
prep red t bre k up the cncrete unity  the gent by reerring the
ctin
ey t the pwer  the gent, nd i
 ting the
ub
t nce 
the  tter


rt  immut be cre which merey exi
t
: mde 
cnceiving the m tter, which k
very ike the mi
t ke  reiying
b
tr ct cncept
. And i the ctin i
in ny true
en
e n ctu iz tin
 the
ub
t nce, we h ve, ter , _ptenti _ nd _ ctu
_ which re
nt in the
me utim te c tegry.
The
e cn
ider tin
c rry u
,  cur
e, right int wh t i

perh p
the m
t und ment    met phy
ic  prbem
: th t 
the mde in which inite re ity i
ctu . In it
cncrete
ctu ity every inite re  being i
e

enti y
ubject t
ch nge: it
ctu ity i
nt _tt
imu_: t every in
t nt it nt
mixture  ptenti ity nd
ny _i
_ but i
_becming_: it i

ctu ity: it i
ever re y ch nging, nd yet the it which
ch nge
c n in
me re  degree nd r
me re 
p ce  time

per
i
t r endure identic  with it
e

ub
i
ting thing r
per
n. Hw, then, re we t cnceive right the mde  it

ctu ity? T ke the cncrete exi
ting being t ny in
t nt  it

ctu ity:
upp
e th t it i
nt merey underging ch nge thrugh
the inuence  ther being
in it
envirnment, r thrugh it

wn imm nent ctin, but th t it i
it
e cting, whether
imm nenty r tr n
itivey. I we cn
ider th t t thi
in
t nt
it
_exi
tence_ i
re y di
tinct rm it
_ ctin_ we c nnt
me n by thi
th t there i
in it n unch nging
ub
t nti  cre,
which i
ctu y merey exi
ting, nd ve
ture  ctive nd
p

ive ccident  principe
, which i
ju
t nw ctu  (thugh
w y
in
t te  ux r ch nge) by cting r being cted
n.(345) Such cnceptin wud cnict with the truth th t the
exi
ting
ub
t nce i
ever being re y nd ctu y, thugh
ccident y, determined, ch nged, mdiied, imprved r
di
imprved, in it
tt  cncrete exi
ting re ity. Even when
the
e ch nge
re nt
 prund
t de
try it

ub
t nti 
identity nd thu
termin te it
ctu ity
n individu  being,
even when, in ther wrd
, they re nt
ub
t nti , they re nne
the e

re  nd re y ect the
ub
t nce. Since they re re 
they nece

riy invve the recgnitin  re y di
tinct
principe
in the cncrete being nd precude the view th t the
di
tinctin
which we recgnize in the ever-ch nging mde
 it

ctu ity,
reve ed t u
in time nd
p ce, re  _merey_
cnceptu  r gic  di
tinctin
prjected by the mind int wh t
wud therere be in  ct
impe nd immut be re ity. The
deni   ny re  di
tinctin between
ucce

ive ctu 
t te
,
r between c-exi
ting principe
 th
e
t te
, in ny inite
being, wud e d gic y t the Ee tic dctrine, _i.e._ t
deni   the re ity  ch nge. On the ther h nd, whie
recgnizing th t ch nge i

re ity nd nt
ubjective ment 
iu
in, nd th t re  ch nge c n be grunded ny in
pur ity
 re y di
tinct principe
in the inite individu  being, we
mu
t t the
me time hd th t thi
pur ity  re y di
tinct
principe
in the individu  de
nt de
try
re  unity,

t biity, nd
e-identic  cntinuity  the individu  being
in the mde  it
ctu ity thrughut time. Nt,  cur
e, th t
thi

t biity r
mene

 the individu  thrughut time i

cmpete nd dequ te t the excu
in   re  ch nge, but it
i
cert iny _re _ cntinuity  ne nd the
me individu 
being: t deny thi
wud be t remve  perm nence rm re ity
nd t reduce  re  being t ux r ch nge, _i.e._ t the
of te Ion n plosoper, Her cltus.
We c nnot get
true concepton of ny fnte re lty by
conserng t merely from te _st tc_ pont of vew, wc s
te n tur l st npont of bstr ct tougt; we must vew t lso
from te _yn mc- netc_ st npont, _.e._ not merely s n
essence or prncple of exstence, but s
power or prncple of
cton, n of consequent c nge, evoluton, or ec y. An te
plosopy wc s te l test f son mong contempor ry systems,
t t of te brll nt Frenc tn er n wrter, Bergson,  s t
ll events te mert of emp szng ts mport nt trut, t t f
our plosopc l n lyss of experence s to be frutful we must
try to gr sp re lty not merely s t presents tself to bstr ct
tougt t ny secton r wn by te l tter troug te ncess nt
process of ts _fer_ or contnuous ctu lz ton n tme, but
lso to gr sp n n lyse s f r s possble te _fer_ or
process tself, n brng to lgt w tever we fn t t ts
process mples.

Tese conser tons m y elp te stuent to estm te for mself

te v lue n te lmt tons of te rgument wc  s suggeste
tem.
(_b_) A tng c nnot be re lly entc l wt
v rety of tngs t t re
re lly stnct from one noter; but te f cultes of te soul re re lly
stnct from one noter; terefore tey must be re lly stnct from te
subst nce of te soul. Te mnor premss s supporte by tese
conser tons: Te veget tve n sentent oper tons of te um n
nvu l re oper tons of te lvng _org nsm_, wle te ger
oper tons of r ton l tougt n volton re oper tons of te _soul
lone_, te sprtu l or mm ter l prncple n te nvu l. But te
mm ter l prncple c nnot be re lly n equ tely entc l wt te
nm te org nsm. Terefore te _powers_ or _mme te prncples_ of
tese two cl sses of functons, belongng s tey o to two re lly (toug
not equ tely) stnct subst nt l prncples, c nnot be re lly
entc l wt one of tem, _vz._ wt te soul tself, te sprtu l
prncple. Ag n: Te exercse of cert n functons by te um n
nvu l s suborn te to, n epenent on te prevous exercse of
oter functons. For ex mple, ctu l volton s necess rly epenent n
consequent on ctu l tougt: we c nnot wll or esre ny goo wtout
frst nowng t s goo. But te mme te prncple of ny functon or
ctvty c nnot be epenent on or suborn te to tself. Terefore te
mme te prncples of suc controllng n controlle
ctvtesntellect n wll, for ex mplemust be re lly stnct
f cultes.(346)
(_c_) Suppose te subst nce or n ture of n gentte um n nvu l,
for nst ncewere re lly entc l wt ll ts powers or f cultes, t t
tese were merely te n ture tself vewe uner fferent spects, so
t t tere woul be n re lty only one oper tve power n te nvu l,
ten tere woul be no re son wy te nvu l coul not or soul not
t ny nst nt elct one sngle cton or oper ton wc woul be
smult neously n ct of tn ng, wllng, seeng, e rng, etc., _.e._
wc woul  ve t once n tself te mo ltes of ll um n ctvtes.
But unvers l experence testfes, on te contr ry, t t te oper tons
of te nvu l re e c of some p rtcul r moe only, t t e c nnot
elct every moe of um n ctvty smult neously, t t e never elcts
one sngle ct  vng v rety of moes. But wy coul e not, f s
subst nce or n ture tself were te one n only _proxm te prncple_ of
ll s moes of ctvty? Bec use te contons for te _full n
equ te_ exercse of ts one sngle or proxm te prncple ( t once
subst nce n power) re never re lze! But t s rbtr ry to ssume te
exstence of power wc coul never p ss fully nto te ct conn tur l
to t. An moreover, even f tese contons re p rt lly re lze we
soul see s consequence of ts some um n ctvty wc woul
m nfest _n some egree t le st_ ll te mo ltes of te v rous um n
ctons of wc we  ve experence. But we  ve no experence of sngle
um n ctvty m nfestng _n ny egree_ te mo ltes of te numerous
n re lly stnct um n ctvtes wc experence reve ls to us. Hence
te v rety of tese re lly stnct moes of ctvty c n be expl ne
only by te f ct t t te um n nvu l elcts tem troug proxm te
oper tve prncples or powers wc re re lly stnct from one noter
n from te n ture tself of te nvu l.(347)
Te problem of n lysng n cl ssfyng te forces, f cultes, or
powers of te subsstng tngs n persons n te unverse of our

experence, belongs p rtly to Cosmology n p rtly to Psycology.

In te l tter t becomes m nly problem of cl ssfyng our
ment l cts, functons, or processesour st tes of conscousness.
Ap rt from te queston weter or not our ment l f cultes re
re lly stnct from one noter n from te um n n ture or
subst nce tself of te nvu l, te problem of ter proper
cl ssfc ton s mport nt from te pont of vew of _meto_ n
of _ ccur te psycologc l n lyss_. We  ve seen lre y (69)
t t te gre test scol stc plosopers re not un nmous n
ecl rng te stncton to be re l. But t s t le st vrtu l
stncton; n even s suc t gves rse to te problem of
cl ssfc ton. It wll be suffcent ere to nc te te gener l
prncple on wc te cl ssfc ton procees: Werever te
_ cts_ re _ equ tely stnct_ tey procee from stnct
powers; n te cts re equ tely stnct wen tey  ve
equ tely stnct _form l objects_.(348) _Potent e
specfc ntur per ctus et object ._ Te oper ton or ct s te
correl tve of te power or f culty; n te _form l object_ or
_term_ of te oper ton s te _fn l c use_ of te l tter, te
en for wc t s elcte. On ts b ss Arstotle n te
scol stcs stngus two ment l f cultes of te ger or
sprtu l orer, ntellect n wll; n n te lower or sense
orer of ment l lfe tey stngus one ppettve f culty,
sense ppette, n sever l cogntve sense f cultes. Tese
l tter comprse te ntern l sense f cultes, _vz._ te _sensus
communs_ or unfyng n ssoc tng sense, te m gn ton,
sense memory, n nstnct; n te extern l sense f cultes
comprse sgt, soun, t ste, smell n touc.
81. SOME CHARACTERISTICS OF QUALITIES.(_ _) _Qu ltes __  ve
contr res_. He lt n llness, vrtue n vce, scence n error, etc.,
re oppose s contr res. Ts, owever, s not _property_ of
qu ltes; t s not verfe n powers, or n forms n fgures; n t
s verfe n ccents wc re not qu ltes, _e.g._ n _ cto_ n
_p sso_.
(_b_) _Qu lty s te b ss or _fun mentum_ of ll rel tons of
sml rty n ssml rty._ Ts ttrbute seems to be n te strct
sense _property_ of ll qu ltes. Subst nces re _sml r_ n so f r s
tey  ve te s me n of qu ltes, _ssml r_ n so f r s tey  ve
fferent ns. _Sml rty_ of subst nces s te m n nex to _entty
of n ture or n_; but t must not be confoune wt te l tter. Te
l tter c nnot lw ys be nferre even from g egree of sml rty:
some specfc lly stnct cl sses of tngs re very sml r to one
noter. Nor, on te oter  n, s full n complete sml rty
necess ry consequence of entty of n ture: nvu ls of te s me
speces re often very ssml r, very unl e one noter.
(_c_) _Qu ltes mt of v ryng egrees of ntensty._ Tey c n ncre se
or mns n te s me subst nce, wle numerc lly ( n specfc lly)
stnct subst nces c n  ve te s me n of qu lty n fferent
egrees. Ts s m nfest n reg r to  bts, p ssons n sensble
qu ltes. On te oter  n, t s cle rly not true of form or
fgure. Dfferent nvu ls c n  ve te s me n of n tur l power
n fferent egrees. One m n m y be n tur lly of eener ntellect n
stronger wll t n noter: te _we _ power w s w t Arstotle c lle
(_imptenti _). But whether the n tur  pwer
 the
me
individu  c n _them
eve
_ incre
e r decre
e in
trength r
inten
ity nd nt merey the _h bit
_ th t ect the
e pwer
i
nt


ce r. Oper tive pwer
re cert iny perected (r injured) by the
cqui
itin  gd (r b d) h bit
. In the view  th
e wh deny re 
di
tinctin between n tur  per tive pwer r  cuty nd
ub
t nce, it
i
,  cur
e, the
ub
t nce it
e th t i

 perected (r injured).
Thi
ttribute, therere, i
_nt_ und in _ _ qu itie
; but it i

und in qu itie
_ ne_, nd nt in ny ther c tegry r mde 
being.
Hw re we t cnceive thi
v ri tin in inten
ity, thi
grwth r
diminutin  ny qu ity, in
ub
t nce in which
uch ch nge t ke

p ce
? On thi
pint phi
pher
re nt greed. By degree 
inten
ity_inten
i ve remi

i __ qu it ti
_we under
t nd the
degree (r ch nge  degree) in which the
me numeric  qu ity ect

_the
me p rt_ r _the
me pwer_  it

ubject, thu
rendering thi

p rt r pwer rm y mre r e

qu iied in
me p rticu r w y.
Thi
i
ce ry
mething quite dierent rm the _exten
in_  the
me
qu ity t dierent p rt
(r it
withdr w  rm dierent p rt
)  the

me extended
ubject. In crpre , extended
ub
t nce, there c n
ccrdingy be que
tin  bth kind
 ch nge, _inten
ive_ nd
_exten
ive_; whie in
impe,
piritu 
ub
t nce there c n bviu
y be
que
tin ny  _inten
ive_ ch nge  qu itie
. And the  ct 
inten
ive ch nge  qu itie
i
n undeni be  ct  experience. In wh t
m nner de
it t ke p ce? Sme uthr
cnceive it
n dditin r

ubtr ctin  _gr de
_ r _degree
_  the
me qu ity. Other
,
cnceiving qu itie


impe, indivi
ibe entitie
r rm
, nd
thence denying the p

ibiity  di
tinct gr de
 ny qu ity, cnceive

uch ch nge t t ke p ce by thi

impe entity ecting it

ubject
_mre r e

intim tey_, becming _mre r e

irmy rted_,
it
were, in it

ubject.(349) And they exp in thi
mre r e

perect mde
 inherence in v riety  w y
,   which re grunded n cert in
text
 St. Thm
:(350) the qu ity receive

new ccident  mde
whereby it cmmunic te
it
e t the
ubject, nd inrm
the  tter,
mre r e

perecty; r, it i
educed mre r e

uy rm the
ptenti ity  it

ubject, thu
qu iying the  tter in the degree in
which it i
educed rm, nd rted in, the  tter.
The
e exp n tin
re in
tructive,
iu
tr ting the view th t
the ctu  re ity  the ccident  mde  being cn
i
t
in it

ecting, determining, the
ubject in which it inhere
. St.
Thm
, pre

ing th t he c n tt ch n inteigibe me ning t
dditin r
ub
tr ctin  gr de
,(351) te che
th t the h bit 
ch rity, r ex mpe, c n be incre
ed
ecundum e

enti m by
inhering mre perecty, being mre irmy rted in it


ubject; r, he
y
,
ince it i
n ccident, eju
e

e e
t
ine

e. Unde nihi e
t iud ip
m
ecundum e

enti m ugeri, qu m
e m m gi
ine

e
ubject, qud e
t m gi
e m r dic ri in

ubject. Augetur erg e

enti iter... it qud m gi
c m gi
in

ubject e

e incipi t.(352) And e
ewhere he cncude
with the
wrd
: Pnere igitur qud iqu qu it
nn uge tur
ecundum
e

enti m,
ed uge tur
ecundum r dic tinem in
ubject ve

ecundum inten
inem ctu
, e
t pnere cntr dictri e

e

imu.(353)

CHAPTER XI. QUANTITY, SPACE AND TIME.

82. ANALYSIS OF THE CONCEPT OF QUANTITY.A det ied
tudy  Qu ntity,

incuding Sp ce nd Time, nd the Ari
ttei n c tegrie
_Ubi_, _Qu nd_
nd _Situ
_, beng
t C
mgy. Here we
h  cnine ur
eve
m iny
t the exp
itin  cert in eement ry ntin
prep r try t
uch
det ied
tudy; nd we
h 

ume the v idity  the Sch
tic Thery
 Knwedge: th t re , m teri  wrd exi
t
independenty  ur
mind
; th t it cn
i
t
 m teri 
ub
t nce
r bdie
, nim te nd
in nim te, endwed with the und ment  ccident  qu ntity r exten
in;
th t the
e bdie
p

e

, mrever, m ny ther re  ccident

uch

qu itie
nd energie
, chemic , phy
ic  nd mech nic ; th t they re

ubject t re  ch nge, c , qu ntit tive, qu it tive nd
ub
t nti ;
th t ur cncept

p ce nd time, derived rm th
e  exten
in nd
ch nge, re nt purey
ubjective r ment  rm
 cgnitin, but re
bjectivey v id ntin
grunded in the re ity  the crpre 
univer
e nd giving u

genuine, i in dequ te, in
ight int the n ture
 thi
re ity.
Amng the ch r cteri
tic
recgnized by phy
ici
t
in  perceptibe
m tterdivi
ibiity, cmmen
ur biity, impenetr biity, p

ivity r
inerti ,
ubjectin t extern  rce
r energie
, extern  exten
in r
vume, intern  qu ntity r m

there re nne mre und ment  th n
th
e  vume nd m

, r exten
in nd qu ntity.(354) Nwhere,
hwever, d we ind better iu
tr tin  the  ct th t it i

imp

ibe t give deinitin prper  ny
upreme c tegry, r even
de
criptin  it by the id  ny mre eement ry ntin
, th n in the
ttempt
 phi
pher
t de
cribe _Qu ntity_. When, r in
t nce, we
de
cribe _extern _, _ ctu _, _c _, r _
p ti  exten
in_
_th t
ccident 
crpre 
ub
t nce r bdy in virtue  which the  tter

exi
t
th t it h
p rt
ut
ide p rt
in
p ce_, we h ve t dmit t nce
th t the ntin
expre

ed by the term
p rt
, ut
ide nd
p ce re
n
imper th n the ntin  exten
in it
e: in  ct ur ntin

p ce (_cu
_) nd
p ce (_
p tium_) re derived rm, nd
pre
upp
e, th t  exten
in. Thi
, hwever, i
n
eriu
di
dv nt ge;
r the de
criptin,
uch
it i
, indic te
wh t we me n by the term

c ,
p ti , extern , ctu  exten
in, nd dec re
thi
 tter t
be n ccident  crpre 
ub
t nce
.
Exten
in,
it i
ctu y in the cncrete bdy, ected by v riety

en
ibe qu itie
, i
c ed _phy
ic _ exten
in; reg rded in the
b
tr ct, p rt rm the
e qu itie
, it i
c ed _gemetric _ r
_m them tic _ exten
in: _trin dimen
i_, r exten
in in three
dimen
in
, ength, bre dth nd depth. I we b
tr ct rm ne  the
e we
h ve exten
in in _tw_ dimen
in
, _
uperici _ exten
in; i we
b
tr ct rm _tw_, we h ve exten
in in _ne_ dimen
in, _ine r_
exten
in; nd i we b
tr ct rm  three we h ve the extreme _imiting
cncept_  the _m them tic  pint_. O the
e ur b
tr ct m them tic 
cncept
, pint, ine,
ur ce, nd vume, e ch expre

e
the
_m them tic  imit tin_  the
ucceeding ne.
We c nnt cnceive bdy exi
ting by h ving p rt
ut
ide p rt
in
p ce,
e ch p rt ccupying excu
ivey p ce pprpri ted t it
e, une

we
cnceive the bdy, the crpre  _
ub
t nce_,
h ving re dy
pur ity  _re y di
tinct_ r _di
tingui
h be_ p rt
_in it
e_, nd
b
tr cting rm  re tin t
p ce. The _
ub
t nce_ mu
t be cnceived

h ving pur ity  re y di
tinct r di
tingui
h be _integr _
p rt
 it
e, bere the
e p rt
c n be cnceived
exi
ting _ut
ide_
ne nther, e ch in it
wn p ce. And the prperty in virtue  which
the crpre 
ub
t nce h
in it
e thi
pur ity  di
tinct integr 

p rt
, whereby it i
_c p be_  ccupying
p ce, nd  being

impenetr be, divi
ibe, me
ur be, etc., i
c ed _intern _,
_r dic _, _ptenti  qu ntity_ r _exten
in_.(355)
The crpre 
ub
t nce it
e i
,  cur
e, _e

enti y_ cmp
ite,
e

enti y divi
ibe int tw _e

enti _ cn
titutive principe
, the
p

ive, determin be, r m teri  principe (_m teri prim _), nd the

peciying, determining, rm tive principe (_rm
ub
t nti i
_). Then
we cnceive thi
e

enti y cmp
ite
ub
t nce
nece

riy endwed
with the _prperty_  _intern  qu ntity_ whereby it i
cmp
ite in
nther rder: cmp
ed , nd divi
ibe int, re y di
tinct _integr _
p rt
, e ch  which i
,  cur
e, e

enti y cmp
ite ike the whe
it
e.(356) Fin y we cnceive th t the crpre 
ub
t nce, endwed
with thi
prperty, h

,

cnn tur  but re y di
tinct nd
b
utey
ep r be eect  the  tter, the ccident  mde  being,
c ed extern  r c  exten
in, in virtue  which it ctu y
ccupie

p ce, nd thu
becme
the
ubject   th
e qu itie

whereby it i
perceptibe t ur
en
e
.
We h ve next t inquire int the re tin
between the
e three di
tinct
bjective cncept
, crpre 
ub
t nce, intern  qu ntity, nd c  r
extern  exten
in.
83. CORPOREAL SUBSTANCE, QUANTITY AND EXTENSION.The crpre 
ub
t nce
i
n e

enti y cmp
ite
ub
t nce, re
uting rm the unin  tw
di
tinct e

enti  cn
titutive principe
. It exi
t
in it
e nd i
the
utim te
ubject   the determin tin
whereby it reve 
it
e t
ur
en
e
. It
ctu  exten
in in
p ce i

und ment  mde r
determin tin  it
re ity, but it i

mde which i
di
tinct rm the
re ity it
e  the crpre 
ub
t nce. Ari
tte reg rded the
di
tinctin
re . In hi
_Met phy
ic
_ he dec re
th t the three
dimen
in
 bdie
re qu ntitie
, nt
ub
t nce
, th t qu ntity i
nt

ub
t nce, where
th t in which it utim tey inhere
i


ub
t nce;(357) in hi
_Phy
ic
_ he
y
th t
ub
t nce i
 it
e
indivi
ibe nd i
m de divi
ibe by it
qu ntity r exten
in;(358) in
hi
_De Anim _(359) he b
erve
th t [extern ] qu ntity i
directy
perceptibe by the
en
e
(_
en
ibie_ per
e) whie
ub
t nce i
ny
indirecty perceptibe (_
en
ibie_ per cciden
):(360) rm which it i

inerred th t
ub
t nce nd exten
in c nnt be re y identic . Ag in,
St. Thm
rgue
th t crpre 
ub
t nce

uch, nd
  r
it

e

ence i
cncerned, i
indierent t gre ter r e

exten
in in
m n, r in
t nce, i


p ce, th t the whe n ture r
ub
t nce 
indierent t, nd independent , hi
p rticu r
ize t ny pint 
time, th t whie he grw
rm chidhd t m nhd it i
hi
extern 
qu ntity th t ch nge
, but nt hi
hum nity, hi
hum n e

ence, n ture, r

ub
t nce.(361)
Cn
ider tin

uch
the
e, thugh they d nt indeed munt t cgent
pr

re  di
tinctin between
p ti  exten
in nd crpre 

ub
t nce,
hud m ke ny
eriu
phi
pher he
it te t identiy the
e
b
utey,
De
c rte
nd hi
wer
did when they dec red the
e

ence  crpre 
ub
t nce t cn
i
t in three dimen
in

p ti 
exten
in. Even king t the m tter rm the pint  view  n tur 
re
n ne, nd p rt tgether rm ny ight th t m y be thrwn upn
it r the Chri
ti n phi
pher by Divine Reve tin, it i
ny the

uperici  thinker wh wi cncude th t bec u
e exten
inwhich reve 

t hi
inteect thrugh the medium  extern 
en
e perceptin the
pre
ence 
crpre 
ub
t ncei
n tur y in
ep r be rm the
 tter, therere it i
re y nd b
utey identic  with thi
 tter.
The phi
pher wh remember
hw itte i
knwn r cert in but the

utim te, e

enti  cn
titutin  bdie
r crpre 
ub
t nce
, wi

be
w t cncude th t the
p ti y extended mde  their being enter

int the cn
titutin  their e

ence, nd i
nt r ther n ccident 
determin tin whereby the
e
ub
t nce
h ve their integr  p rt
di
per
ed
r extended in
p ce nd thu
reve ed t the hum n inteect thrugh

en
e perceptin.
And i he be Chri
ti n phi
pher he wi n tur y inquire
whether ny truth  the Chri
ti n Reve tin wi hep indirecty
t determine the que
tin. De
c rte
nd hi
wer
were
Chri
ti n phi
pher
; nd hence it w
 the mre r
h nd
imprudent  them, in
pite  wh t they knew cncerning the
Be

ed Euch ri
t, t identiy the crpre 
ub
t nce with it


p ti  exten
in. They knew th t by tr n
ub
t nti tin the bre d
nd wine re ch nged _
ub
t nti y_ int the Bdy nd Bd 
Chri
t. But  the _ ppe r nce
_ r _phenmen _  bre d nd wine
rem in ter tr n
ub
t nti tin, the Euch ri
tic _
pecie
_
they
re c ed, the t
te, cur, rm, etc., in
wrd,  the

en
ibe qu itie
 the
e
ub
t nce
, incuding the _exten
in_
in which they immedi tey inhere. Frm the reve ed truth th t the
_
ub
t nce
_ di
ppe r, nd rm the m nie
t  ct th t  their
_ ccident
_ rem in, Chri
ti n phi
pher
nd thegi n
h ve
righty dr wn the
uicienty bviu
inerence th t the

p ti y extended qu ntity, which immedi tey
upprt
 the
ther
en
ibe qu itie
, mu
t be it
e n _ b
ute_ ccident
nt ny _re y di
tinct_, but by the b
ute pwer  Gd
_re y
ep r be_, rm it
_cnn tur 
ub
t nce_, the bre d nd
the wine re
pectivey; nd th t thi
extended qu ntity rem in
in
thi

t te  ctu 
ep r tin mir cuu
y
upprted by the
direct inuence  the Divine Omniptence. And whie Chri
ti n
phi
pher
wh hd thi
view c n deend it rm  ch rge

incn
i
tency, unre
n bene

nd imp

ibiity, De
c rte
nd
hi
wer
c n deend their p rticu r view ny by the
dmi

in th t in the c
e  the cn
ecr ted Euch ri
t ur
en
e

re deceived. In thi
view, whie n ccident
 the bre d nd
wine rem in bjectivey, Gd Him
e prduce
directy in ur
mind
the
ubjective, ment 
t te
which the bre d nd wine
prduced bere cn
ecr tin.(362) Thi
gr tuitu

per
in i

c
t n the tru
twrthine


en
e perceptin,
impy n ccunt
 the precnceived thery identiying the crpre 
ub
t nce
with it
exten
in. Accrding t the cmmn view, n the ther
h nd, the
en
e
re nt re y deceived. Th t t which they
te
tiy i
re y there, _viz._ the whe cectin  n tur 
ccident
 bre d nd wine. It i
nt the unctin  the
en
e
,
but  the inteect, t te
tiy t the pre
ence  the
ub
t nce.
O cur
e the unbeiever king t the cn
ecr ted
pecie
, r
the beiever wh k
t them nt knwing th t they h ve been
cn
ecr ted, think
th t the
ub
t nce  bre d nd the
ub
t nce
 wine re there. E ch i
deceived inteectu y, the ne by hi

unbeie 
truth, the ther by hi
ignr nce   ct. I bth
knew  the  ct  cn
ecr tin, nd i the rmer beieved in
the eect  it, neither wud be deceived.(363)
Whie the C rte
i n view i
thu
pen t
uch
eriu
bjectin
,
the ny p u
ibe diicuty g in
t the tr ditin  view i
th t
merey ccident  mde 
 cnceiving hw the re ity 
being,
uch
exten
in, c n be
u
t ined in the ctu  rder 
thing
p rt rm it
cnn tur 
ub
t nce, nd yet nt becme
it
e _e ip
_
ub
t nce. Neede

t
y we h ve n

_p
itive_ cnceptin  the m nner in which the Divine

Omniptence thu

u
t in
exten
in; but
ince thi
 tter, being
n b
ute ccident, nd nt mere md  determin tin  the
re ity  it
wn, the mir cuu
per
i
tence 

ub
t nce, h

thi
re ity c nnt be
hwn t be imp

ibe. Nr i
it, in thi


ep r ted cnditin, it
e

ub
t nce, r it
ti ret in
it

n tur  ptitude r inherence in it
cnn tur 
ub
t nce; nd
thi
_ ptitude_ ne, nt _ ctu _ inherence, i
 it
e

ence

n ccident (65): ret ining thi
n tur  ptitude it c nnt
p

iby becme
ub
t nce, it c nnt be identiied with the
_
ub
t nti _ mde  being which h
e

enti y the very
pp
ite ptitude, th t  _exi
ting in it
e_.
Extern  exten
in, then, i
n b
ute ccident, re y di
tinct rm
the crpre 
ub
t nce, nd n tur y thugh nt b
utey in
ep r be
rm the  tter. It i
the n tur  cncmit nt r cn
equence  the
_intern  qu ntity_ whereby the crpre 
ub
t nce h
in it
e
pur ity  di
tinct integr  p rt
. Thi
_intern  qu ntity_ it
e i

either n
pect  the crpre 
ub
t nce it
e, ny virtu y
di
tinct rm the  tter, r e
e in the
trict
en
e _prperty_,
b
utey in
ep r be, i re y di
tinct, rm the
ub
t nce. N tur 
experience urni
he
n ex mpe 
crpre 
ub
t nce ctu y exi
ting
devid  intern  qu ntity r intern  di
tinctin  integr 
p rt
.(364) But
ch
tic phi
pher
re nt greed
t whether the
crpre 
ub
t nce i
it
e nd by it
wn e

ence m nid  re y
di
tinct integr  p rt
(in which c
e intern  qu ntity wud be merey
the
pect under which the e

ence i
thu
reg rded
n integr  whe
cn
tituted by pur ity  di
tinct integr  p rt
; whie, ked t

n e

ence, it wud be n e

enti  whe cn
tituted by the unin  tw
e

enti  p rt
r principe
)r whether it i
rm y cn
tituted n
integr  whe, nt by it
e

ence (which m ke
it ny n e

enti 
whe, n e

enti y cmp
ite
ub
t nce), but by prperty re y
di
tinct, thugh nece

riy wing, rm thi
e

ence, _viz._ intern 
qu ntity. Accrding t the rmer view the m teri  principe (_m teri
prim _)  the cmp
ite crpre 
ub
t nce i

uch th t the e

ence
re
uting rm it
unin with the rm tive principe (_rm

ub
t nti i
_) i
nece

riy n integr  whe with di
tingui
h be
integr  p rt
, e ch  which n tur y dem nd
the
p ti y extended
mde  being which extern  exten
in _de  ct_ cner
upn it.
Accrding t the  tter view, which i
th t  St. Thm
nd hi

wer
gener y, the crpre 
ub
t nce

uch h
n mde 
cmp
itin ther th n _e

enti _ cmp
itin: it i
nt  it
e n
_integr _ whe, cmpunded  di
tinct r di
tingui
h be integr  p rt

(e ch  which wud be, ike the whe, e

enti y cmp
ite):  it
e
it i
_indivi
ibe_ int integr  p rt
: it i
, therere, in thi
rder
 being,
impe nd nt cmp
ite. It h
, n dubt, by re
n  it

m teri  principe, n b
utey nece

ry exigence r divi
ibiity int
di
tinct integr  p rt
, r integr  cmp
itin in ther wrd
. But thi

ctu  integr  cmp
itin, thi
ctu  divi
ibiity, i
the rm 
eect 
prperty re y di
tinct rm the
ub
t nti  e

ence it
e;
nd thi
prperty i
intern  qu ntity: the cnn tur , but b
utey

ep r be, cmpement  thi
intern  qu ntity being,
in the ther
view, c  r
p ti  exten
in.
In bth view
extern  exten
in i
n b
ute ccident  the crpre 

ub
t nce; nd in the Thmi
t view intern  qu ntity wud 
 ppe r t
be n b
ute ccident, nd nt mere mde.

It i
in
tructive t reect hw  r thi

ch
tic dctrine

remve
u
rm the C rte
i n view which
et
up n b
ute
ntithe
i
between mind r
pirit, nd m tter r bdy, p cing the
e

ence  the rmer in _thught_ nd th t  the  tter in
_exten
in_. Accrding t the
ch
tic view the
piritu 

ub
t nce i
n imm teri  ctu ity r rm; it i

_e

enti y
impe_, nd nt ike crpre 
ub
t nce n
_e

enti y cmp
ite_
ub
t nce re
uting rm the unin 
rm tive principe r rm with p

ive, determin be,
m teri  principe. And
ince it i
the m teri  principe th t
dem nd
the prperty  intern  qu ntity nd the ccident 
extern  exten
in, whereby the crpre 
ub
t nce becme
n
integr  whe with it
p rt
extended in
p ce, it w
th t
the
piritu 
ub
t nce, h ving n m teri  principe in it

cn
titutin, i
nt ny _e

enti y_
impet the excu
in 
di
tinct principe
 it
e

ence,but i

 nd

cn
equence _integr y_
impe, t the excu
in  di
tinct
integr  p rt
, nd  the extended r ch r cteri
tic y
crpre  mde  ccupying
p ce. S  r there i
cntr
t
between the tw gre t
ub
t nti  mde
 inite being, m tter
nd
pirit; but the cntr
t i
by n me n
n b
ute
ntithe
i
. Fr i we k t the e

ence ne  the crpre 

ub
t nce it i
nt _ it
e_ ctu y extended in
p ce: in the
Thmi
t view it i
nt even  it
e divi
ibe int di
tinct
integr  p rt
. It dier
rm
pirit in thi
th t whie the
 tter i
e

enti y
impe the rmer i
e

enti y cmp
ite
nd h
by re
n  thi
cmp
itene


n tur  ptitude r
divi
ibiity int p rt
nd r the exten
in  the
e p rt
in

p ce, n ptitude which
pirit de
nt p

e

. But the
crpre 
ub
t nce _m y_ exi
t withut ctu  exten
in, nd
cn
equenty withut ny  th
e ther ttribute

uch

impenetr biity,
idity, cur, etc., thrugh which it i

perceptibe t ur
en
e
. In thi
cnditin, hw de
it dier
rm
pirit? In being e

enti y cmp
ite, nd in being perh p

endwed with di
tingui
h be integr  p rt
.(365) But in thi

cnditin the e

enti  mde  it
being h

re tin t
p ce
which c
ey re
embe
the mde in which
pirit exi
t
in
p ce:
it i
re ted t
p ce
mewh t in the m nner in which the
u i

in the
p ce ccupied by the bdywhe in the whe  thi

p ce
nd whe in every

ign be prtin  thi

p ce. S th t ter
, dierent
m tter nd
pirit undubtedy re, the
dierence between them i
by n me n
th t
rt  C rte
i n
ch
m which hum n thught mu
t r ever  i t bridge.
By virtue  it
extern  exten
in the crpre 
ub
t nce exi
t
by
h ving di
tingui
h be p rt
ut
ide p rt
in
p ce. We c n cnceive ny
perceptibe vume  m tter
being _perecty cntinuu
_, i it h
n
_ ctu _ imit
r _ ctu _ di
tinctin  p rt
within it
e, but i

_ne_ individu  being _cmpetey iing_ the whe
p ce within it

uter
ur ce; r _imperecty cntinuu
_, i whie being ne nd
undivided it h
within it
vume pre
r inter
tice
, whether the
e be
empty r ied with
me ther
rt  m tter; r
m de up 
_cntiguu
_ integr  p rt
i e ch r the
e i
re y di
tinct nd
ctu y divided rm every ther, whie e ch ctu y tuche
with it

uter imit
the dj cent imit
 the p rt
ying next t it,
 th t
 the intern  p rt
r imit
re c-terminu
; r
m de up 

ep r te, _di
crete_ r di
t nt p rt
n ne  which ctu y tuche
ny
ther.

It i
ce r th t there mu
t be, in ny ctu y extended vume  m tter,

_utim te_ p rt
which re re y _cntinuu
_une

we re t hd, with
dyn mi
t
, th t ur perceptin  exten
in i
prduced in ur mind
by
the ctin  extr ment  pint
r centre
 rce which re them
eve

_
impe_ r _unextended_. But the phy
ic  phenmen  cntr ctin,
exp n
in, b
rptin, undu try nd vibr try mtin
ccmp nying ur

en
tin
 ight, he t nd
und,
we
m ny ther phy
ic 
phenmen ,  pint t the  ct th t vume
 m tter which re
_ pp renty_ cntinuu
re re y pru
: the mecu r
tructure 
perceptibe m tter i
n ccepted phy
ic  thery; nd
cienti
t


univer
y ccept

wrking hypthe
i
the exi
tence  n
imperceptibe m teri  medium perv ding nd iing  re 
p ce, thugh
there i
n greement
t the prpertie
with which they
upp
e thi

hypthetic  medium, the ether, t be endwed.
Ag in,
reg rd
the _divi
ibiity_  extended m tter, it i
bviu

th t i we cnceive exten
in in three dimen
in
_gemetric y_,
_m them tic y_ r _in the b
tr ct_, ny
uch vume r exten
in i

_indeinitey divi
ibe_ in thught. But i we inquire hw  r ny
cncrete, ctu y exi
ting vume  m tter i
divi
ibe, we knw in the
ir
t p ce th t we c nnt divide the bdy  ny ctu  rg nic iving
thing indeinitey withut de
trying it
ie, nd
 it

peciic
ch r cter. Nr c n we c rry n the divi
in  inrg nic m tter
indeinitey r w nt 
uicienty deic te dividing in
trument
. But
p rt rm thi
the
cience  chemi
try pint
t the  ct th t every
inrg nic chemic  cmpund h
n utim te individu  unit, the chemic 
mecue, which we c nnt
ub-divide withut de
trying the
peciic
n ture  the cmpund by re
ving it int it
eement
r int e


cmpex cmpund
. Furthermre, e ch eement ry r chemic y
impe
bdy
uch
gd, xygen, c rbn, etc.
eem
re
v be int unit
c ed
tm
, which ppe r t be utim te _individu _ unit
in the
en
e th t
i their m

_c n_ be
ubdivided (
ppe r
p

ibe rm re
e rche

th t h ve rigin ted in the di
cvery  r dium) the
ubdivi
in
re

peciic y dierent kind
 m tter rm th t  the tm
 divided.
In the inrg nic wrd the perceptibe m

 m tter i
cert iny nt n
_individu _ being, _unum per
e_, but ny cectin  individu 
tm
r mecue
, _unum per cciden
_. Whether the mecue r the
tm  the chemic y eement ry bdy i
the individu , c nnt be
determined with ny degree  certitude. It wud ppe r, hwever, th t
every
peciic y di
tinct type  inrg nic m tter, whether cmpund r
eement ry, require
r it
exi
tence cert in minim  vume, by the

ub-divi
in  which the type i

ub
t nti y ch nged; nd thi
i

m nie
ty true  rg nic r iving m tter:
 th t m tter _
it
n tur y exi
t
_ wud ppe r nt t be indeinitey divi
ibe.
I in chemic y hmgeneu
m

 _inrg nic_ m tter (
uch

c rbn r w ter) the chemic  mecue be reg rded
the
individu , thi
c nnt be the c
e in ny _rg nic_, _iving
thing_, r wh tever m tter i


imi ted int the iving

ub
t nce 
uch being _e ip
_ underge

ub
t nti  ch nge
whereby it 
e
the n ture it h d nd becme

cn
tituent 
the iving individu . The _
ub
t nti _, _individu _ unity 
the rg nic iving being
eem
t be cmp tibe nt merey with
qu it tive (
tructur  nd unctin ) hetergeneity  p rt
,
but 
 with (perh p
even _cmpete_)
p ti 
ep r tene


the
e p rt
. I the
tructure  the iving bdy i
re y
mecu r, _i.e._ i it h
_di
t nce
_ between it
utim te
integr  unit
,
 th t the
e re nt in
p ti  cnt ct, then the

 ct th t the rm tive, vit  principe (_rm
ub
t nti i
_,

_ nim _) uniie
thi
m teri  m nid, nd cn
titute
it n
individu  by ctu izing nd vit izing e ch nd   the
m teri  unit
,
p ti y
ep r te
they re,thi
 ct wi
hep u
t re ize th t the _rm tive principe_  the cmp
ite
crpre 
ub
t nce h
nt _ it
e_ the _
p ti _, _extended_
mde  being, but th t the
ub
t nce derive
the  tter rm it

m teri  principe (_m teri prim _).
84. PLACE AND SPACE.Frm the cncept  the vume r ctu  exten
in 
bdy we p

immedi tey t th t  the p ce (_cu
_) which it
ccupie
. We m y di
tingui
h between the _intern _ nd the _extern _
p ce 
bdy. By the rmer we under
t nd _the uter (cnvex)
ur ce
recept ce cnt ining the vume  the
 the bdy it
e, reg rded

bdy_. I, therere, there were ny ne bdy in exi
tence it wud h ve
it
wn intern  p ce: thi
i
independent  ther bdie
. Nt
,
hwever, the extern  p ce; r by the extern  p ce 
bdy we me n
_the immedi tey
urrunding (cnc ve)
ur ce_, rmed by the bdie

which circum
cribe the bdy in que
tin, nd _cn
idered rm y
n
immv be cnt iner  thi
bdy_. Thi
i

ree rendering  Ari
tte

deinitin: _P ce i
the ir
t (r immedi te) immv be
ur ce (r
bdy_: _prim immbii

upericie
eju

imit)  th t which cnt in

qud cntinet_.(366) I
hw
phere were ied with w ter, the inner
r cnc ve
ur ce  the
phere wud be the extern  p ce  the
w ter. Nt, hwever, thi

ur ce cn
idered m teri y, but _rm y


ur ce_,
 th t i the
phere cud be remved, nd nther
in
t nt neu
y
ub
tituted r it, the w ter wud
ti be cnt ined
within the
me _rm _
ur ce; it
_cu
externu
_ wud rem in the

me. And, g in, it i
the cnt ining
ur ce cn
idered
_immv be_
r
circum
cribing th t deinite prtin 
p ce, th t cn
titute
the
_cu
externu
_ r extern  p ce  the c ted bdy:
 th t i the

phere with the w ter were mved the  tter wud thereby bt in new
extern  c tin, r thugh the cnt ining
ur ce be
ti m teri y
nd rm y the
me, it i
n nger the
me _

c ting_
ur ce,
prtin 
p ce dierent rm th t m rked

eeing th t it nw m rk

 by it bere it w
mved.
Ari
tte
deinitin deine
wh t i
knwn
the _prper_ extern 
p ce 
bdy. Frm thi
we di
tingui
h the _cmmn_ extern  p ce r
bdy: under
t nding by the  tter, r cu
_cmmuni
_,
c tin 
the whe cectin 
p ti  re tin
 the bdy in que
tin t 
the bdie
in it
immedi te neighburhd. It i
by indic ting the
e
re tin
, r
me  them, th t we

ign the Ari
ttei n c tegry, r
extrin
ic denmin tin, _Ubi_.(367)
Reg rded ntgic y, the intern  p ce 
bdy i
n b
ute
ccident: it i
the ccident which give
the  tter cncrete vume r
extern  exten
in, nd it i
nt re y di
tinct rm the  tter. The
extern  p ce 
bdy incude
in dditin the
p ti  re tin
 the
 tter t ther bdie
, re tin
grunded in the vume
 th
e bdie
.
It i
by re
n  the
e
p ti  re tin
with cert in bdie
,
th t being i

id t be pre
ent in cert in p ce. A
crpre  extended
ub
t nce i

id t ccupy
p ce
_circum
criptiv_, r by h ving p rt
ut
ide p rt
in the p ce
it ccupie
. A inite r cre ted
piritu 
ub
t nce i

id t
ccupy
p ce _deinitiv_ in
much
it c n n tur y exerci
e
it
inuence ny within cert in mre r e

extended
p ti 

imit
:
the hum n
u de
within the cnine
 the

bdy.(368) The Ininite Being i

id t ccupy
p ce _repetiv_.
The ctu  pre
ence  Gd in  re 
p ce, cn
erving in it

exi
tence  cre ted, cntingent re ity, i
c ed the Divine
_Ubiquity_. The perectin whereby Gd c n be pre
ent in ther
wrd
nd ther
p ce
which He m y ctu ize i
c ed the
Divine _Immen
ity_.
The c  pre
ence  inite being t ther inite being
i

it
e
p
itive perectinb
ed n it
ctu  exten
in i it
be n extended crpre 
ub
t nce, r n it
pwer  per ting
within
cert in
p ce i it be
piritu 
ub
t nce. The  ct
th t in the c
e 
inite being thi
c  pre
ence i
it
e
imited, i
t nce cr ry nd n index  the initene


the being in que
tin. Ony the Ininite Being i
mnipre
ent r
ubiquitu
. But every inite being, whether crpre  r

piritu , rm the very  ct th t it exi
t
t , mu
t exi
t

mewhere r h ve
me _cu
internu
_, nd it mu
t h ve
me
c  pre
ence i there re ther crpre , extended being
in
exi
tence. Thu
the _c  pre
ence_ 
being i

(inite)
perectin which
eem
t be grunded in the very n ture it
e 
the cre ture.(369)
Frm the cncept  _p ce_ we p

n tur y t the mre cmpex nd
b
tr ct ntin  _
p ce_. It i
,  cur
e, by cgnitive prce

e
, bth

entient nd inteectu , th t we cme int p

e

in  the b
tr ct
cncept 
p ce. The
e prce

e
re
ubjective in the
en
e th t they
re prce

e
 the individu 
ment   cutie
. Di
tingui
hing between
the prce

e
nd the bject r cntent which i
brught int
cn
ciu
ne

, r put in pre
ence  the mind, by me n
 them; nd


uming th t thi
bject r cntent i
nt _mere_ rm r grve  ur
cgnitive ctivity, nt _mere_ ntecedent cnditin requi
ite n the
ment 
ide r the cn
ciu
exerci
e  thi
ctivity n it
d t , but
th t n the cntr ry it i
, r invve
, n bjective, extr ment  re ity
pprehended by the mind,we g n t inquire in wh t thi
bjective
re ity cn
i
t
. In ppr ching the que
tin we mu
t ir
t nte th t wh t
i
true  every b
tr ct nd univer
 cncept i
true  the cncept 

p ce, _viz._ th t the _ b
tr ctne

_ nd _univer
ity_ (_intenti
univer
it ti
_)  re  being,
pprehended by the inteect, re
mde
r rm
 thught, _enti r tini
_, gic  cnditin
nd
re tin
which re cre ted by thught, nd which exi
t ny in nd r
thught; whie the re ity it
e i
the bject pprehended in the
e mde

nd under the
e cnditin
: _Univer
e e
t rm iter in mente et
und ment iter in re_. Nw thrugh the cncept 
p ce we pprehend
re ity. Our cncept  re 
p ce h
r it
bject n ctu  re ity.
Wh t i
thi
re ity? I
p ce i
re , in wh t de
it
re ity cn
i
t?
We n
wer th t the re ity which we pprehend thrugh thi
cncept i
_the
tt  munt  the ctu  exten
in r m gnitude   cre ted nd
cexi
ting bdie
_; nt, hwever, thi
tt  m gnitude cn
idered
b
utey nd in it
e, but _
endwed with re  nd mutu  re tin

  it
p rt
t ne nther_,(370) re tin
which re pprehended by
u

di
t nce
, ine r,
uperici , nd vumin .
Such, then, i
the re ity crre
pnding t ur cncept  re  nd ctu 

p ce. But n
ner h ve we re ched thi
cncept th n we m y k t it

bject in the b
tr ct, remve ment y  imit
rm it, nd cnceive
 extended bdie

ctu y nn-exi
tent. Wh t i
the re
ut? The
re
ut i
th t we h ve nw pre
ent t ur mind
the _p

ibiity_  the
exi
tence  extended bdie
, nd
cncmit nt im gin tin im ge (which

memry wi nt w u
t b ni
h rm cn
ciu
ne

) 

v
t nd
bunde

emptine

, n indeinite nd unme
ur be v cuum in which bdie

were r m y be. The inteectu  cncept i
nw nt cncept  ny
_ ctu _ bject, but 
mere _p

ibiity_: the p

ibiity 
crpre , extended univer
e. Thi
i
the cncept  wh t we c  _ide _
r _p

ibe
p ce_; nd ike the cncept  ny ther p

ibe re ity it
i
derived by u
rm ur experience  ctu  re ity,in thi
c
e rm
ur experience  extended bdie

ctu y exi
ting. The crpre 
univer
e h
nt exi
ted rm  eternity, but it w
p

ibe rm 
eternity. When we think  th t p

ibiity
ntecedent t  cre tin,
we re thinking  bdie
, nd  their exten
in,
p

ibe; nd the
cncept  their tt  exten
in
p

ibe i
the cncept  ide  r
p

ibe
p ce. Thi
cncept i
, thrugh p
ychgic  nece

ity,
ccmp nied by n im gin tin im ge  wh t we c  _im gin ry
p ce_: the
unimited v cuity which preceded crpre  cre tin, which wud
ti
per
i
t were the  tter tt y nnihi ted, which re che
ut
indeinitey beynd it
ctu  imit
, which im gin tin picture
r u

recept ce in which bdie
m y exi
t but which  the time ur


re
n

ure
u
i
ctu y nthing, being re y ny the knwn
p

ibiity  crpre  cre ture
. Thi
 mii r ntin  n empty
recept ce r bdie
i
wh t we h ve in mind when we think  bdie


exi
ting _in_
p ce. Hence we
y th t
p ce,
cnceived by the hum n
mind, i
nt mere
ubjective rm  cgnitin, mere _en
r tini
_,
in
much
ur cncept h
und tin in re ity, _viz._ the ctu 
exten
in   exi
ting bdie
; nr i
it n the ther h nd
impy
re  entity, bec u
e thi
ctu  exten
in  bdie
de
nt re y exi
t
in the m nner in which we pprehend it under the b
tr ct cncept 
mere p

ibiity, r empty recept ce,  bdie
. Sp ce i


p ce,

therere n _en
r tini
cum und ment in re_.
A gre t v riety  intere
ting but b
tru
e que
tin
ri
e rm
the cn
ider tin 
p ce; but they beng prpery t C
mgy
nd N tur  Thegy. Fr ex mpe: I
re 
p ce ctu y ininite
in m gnitude, r inite? In ther wrd
, be
ide
the whe
 r

y
temwhich i
in re ity merey ne
t r _pu
_ it
p net
nd
their
teite
,i
there in exi
tence n ctu y ininite
mutitude 
uch
te r wrd
? It i
nt ikey th t thi
c n
ever be determined empiric y. M ny phi
pher
m int in th t
the que
tin mu
t be n
wered in the neg tive, in
much
n
ctu y ininite mutitude i
_imp

ibe_. Other
, hwever, deny
th t the imp

ibiity  n ctu y ininite mutitude c n be
prved.(371) Ag in, within the imit
 the ctu  crpre 
univer
e, re there re y _v c nt_
p ce
, r i

p ce within
the
e imit
ctu y (r even nece

riy) ied with n
-perv ding ether r crpre  medium 
me
rt? Hw wud
c  mtin be p

ibe i 
p ce were u  impenetr be
m tter? Hw wud the re  inter ctin  di
t nt bdie
n ne
nther be p

ibe i there were ny v c nt
p ce between them?
I
the _re _ vume r exten
in 
crpre 
ub
t nce (

di
tinct rm it
_ pp rent_ vume, which i

upp
ed t incude
inter
tice
, r
p ce
nt ied with th t bdy) ctu y r
nece

riy unch nge be? Or i
the intern  qu ntity 
bdy
ctu y r nece

riy unch nge be? C n mre th n ne individu 
crpre 
ub
t nce
imut neu
y ccupy ex cty the
me
p ce?
(Thi
i
nt p

ibe n tur y, r impenetr biity i

n tur 
cn
equence  c  exten
in; but it i
p

ibe mir cuu
yi
 the bdie
, r  except ne, be mir cuu
y deprived 
c  r
p ti  exten
in.) C n the
me individu  bdy be
pre
ent t the
me time in tt y dierent nd di
t nt p ce
?

(Nt n tur y,  cur
e; but hw it c n h ppen even mir cuu
y
i

mre diicut que
tin th n the preceding ne. It i
in
virtue  it
ctu  r c  exten
in th t bdy i
pre
ent

en
iby in deinite p ce. Deprived mir cuu
y  thi

exten
in it c n be
imut neu
y in
ever  p ce
,
ur
Be

ed Lrd
Bdy i
in the Euch ri
t. But i
bdy h
it

n tur  c  exten
in t ne deinite p ce, de
thi
exten
in

 cnine it
pre
ence t thi
p ce th t it c nnt be

imut neu
y pre
entmir cuu
y, nd withut it
c 
exten
in t ther p ce
? The m
t we c n
y i
th t the
b
ute imp

ibiity  thi
i
neither
e-evident nr c p be
 cgent pr. The Bdy  ur Lrd h
it
n tur  c 
exten
in in he venr he ven, which wi be the bde  the
griied bdie
 the be

ed ter the gener  re
urrectin,
mu
t be nt merey
t te r cnditin, but
p ce nd t the

me time it i

cr ment y pre
ent in m ny p ce
n e rth.)
85. TIME: ITS APPREHENSION AND MEASUREMENT.I the cncept 
p ce i

diicut t n y
e, nd give
ri
e t
me pr ctic y in
ube
prbem
, thi
i

ti mre true  the cncept  time. Wh t, then, i

time? exc im
St. Augu
tine in hi
_Cne

in
_.(372) I n ne
k

me, I knw; but i I m
ked t exp in it, then I d nt knw! We re ch
the ntin 
p ce thrugh ur extern  perceptin  _exten
in_ by the

en
e

ight nd tuch. S 
 we derive the ntin  time rm ur
perceptin  _mtin_ r _ch nge_, nd m iny rm ur cn
ciu
ne


ch nge nd
ucce

in in ur wn cn
ciu

t te
. The cncept  time
invve
immedi tey tw ther cncept
, th t  _dur tin_, nd th t 
_
ucce

in_. Dur tin, r cntinu nce in exi
tence, i
 tw kind
,
_perm nent_ nd _
ucce

ive_. Perm nent dur tin i
the dur tin  n
_immut be_ being, rm y nd in
  r
it i
immut be. Succe

ive
dur tin i
the cntinued exi
tence r dur tin 
being th t i

_
ubject_ t ch nge, rm y nd in
  r
it i
mut be. Nw re 
ch nge invve

cntinuu
_
ucce

in_  re 
t te
, it i

cntinuu
_prce

_ r _ieri_; nd it i
the dur tin 
being
ubject
t
uch ch nge th t we c  _time_ r _tempr  dur tin_. H d we n
cn
ciu
ne

 ch nge, r
ucce

in 
t te
, we cud h ve n ntin
 time; thugh we might h ve ntin  unch nging dur tin i _per
imp

ibie_ ur cgnitive ctivity were it
e devid  ny
ucce

in
 cn
ciu

t te
nd h d r it
bject ny unch nging re ity. But

ince ur cgnitive ctivity i
_de  ct_
ucce

ive we c n pprehend
perm nent r unch nging dur tin, nt
it i
in it
e, but ny ter
the n gy 
ucce

ive r tempr  dur tin (86). The cntinuu

erie

 _
ucce

ive
t te
invved in ch nge_ i
, therere, the re  nd
bjective cntent  ur ntin  time; ju
t
the _c-exi
ting_ tt 
 _exten
in_ rm
the cntent  ur ntin 
p ce. The cncept 

p ce i
the cncept 
mething
t tic; th t  time i
the cncept 

mething kinetic. Time i
the cntinuity  ch nge: where there i
ch nge
there i
time; withut ch nge time wud be incnceiv be. Ch nge invve


ucce

in, nd
ucce

in invve
the tempr  eement
 bere nd
ter,
ep r ted by the indivi
ibe imiting  ctr c ed the nw r
pre
ent in
t nt. The p
t nd the uture re the tw _p rt
_ 
time, whie the pre
ent in
t nt i
nt p rt  time, but
_pint 
dem rc tin_ t which the uture w
int the p
t. Ch nge i

re ity;
it i

re  mde  the exi
tence  mut be thing
; but neither the
immedi tey p
t
t te, nr the immedi tey uture
t te 
ch nging
re ity, re ctu  t the pre
ent in
t nt: it i
ny t the perm nent,
biding mind, pprehending re  ch nge, nd endwed with memry nd
expect tin, th t the p
t nd the uture re ctu y ( nd,  cur
e,
ny _ide y_, nt _re y_) pre
ent. And it i
ny by hding p
t nd

uture in pre
ent cn
ciu
ne

, by di
tingui
hing ment y between them,

by cunting r me
uring the cntinuu
w 
ucce

ive
t te
rm
uture t p
t, thrugh the pre
ent in
t nt, th t the mind cme
int
p

e

in  the cncept  time.(373) The mind thu
pprehend
time

the me
ure  the cntinuu
w 
ucce

ive
t te
in thing

ubject
t ch nge. A
thu
pprehended, time i
nt merey the re ity  ch nge:
it i
the
ucce

ive cntinuity r dur tin  ch nge cn
idered

me
ure  ch nge. It i
th t within which  ch nge
re cnceived t
h ppen: ju
t

p ce i
cnceived
th t within which  extended
thing
re cnceived t exi
t. We h ve
id th t withut re  ch nge r
mtin there cud be n time. We c n nw dd th t withut
mind t
pprehend nd me
ure thi
mtin there cud be n time. A
St. Thm

dec re
, wing Ari
tte: _Si nn e

et nim nn e

et tempu
_.(374)
Fr time,
pprehended by me n
 ur b
tr ct nd univer
 cncept,
i
nt
impy
re ity, but
re ity endwed with gic  re tin
, r,
in ther wrd
,
gic  entity grunded in re ity, n _en
r tini
cum
und ment in re_.
Thi
bring
u
t Ari
tte
c

ic deinitin,(375) which i
t nce
pithy nd pregn nt: ,
: _Temps es
mers ms se
dm pris e
pseris_: Time is he measre f mi
r ha
e b wha we 
eive as
_befre_ a
d _afer_, r _fre_ a
d _pas_, i
is press. Ever ha
e
i
vves is w
i
ri
si fw f saes frm fre  pas. I is b
me
a disi
ishi
 hese saes, a
d b hs mpi
, 
i
,

mberi
, he 
i
s fw r ha
e, ha we derive frm he aer
he
i
f ime.(376) If, he
, we 
sider a reaed hi
s, a
hi
s sbje  ha
e, we sha reaize ha rea ime mme
ed wih
he reai
f he firs f hem a
d wi 
i
e as 
 as he (r
a
 f hem) 
i
e  exis. We hs arrive a a 
epi
f ime i

e
era, a
as  ha f spae: _he whe 
i
s series f
sessi
s, i
ha
i
 hi
s, frm fre  pas, rearded as ha i

whih hese ha

es r, a
d whih is he measre f hem_.
Here, , as i
he ase f spae, we a
disi
ish _rea ime_, whih
is he a drai
f aa ha
es, frm _idea r imai
ar ime_
whih is he 
eived a
d imai
ed drai
f mere pssibe ha
es.
B a mre impra
 disi
i
is ha bewee
_i
ri
si_ r _i
er
a
ime_, r he drai
f a
 
ree mabe reai 
sidered i

isef, a
d _exri
si_ r _exer
a ime_, whih is sme her exri
si
empra drai
wih whih we mpare, a
d b whih we ma measre, he
frmer drai
. Ever ha
e r mi
has is w
i
er
a ime; a
d
his is wha we have bee
s far e
deavri
  a
ase. If w me
sar
a he same i
sa
  wak i
he same direi
, a
d if 
e wak hree
mies a
d he her fr, whie he ha
ds f a wah mark he apse f a

hr, he _exer

a ime_ f eah wak wi be he same, wi i
ide
wih 
e a
d he same mi
f he ha
ds f he wah sed as a measre.
B he i
er
a ime f he fr-mie wak wi be reaer ha
ha f
he hree-mie wak. The frmer wi be a reaer am
 f ha
e ha

he aer; a
d herefre is i
er
a ime, esimaed b his am

abse, wi be reaer ha
ha f he aer esimaed b is
am
 abse.(377) The reaer he am
 f a ha
e he reaer he
i
er
a ime-drai
r series f sessive saes whih measres his
ha
e abse.(378)
Js as he aer _Where_ is i
diaed b he spaia reai
s f a
bd  her bdies, s he aer _Whe
_ is i
diaed, i
reard 
a
 eve
 r press, b is mme
srai
r mparis
wih her
eve
s r presses.

This bri
s s  he
i
f measreme
. T measre a
hi

qa
iaive is  app  i sessive sme qa
iaive 
i ake

as a sa
dard a
d  
 he
mber f imes i 
ai
s his 
i. This
is a press f me
a breaki
 p 
i
s qa
i r
_ma
ide_wheher perma
e
 r sessive, _i.e._ wheher exe
si
r
mi
i
 dis
i
s qa
i r _mide_. If he measreme
 f
perma
e
 qa
i b spaia 
is, a
d he hsi
 f sh 
is, are
diffi presses,(379) hse f measri
 sessive qa
i a
d
fixi
 
empra 
is are mre diffi si. Is here a

ara
mi
r ha
e f a e
era haraer, whereb we a
measre
(exer
a) he ime-drai
f a her ha
es? The mi
s f he
earh isef
is axis a
d ar
d he s
a 
e ses hemseves.
A
d hese mi
s frm i
fa he _
ara_ e
era sa
dard fr
measri
 he ime f a her eve
s i
he 
iverse. A _arifiia_
r meha
ia devies, sh as hr-asses, wahes, ks,
hr
meers, e., are simp 
riva
es fr he mre 
ve
ie

appiai
f ha e
era a
d
ara sa
dard  a pariar eve
s.
I reqires a ie refei
 reaize ha a r mea
s f measri

ime-drai
a

 aai
 _apprximae_ ara, i
asmh as r
faies f se
se perepi
,
 maer b wha devies he are aided,
are s imied i
ra
e a
d pe
erai
ha fai
s whih fa bew
he _mi
ima se
sibiia_ a

 be deeed. I is a
eessar 
dii
f
a
 mi
sed as a sa
dard fr ime-measreme
 ha i be _rear_.
Tha he sa
dard mi
s we aa emp are _abse_ rear we
have
 ara
ee. We a
es heir reari 
 p  he pi
 a
whih r pwer f deei
 irreari fais.
Refei
wi as shw ha r appreiai
f ime-drai
is as
_reaive_,
 abse. I is awas a mparis
f 
e fw r rre

f 
sis experie
es wih a
her. I is he reaer reari f
asr
mia mi
s, as mpared wih ha
es r presses experie
ed as
aki
 pae wihi
rseves, ha ases s  fix 
he frmer as he
mre siabe sa
dard fr he measreme
 f ime. There is i
deed,
wries Faher Maher,(380) a erai
rhhm i
ma
 f he presses f
r ra
i ife, sh as respirai
, irai
, a
d he rerre


eeds f fd a
d seep, whih prbab 
ribe mh  r pwer f
esimai
 drai
.... The irrear haraer a
d vari
 drai
f

sis saes, hwever, s
bri
 hme  s he 
fi
ess f hese
sbjeive phe
me
a  serve as a sa
dard measre f ime. Mrever,
r esimae f drai
is are depe
de
 
he
are f he
esimaed experie
es a
d f r me
a aide wards hem: A perid
wih pe
 f varied i
ide
, sh as a fr
ihs rave, passes
rapid _a he ime_. Whis we are i
eresed i
eah sessive
experie
e we have ie spare ae
i

ie he drai
f he
experie
e. There is ams mpee apse f he e
merai
 aivi.
B _i
rerspe_ sh a perid expa
ds, bease i is esimaed b he

mber a
d varie f he impressi
s whih i prese
s  reei
.
O
he her ha
d a d, m

s, r 
araive pai
, whih
eaves mh f r me
a e
er free  adver  is drai
, is
ver-esimaed whis aki
 pae. A pe f hrs spe
 impaie

waii
 fr a rai
, a few das i
ide
ess 
bard ship, a week 
fi
ed
 
es rm, are fe
deared  
sie a
ae. B whe
he
are pas sh perids, bei
 emp f i
ide
, shri
k p i
 ver sma
dime
si
s.... Simiar, ree
 i
ervas are exaeraed mpared wih
eqa perids mre reme. Whis as we rw der a
d
ew experie
es
beme fewer a
d ess impressive, eah ear a is se seems shrer
ha
is predeessr.(381)

Frm hse fas i wd seem perfe eiimae  draw his

raher srprisi
 i
fere
e: ha if he rae f _a_ he ha
es
aki
 pae i
he 
iverse were  be sdde
 a
d
sima
es aered i
he same direi
a i
reased r a
dimi
ished i
he same dereea
d _if r pwers f perepi

were sima
es_ s aered as  be _readjsed  his
ew
rae_ f ha
e, _we d
 beme aware f he
aerai
_.(382) Sppsi
, fr i
sa
e, ha he rae f mi

were dbed, he same am

 f ha
e wd ake pae i
he

ew da as aa k pae i

he d. The _exer
a r
mparaive_ ime f a mveme
sha is  sa, he ime f
whih a
e we a
have a
 appreiai
wd be he same as f
d. The
ew da wd, f rse, appear 
 haf as 
 as he
d  a mi
d
 readjsed  he
ew 
dii
s; b his wd
si be exer
a ime. B wd he _i
er
a_, _i
ri
si_ ime
f eah mveme
 be 
aered? I wd be he same fr he
readjsed mi
d as i was previs fr he mi
d adjsed 
hese previs 
dii
s. B a

aered mi
d, hwever, b he
Divi
e Mi
d, fr i
sa
e, he same am
 f mi
wd be see

 
sie he same mveme
 
der bh 
dii
s, b  ake
pae wie as qik 
der he
ew 
dii
s as i did 
der
he d. This aai
, hwever, i
vves a mparis
, a
d hs
i
frms s mere f exer
a r reaive ime. If we ide
if
i
ri
si ime wih _am
 f ha
e_, maki
 he aer he
measre f he frmer, we ms 
de ha aerai
i
he
_rae_ f a mi
des
 aer is abse ime: a
d his is
evide
 whe
we refe ha he ver
i
f a _rae_ f mi

i
vves he mparis
f he aer wih sme her mi
.(383)
Fi
a, we have
 psiive 
epi
f he ma

er i
whih
ime drai
is reaed , r k
w
b, he Divi
e Eer
a Mi
d,
whih is prese
  a imepas, prese
 a
d fre.
Besides he qesi
f he reaivi f ime, here are ma

her ris a
d diffi qesi
s whih arise frm a

siderai
f ime-drai
, b a deaied 
siderai
f
hem be
s  Csm. We wi mere i
diae a few f hem.
Hw far is ime _reversibe_, a eas i
he ase f pre
meha
ia mveme
s?(384) Had ime a bei

i
? We k
w frm
Reveai
ha _de fa_ i had. B a
we deermi
e b he
ih f reas
a
e wheher r
 i _ms_ have had a
bei

i
? The reaes phisphers are divided as  pssibii
r impssibii f _reaed_ reai exisi
 _frm a
eer
i_. S. Thmas has saed, as his 
sidered pi
i
, ha
he impssibii f _reai ab aeer
_ a

 be prved. If a
series f reares d have exised sessive frm a
eer
i, a
d herefre wih a
 _firs_ erm f he series,
his wd i
vve he pssibii f a
_aa i
fi
ie
mide_ f reares; b a
aa i
fi
ie mide f
reares, wheher exisi
 sima
es r sessive, is
rearded b ms phisphers as bei
 sef-
radir a
d
i
ri
sia impssibe. A
d his ahh he Divi
e Esse
e,
bei
 i
fi
ie imiabe _ad exra_, a
d bei
 ear
mprehe
ded as sh b he Divi
e Mi
d, 
ai
s vira he
Divi
e exempars f a
i
fi
ie mide f pssibe reares.
Thse wh defe
d he pssibii f a
aa i
fi
ie mide
f reares 
sider his fa f he i
fi
ie imiabii f he
Divi
e Esse
e as he r
d f his pssibii. O
he her
ha
d, hse wh hd ha a
aa i
fi
ie mide is
sef-
radir de
 he vaidi f his arme
 frm

pssibii  aai; a
d he bri
 frward sh seris

siderai
s a
d arme
s i
favr f heir w
view ha his
aer has bee
a a imes mh mre mm
 advaed ha
he
frmer 
e.(385) Wi ime have a
e
d? A he evide
e f he
phsia sie
es 
firms he rh f he Chrisia
faih ha
exer
a ime, as measred b he mi
s f he heave
s, wi
have a
e
d. B he i
er
a r i
ri
si ime whih wi be he
measre f he aiviies f immra reares wi have

e
d.(386)
86. DURATION OF IMMUTABLE BEING: ETERNITY.We have see
ha _drai
_ is
he persevera
e r 
i
a
e f a bei
 i
is exise
e. The drai

f he Abse Immabe Bei

 is a psiive perfei
ide
ia wih
he esse
e isef f his Bei
. I is a drai
wih bei

i
,
wih e
d, wih ha
e r sessi
, a _perma
e
_ as disi
 frm
a _sessive_ drai
, fr i is he drai
f he Neessar Bei
,
whse esse
e is Pre Aai. This drai
is eer
i: _a

i
ermi
abe drai
exisi
 a eher_. _Aeer
ias es
i
ermi
abiis drai a sim exise
s._ This is he mm
defi
ii

f eer
i i
he prper se
se f he ermabse r
eessar
eer
i. The wrd _i
ermi
abiis_ 

es a _psiive_ perfei

:
he exsi
f bei

i
 a
d e
d. The wrd _a_ des
 imp ha
he eer
i has pars. The expressi
_a sim_ exdes he
imperfei
whih is haraerisi f ime drai
, _viz._ he
_sessi
_ f befre a
d afer. The defi
ii
ive
b Bis(387)
emphasizes hese pi
s, as as he i
defeibe haraer f immabe
ife i
he Eer
a Bei
: _Aeer
ias es i
ermi
abiis viae a sim
e prefea pssessi_.
There is, i
he
ex pae, a ki
d f drai
whih has bee
aed
_hpheia_, _reaive_, r _brrwed_ eer
i: _aeer
ias
hpheia_, _reaiva_, _pariipaa_, as aed b shasis
_aevier
ias_. I is he drai
i
exise
e f a bei
 ha is

i
e
, b _f is
are i
rrpibe, immra_, sh as he hma

s r a pre spiri. Eve

if sh a bei
 exised frm a eer
i is
exise
e wd be 
i
e
, depe
de
 
a rea pri
ipe disi
 frm
isef: is drai
, herefre, wd
 be eer
i i
he sri
se
se. O
he her ha
d, 
e reaed b Gd, is
are wd dema
d

servai
wih e
d;
r d i
ara ease  exis, hh
abse speaki
 i d ease  exis were Gd  wihdraw frm i
His 
servi
 pwer. Is drai
, herefre, differs frm he drai

f rprea reares whih are b

are sbje  ha
e, dea, a
d
essai
f heir bei
. A 
i
e
 spiria sbsa
e has b
are a
bei

i
  is drai
, r a eas a drai
whih is
 esse
ia
 i b depe
de
 
he Neessar Bei
, a drai
, hwever, whih is

ara wih e
d; whereas he drai
f he rprea bei
 has b

are bh a bei

i
 a
d a
e
d.
B phisphers are
 areed as  he
are a
d r
d f he
disi
i
bewee
hese w ki
ds f drai
i

i
e

bei
s. N 
i
e
 bei
 is sef-exise
,
eiher has a


i
e
 bei
 he pri
ipe f is w
drai
i
is w

esse
e. Js as i a

 bei
 exis f isef, s
eiher
a
i 
i
e  exis f isef. A he same ime, ra
ed ha
i has bai
ed frm Gd aa exise
e, sme ki
d r deree f
drai
, f 
i
a
e i
ha exise
e, seems  be
ara
de  is esse
e. Oherwise 
servai
wd be
 

rea b frma a 
i
ed reai
. I is sh i
deed 
he

par f Gd: i
Gd here is
 varie f aivi. B 
he
par f he reare, he preservai
f he aer i
exise
e,
a
d herefre sme deree f drai
, seems  be de  i 

he hphesis ha i has bee

brh i
 exise
e a a. The
_
servi
_ i
fe
e f Gd is  is drai
i
exise
e wha
he _
rri
_ i
fe
e f Gd is  he exerise f is
aiviies.(388) I
his se
se he drai
f a fi
ie bei
 i

exise
e is a psiive perfei
whih we ma reard as a
prper f is
are. B is his perfei
r prper f he
reare whih we a _drai
_, (_a_) esse
ia _sessive_
i
a reares, spiria as we as rprea? A
d (_b_) is i
rea ide
ia wih heir aa exise
e (r wih he reai
f whaever ha
e r aaizai
rs  heir exise
e), r
i is a _mde_ f his exise
e r ha
e, rea disi
 frm
he aer a
d 
ferri
 p
he aer he perfei
f

i
i r persise
e?
This, a a eve
s, is 
iversa admied: ha _we_ a


beme aware f a
 drai
herwise ha
hrh r
apprehe
si
f _ha
e_; ha we have dire k
wede 
 f
_sessive_ drai
; ha we a

eive he _perma
e
_
drai
f immabe reai 
 afer he a
a f sessive
drai
, r as he -exise
e f immabe reai wih he
sessive drai
f mabe hi
s.
Nw sme phisphers ide
if sessive drai
wih ha
e,
a
d hd ha sessive drai
is frma he drai
f
hi
s sbje  ha
e; ha i
s far as a bei
 is sbje 
ha
e is drai
is sessive, a
d i
s far as i is free
frm ha
e is drai
apprahes he esse
ia perma
e

drai
f he Eer
a, Immabe Bei
; ha herefre he
drai
f rprea, rrpibe, mra bei
s is _par
exee
e_ sessive r empra drai
(_emps_); ha
spiria bei
s, whih are sbsa
ia immabe, b

everheess have a sessive series f spiria aiviies,

have a sr f drai
mre perfe, bease mre perma
e
, ha

mere empra drai

, b ess perfe, bease ess perma
e
,
ha
eer
a drai
(_aevm_, _aevier
ias_); whie he
Abse Immabe Bei
 a
e has perfe perma
e
 drai

(_aeer
ias_).(389) I is
 ear wheher ardi
  his
view we shd disi
ish bewee
he drai
f spiria
_sbsa
es_ as perma
e
, a
d ha f heir _as_ as sessive;
r wh we shd
 aribe _perma
e
_ drai
 rprea
_sbsa
es_ a
d heir _perma
e
 aide
s_, 
fi
i
 sessive
drai
frma  mi
r ha
e isef. I is, mrever,
impied i
his view ha drai
is
 a
 rea disi

perfei
r mde speradded  he aai f he bei
 ha
e
dres.
Oher phisphers hd ha _a_ drai
f _reares_ is
_sessive_; ha
 i
divida reare has a mixre f
perma
e
 a
d sessive drai
; ha his sessive drai

is rea disi
 frm ha whih e
dres b mea
s f i; ha i
is rea disi
 eve
frm he reai f ha
e r mi

isef; ha i is a _rea mde_ he frma f

i
f whih is
 
fer 
he e
dri
 reai a series f _aaiies i
he
rder f_ _sessi
f pserir  prir_, a series f
i
ri
si _qa
dai
es_ (a
aas  he i
ri
si ai
s
whih heir exe
si

fers p
bdies i
spae). These
phisphers disi
ish bewee
_
i
s_ r (i
defi
ie)

_divisibe_ sessive drai

, he (i
defi
ie divisibe)
pars f whih are pas a
d fre, a
d he prese

 a
par b 
 a
i
divisibe imi bewee
he w pars; a
d
_dis
i
s_ r _i
divisibe_ sessive drai
, whse pars
are separae a
d i
divisibe 
is f drai
seedi
 
e
a
her dis
i
s: eah par bei
 a rea b i
divisibe
drai
, s ha besides he pars ha are _pas_ a
d _fre_,
he _prese
_ is as a _par_, whih isike a
i
sa
 f
imei
divisibe, b whih is as
ike a
i
sa
 f imea
rea drai
. The frmer ki
d f sessive drai
he asribe
 rprea, rrpibe reares; he aer  spiria,
i
rrpibe reares. This view is defe
ded wih mh fre a
d
i
e
i b De Sa
i
his _Csmia_;(390) where as a f
disssi
f ms f he her qesi
s we have hed p

wi be f
d.

CHAPTER XII. RELATION; THE RELATIE AND THE ABSOLUTE.

87. IMPORTANCE OF THE PRESENT CATEGORY.A
a
asis f he 
ep f
_Reai
_ wi be f
d  have a ver dire beari
 bh 
he Ther
f Bei
 a
d 
he Ther f K
wede. Fr he hma
mi
d k
wede is
embdied i
he me
a a f jdme
, a
d his is a
a f
_mparis
_, a
a whereb we _reae_ r _refer_ 
e 
ep 
a
her. The a f 
ii
isef i
vves a reai
bewee
he
k
wi
 sbje a
d he k
w
bje, bewee
he mi
d a
d reai.
Reai isef is 
dersd 
 b r me
a re
izi
 r
esabishi
 reai
s bewee
he bjes whih make p fr s he whe
k
wabe 
iverse. This 
iverse we apprehe
d
 as a mide f
isaed, 


eed i
dividas, b as a
_rdered whe_ whse pars
are _i
er-reaed_ b heir ma _-rdi
ai
s_ a
d _sbrdi
ai
s_.
The _rder_ we apprehe
d i
he 
iverse ress frm hese varis
i
er-reai
s whereb we apprehe
d i as a _ssem_. Wha we a a _aw
f
are_, fr i
sa
e, is
hi
 mre r ess ha
he expressi
f
sme 
sa
 reai
whih we beieve  exis bewee
erai
pars f
his ssem. The sd f _Reai
_, herefre, be
s
 mere 
Li r he Ther f K
wede, b as  he Ther f Bei
, 
Meaphsis. Wha, he
, is a reai
? Wha is he bje f his me
a

ep whih we express b he erm _reai
_? Are here i
he k
w

a
d k
wabe 
iverse f r experie
e _rea_ reai
s? Or are a
reai
s _mere ia_, pre reai
s f r 
iive aivi? Ca

we assif reai
s, wheher rea r ia? Wha 
sies a
reai
frma? Wha are he prperies r haraerisis f
reai
s? These are sme f he qesi
s we ms aemp  a
swer.
Aai
, here is mh ambii, a
d
 a ie errr, i
he se f he
erms abse a
d reaive i
mder
phisph. T sme f hese
sres f 
fsi
we have referred aread (5). I is a mm
pae f
mder
phisph, a hi
 aeped as 
qesi
ed a
d 
qesi
abe,
ha we k
w, a
d a
k
w, 
 he reaive. There is a re se
se i

his, b he re se

se is
 he e
era aeped 
e.
C
sideri
 he rder i
whih r k
wede f reai prresses i is

qesi
abe ha we firs simp pereive hi
s sessive, hi
s
mre r ess _simiar_ r _dissimiar_, wih reaizi
 _i
wha_ he
aree r differ. T reaize he aer i
vves _refei
_ a
d

_mparis
_. Simiar we pereive eve
s i
sessi
, eve
s sme f
whih _depe
d 
_ hers, b wih a firs
i
 r reaizi
 his
depe
de
e. I
her wrds we apprehe
d a firs _apar frm heir
reai
s_, r _as abse_, hi
s a
d eve
s whih are rea reaive;
a
d we d s sp
a
es, wih reaizi
 eve
ha we pereive hem
as abse.
The seed
eeds si a
d rai
a
d s
shi
e fr is rwh; b hese d


eed he seed. The rbi

e
eeds he waer, b he waer des

eed
he rbi
e. Whe
we reaize sh fas as hese, _b refei
_,

rasi
 wha is depe
de
 wih wha is i
depe
de
, wha is ike r

ike, befre r afer, reaer r ess ha
, her hi
s, wih wha
eah f hese is i
isef, we me i
 
sis pssessi
f he

i
f he reaive a
d ppse his  he
i
f he abse.
Wha we 
eive as depe
de
 we 
eive as reaive; wha we 
eive,
b
eai
, as i
depe
de
, we 
eive as abse. The
b frher
bservai
a
d refei
we rada reaize ha wha we apprehe
ded
as i
depe
de
 f erai
hi
s is depe
de
 
erai
her hi
s;
ha he same hi
 ma be i
depe
de
 i
sme respes a
d depe
de
 i

her respes. The rai

des
 depe
d 
he seed whih i ases 
ermi
ae, b i des depe
d 
he ds. The waer whih r
s he
rbi
e des
 depe
d 
he rbi
e, b i des depe
d 
he rai
;
a
d he rai
depe
ds 
he evaprai
f he waers f he ea
; a
d
he evaprai

he sar hea; a
d his aai

hemia a
d phsia
presses i
he s
; a
d s 
, as far as se
se experie
e wi arr s:

i we reaize ha everhi
 whih fas dire wihi
his se
se
experie
e is depe
de
 a
d herefre reaive. Simiar, he aide
 f
qa
i, i
vire f whih we pr

e 
e f w bdies  be _arer_
ha
he her, is smehi
 _abse_ as mpared wih his _reai
_
isef; b as mpared wih he sbsa
e i
whih i i
heres, i is
depe
de
 
he aer, r _reaive_  he aer, whie he sbsa
e
is _abse_, r free frm depe
de
e 
i. B if sbsa
e is abse
as mpared wih aide
, i
he se
se ha sbsa
e is
 depe
de
 

a sbje i
whih  i
here, b exiss _i
isef_, i is
 abse
i
he se
se 
dersd b Spi
za, i
he se
se f exisi
 _f isef_,
i
depe
de
 f a
 effiie
 ase  a
 fr is rii
(64). A
he sbsa
es i
he 
iverse f r dire se
se experie
e are

i
e
, depe
de
 _ab ai_, a
d herefre i
his se
se reaive,

abse.
This is he re se
se i
whih reaivi is a
esse
ia
e f he
reai f a he daa f he wrd f r se
se experie
e. The are a

i
e
, r reaive, r 
dii
ed exise
es. A
d, as Ka
 rih
ah, his experie
e fres s i
eviab  hi
k f a Neessar,
Abse, U

dii
ed Bei
, 
whm hese a depe
d. B, as a
be
prved i
_Nara The_ aai
s Ka
, his 
ep is
 a mere
reaive idea f he reas
, a frm f hh whereb we ssemaize
r experie
e: i is a 
ep he bje f whih is
 mere a

eessi f hh b as a

bjeive exisi
 reai.(391)
B i
he hh f ms mder
phisphers reaivism, r he
dri
e ha we a
k
w 
 he reaive, is smehi
 ver
differe
 frm a his. Fr psiiviss, disipes f Ase
Cme (1798-1857), i mea
s ha we a
k
w 
 he phe
me
a
whih fa 
der he
ie f r se
ses, a
d he aws f
resemba
e, sessi
, e., ardi
  whih he r. A
heia qess fr spra-m
da
e ases a
d reas
s f hese
eve
s, a
d a meaphsia qess fr sprase
sibe fres,

pwers, i
fe
es, i
he eve
s hemseves, as expai
i
 r
a
i
 fr hese aer, are ardi
  his her

eessari fie: he mi

d ms res 
e
 wih a k
wede f
he _psiive fas_ f se
se, a
d heir reai
s. Reaivism is
hs a
her
ame fr Psiivism.
Fr he pshia se
sism f E
ish phisphers frm Hbbes
[1588-1679] a
d Lke [1632-1704] dw
 Mi [1806-73] a
d Bai

[1818-1903] reaivism mea

s ha a 
sis 
ii
whih
he e
d  rede  mdes a
d mpexes f _se
sai
_ms be,
a
d a

 be, a 
ii
f he ha
i
, he ra
sii
a,
he reaive.(392) Ardi
  a
exreme frm f his her he
mi
d a
apprehe
d 
 reai
s, b
 he erms f a
 f
hese reai
s: i a
apprehe
d
hi
 as abse. Mrever
he reai
s whih i apprehe
ds i reaes isef. Ths a
reai is reded  a ssem f reai
s. Fr Mi he spreme
aer f rea bei
 was _Se
sai
_: b se
sai
a
be 

a feei
 f a reai
: hs he spreme aer f rea bei

wd be _Reai
_.(393)
B he mai
rre
 f reaivism is ha whih has issed frm
Ka
s phisph a
d wrked isef  i
varis rre
s sh
as Spe
ers A
siism, Hees M
ism, a
d Re
viers
Ne-riiism.(394) The mi
d a
k
w 
 wha is reaed  i,
wha is prese
  i, wha is i
i;
 wha is apar frm i,
disi
 frm i. The mi
d a

 k
w he rea
are f he
exrame
a,
r eve
if here be a
exrame
a rea. Sbje a
d
bje i
k
wede are rea 
e: i
divida mi
ds are 

sef-
sis phases i
he ever-evvi
 reai f he O
e Se
Aa Bei
.
These are b a few f he err
es rre
s f mder

reaivism. A deaied a
asis f hem be
s  he _Ther f
K
wede_. B i ma be pi
ed  here ha he are err
es
bease he have disred a
d exaeraed erai
prf
d
rhs 
er
i
 he spe a
d imis f hma
k
wede.
I is re ha we have
 psiive, prper, i
iive k
wede
f he Abse Bei
 wh is he Firs Case a
d Las E
d f he

iverse; ha a r k
wede f he
are a
d aribes f
he I
fi
ie Bei
 is
eaive, a
aia, absraive. I
a
erai
se
se, herefre, He is abve he spe f r faies;
He is I
mprehe
sibe. B i is fase  sa ha He is
U
k
wabe; ha r k
wede f Him, i
adeqae a
d imperfe as
i is, is
 e
i
e, rea, a
d i
srive, as far as i es.
Aai
, a _disi
_ k
wede f a
 bje impies _defi
i
_,
_imii
_, _disi
ishi
_, _mpari
_, _reai
_, _jdi
_;
_a
asi
 a
d s
hesizi
_. I impies herefre ha we
apprehe
d hi
s _i
reai
s_ wih her hi
s. B his
sppses a
a
eede
, if i
disi
, apprehe
si
f he
hi
s hemseves. I
deed we a

 hep pr

i
 as simp

i
eiibe he 
e
i
ha a k
wede is f reai
s,
a
d ha we a
have
 k
wede f hi
s as abse. Hw d
we beme aware f reai
s wih bei
 aware f he erms
reaed? Spe
er himsef admis ha he ver reas
i
 whereb we
esabish he reaivi f k
wede eads s i
eviab 
asser as
eessar he exise
e f he

-reaive, he
Abse:(395) a
eessi whih Ka
 as re
izes.

Fi
a, he fa ha reai, i
rder  be k
w
, ms be
prese
  he k
wi
 mi
dr, i
her wrds, ha k
wede
isef is a reai
bewee
bje a
d sbjei

 wa
jsifies he 
si
ha we a

 k
w he rea
are f
hi
s as he are i
hemseves, abse, b 
 r w

sbjeive, me
a impressi
s r represe
ai
s f he abse
reai, i
isef 
k
wabe.(396) The bvis fa ha a

reai i
rder  be k
w
ms be reaed  he k
wi
 mi
d,
seems  be rearded b sme phisphers as if i were a
mme
s disver. The
, 
eivi
 he hi
-i
-isef, he
abse, as a smehi
 sa
di
  f a reai
 mi
d,
he deare sem
 ha we a

 k
w he abse: a
dearai
whih ma be i
erpreed eiher as a mere rismha
we a

 k
w a hi
 wih k
wi
 i!r as a pre
rais asseri
, ha besides he wrd f reaiies whih
revea hemseves  r mi
ds here is a
her wrd f

aai
ed a
d 
aai
abe hi
s-i
-hemseves whih are as i
were he _rea_ reaiies! These phisphers have e  shw
ha here is a
hi
 absrd r impssibe i
he view ha here
is simp 
e wrd f reaiiesreaiies whih exis abse
i
hemseves apar frm r apprehe
si
f hem a
d whih i
he
press f 
ii
me i
 reai
wih r mi
ds.(397)
Mrever, if besides his wrd f k
w
a
d k
wabe reaiies
here were sh a wrd f ra
se
de
a hi
s-i
-hemseves
as hese phisphers disrse f, sh a wrd wd have ver
ie 
er
fr s,(398) si
e b defi
ii
a
d _ex hphesi_
i wd be _fr s_
eessari as if i were
: i
deed he
hphesis f sh a ra
se
de
a wrd is sef-
radir,
fr eve
did i exis we d
 hi
k f i.
The press f 
ii
has i
deed is diffiies a
d
mseries. T exami
e hese,  a
 fr he pssibii f
rh a
d errr,  a
ase he r
ds a
d defi
e he spe a
d
imis f hma
eride, are prbems fr he _Ther f
K
wede_, 
he dmai
f whih we are re
hi
 perhaps 
far aread i
he prese
 
ex. B a a eve
s  
eive
reai as abse i
he se
se f bei
 a 
reaed 
mi
d, a
d he
 ask: Is reai s ra
sfrmed i
he ver
press f 
ii
ha he mi
d a

 pssib apprehe
d i r
represe
 i as i rea is?his erai
 is  mis
eive a
d
mis-sae i
a hpeess fashi
he mai
prbem f Episem.
88. ANALYSIS OF THE CONCEPT OF RELATION.Reai
is 
e f hse imae

eps whih des
 admi f defi
ii
prper. A
d ike her
imae 
eps i is famiiar  a. Tw i
es, eah measri
 a ard,
are _eqa_  eah her _i
e
h_: _eqai_ is a _qa
iaive_
reai
. The
mber 2 is _haf_ f 4, a
d 4 is _wie_ 2: _haf_ a
d
_dbe_ express eah a _qa
iaive_ reai
f _i
eqai_. If w
wi
brhers are _ike_ eah her we have he _qaiaive_ reai
f
_resemba
e_ r _simiari_; if a
er a
d a Erpea
are _
ike_ eah
her we have he _qaiaive_ reai
f _dissimiari_. The seam f
he mive mves he rai
: a reai
f _effiie
 asai_, f
effiie
 ase  effe. The hma
ee is adaped  he f
i
f
seei
: a reai
f _prpse_ r _fi
ai_, f mea
s  e
d. A
d s 
.
The bjeive 
ep f reai
hs esabishes a
bewee
a pair f hi
s i
he dmai
f sme her
qa
i, qai, _ai_ a
d _passi_, e., i is
reai as apprehe
ded hrh hma
experie
e. B

_
epa 
i_
aer. Like
a
imae mde f
whie he reai f

he her aide

-aeries apperai
s  sbsa
es 
sidered
abse r i
isai
frm 
e a
her, he reai f his aer
whih we a _reai
_ apperai
s i
divisib  w (r mre) eher,
s ha whe

e f hese is ake
r 
sidered apar frm he her (r
hers) he reai
frma disappears. Eah f he her (abse)
aide
s is frma smehi
 (_aiqid_; ), were s te form l
functon of _rel ton_ s to refer sometng to sometng else (_ 
lqu_; ). The ohe ade

fomally 
hee 
a
ubje,
habe
 _e

e 
_
ubjeo; elao
, o

deed fomally a

uh, doe

o 
hee 
a
ubje, bu gve
he lae a e
pe, o bea
g, o
efee
e, o od
ao
, _o_ o _oad
_
omeh
g el
e: elao da

ubjeo e
peum vel _e

e ad_ alqud alud. The le
gh of eah of o
l
e

a
_ab
olue_ ade
 of ha l
e, bu he _elao
_ of
equaly o 
equaly 

ellgble o
ly of boh ogehe. De
oy o
e
l
e a
d he elao

de
oyed, hough he ohe l
e ea



le
gh ab
oluely a
d u
aleed. A
d
o of he ohe example
ju
 gve
.
Relao
, he
, o

deed fomally a

uh, 

o a
ab
olue ade


he
g 
a
ubje, bu 
a efee
e of h

ubje o
ome ohe
h
g, h
lae be
g alled he _em_ of he elao
. He
e elao


de
bed by he
hola

a
he _od

ao
o e
pe o efee
e
of o
e h
g o a
ohe_: _odo vel e
peu
vel habudo u
u
ad
alud_. The elao
of a
ubje o
omeh
g el
e a
em 
fomally

o a
yh
g ab
olue, _alqud_ 
ha
ubje, bu meely efe
h


ubje o
omeh
g el
e a
em, _ad alqud_. He
e A
ole

de
g
ao
of elao
a
, _ad alqud_, o o oad


omeh
g. We o
eve a
elao

[ ], he
ay
, ho
e h
g

ho
e vey e
y 
elf e egad a
be
g
omeho _of_ ohe h
g
o
_o_ a
ohe h
g.(399)
To o

ue a elao
of ha
oeve k
d, hee eleme

o fao
ae
e

e
al: he _o exeme
_ of he elao
, vz. he _
ubje_ of he
elao
a
d he _em_ o hh he
ubje 
efeed, a
d ha 

alled he _fou
dao
_, o ba

, o gou
d, o ea
o
, of he elao

(_fu
dame
um_ elao

). Th
lae 
he au
e o ea
o
o
aou

of hh he
ubje bea
he elao
o 
em. I 
alay


omeh
g ab
olue, 
he exeme
of he elao
. He
e  follo
ha
e may egad a
y elao

o ay
, ehe _fomally_ a
he aual
bo
d o l
k of o

exo
beee
he exeme
, o _fu
dame
ally_, _.e._
a


au
e o fou
dao

he
e exeme
. Th

expe

ed
eh
ally by d

gu
h
g beee
he elao
_
eu
dum e

e 
_ a
d
_
eu
dum e

e ad_, _.e._ beee
he ab
olue e
y of 
fou
dao


he
ubje a
d he puely elave e
y 
hh he elao

elf
fomally o



. Needle

o
ay, he lae, haeve  
, doe

o
add a
y _ab
olue e
y_ o ha of ehe exeme. Bu 
ha doe
h

elave e
y 
elf o


? Befoe aemp
g a
a

e o h

que
o
e mu
 e
deavou o d

gu
h, 
he
ex
eo
(89),
beee
_puely logal_ elao

a
d elao

hh ae 

ome ue

e

e _eal_. Hee e may
oe ea
oollae
fom he o
ep of
elao
a
ju
 a
aly
ed.
Reale
of hh he objeve o
ep of elao

vefed deve
fom h
lae ea
_popee
_ o
peal haae

. The
_f
_ of he
e 
_epoy_: o elaed exeme
ae a

uh

ellgble o
ly 
efee
e o eah ohe: fahe o
o
, half o
double, lke o lke, e., a
d _ve ve
a_: _Coelava
e 
vem
o

oa
_. The _
eo
d_ 
ha h
g
elaed o o
e a
ohe ae
ollaeal o o
oma
 
_
aue_: _Coelava
u

mul
aua_:

ehe elaed exeme 
a

uh

aually po o he ohe. Th


o be u
de
ood of he elao
o
ly 

_fomal_ a
pe,
o
fu
dame
ally. Fu
dame
ally o _maeale_, he au
e fo 

a
e 

_
aually po_ o 
effe. The _hd_ 
ha elaed h
g
ae
o
oma
 _logally_, o 
he ode of k
oledge: _Coelava
u


mul og
o
e_: a ealy a
be k
o
a
d def
ed a
elave o
a
ohe ealy o
ly by he
mula
eou
og
o
of boh exeme
of he
elao
.
89. LOGICAL RELATIONS.Logal elao

ae _ho
e hh ae eaed by
ou o
hough, a
d hh a
have
o be
g ohe ha
he be
g hh
hey have 
a
d fo ou hough_. Tha hee ae
uh elao

, hh
ae he exlu
ve podu of ou hough-avy, 
u
ve
ally
admed. The m
d a
efle o

o
de o
ep
;  a
ompae
a
d o-od
ae a
d
ubod
ae hem amo
g hem
elve
;  hu
fom
dea

of elao

beee
ho
e o
ep
, dea
hh he
hola

all
_eflex_ o _logal_ dea
, o _
eu
d 
e
o
e
me

_. The
e
elao

ae _e
a ao

_, puely logal elao

. Suh, fo


a
e, ae he elao

of _ge
u
_ o _
pee
_, of pedae o

ubje, he elao

de
bed 
Log a
he _pdabla_. Moeove
e a
ompae ou de u
ve
al o
ep
h he 
dvdual eale

hey epe
e
, a
d
ee ha h
feaue o mode of _u
ve
aly_ 
he
o
ep, 
_
e
o u
ve
ala
_ 
a _logal elao
_ of he
o
ep o he ealy hh  epe
e

: a logal elao
, 
a
muh
a

_
ubje_ (he o
ep) a
d 
_fou
dao
_ (he _ab
a
e

_ of
he o
ep) ae 
hem
elve
pue podu
of ou hough-avy.
Fuhemoe, e ae foed by he mpefeo
of he hough-poe

e

heeby e appehe
d ealyo
epo
of _ab
a_ dea
, _lmao
_
of o
ep

exe

o
a
d 
e

o
, _affmao
_ a
d _
egao
_,
e.o appehe
d _o
epual_ lmao

,
egao

, ompa
o

, e.,

a od, all _logal e
e
_, a
f hey ee _eale
_, o afe
he ma

e of eale
, _.e._ o o

eve ha 
eally
oh
g a
f
 ee eally
omeh
g, o o
eve he _
o
-e

_ a
f  ee a

_e

_, o o
eve  _pe modum e

_ (3). A
d he
e ompae he
e
logal e
e
h o
e a
ohe, o h eal e
e
, he elao


hu
e
abl
hed by ou hough ae all _logal elao

_. F
ally, 
follo
fom h

ame mpefeo

ou huma
mode
of hough ha e

omeme
u
de
a
d h
g
o
ly by abu
g o he
e ea
logal
elao

, _.e._ elao

hh affe
o he ealy of he
e h
g
,
he _e

e eale_, bu o
ly he mode of he pe
e
e 
ou m
d
,
he _e

e deale_ (4).
I
ve of he d

o
beee
logal elao

a
d ho
e e

hall pe
e
ly de
be a
eal elao

, a
d e
peally 
ve
of he pevale
 e
de
y 
mode
phlo
ophy o egad all
elao

a
meely logal,  ould be de
able o la

fy
logal elao

a
d o 
dae he ay

hh hey ae
eaed by, o e
ul fom, ou hough-poe

e
. We k
o of
o
moe
a
faoy a
aly

ha
ha aompl
hed by S. Thoma

Aqu
a

vaou
pa
of h
ma
y mo
ume
al a
d e
du
g
ok
. I
h
_Comme
ae
o
he Se
e
e
_(400) he e
umeae

fou ay

hh logal elao

a
e fom ou
hough-poe

e
. I
h
_Quae
o
e
D
puaae_(401) he edue

he
e o o:
ome logal elao

, he
ay
, ae 
ve
ed by he

elle efle
g o

o
o
ep
a
d ae abued o
he
e o
ep
; ohe
a
e fom he fa ha he 
elle a

u
de
a
d h
g
o
ly by ela
g, goup
g, la

fy
g hem,
o
ly by 
odu
g amo
g hem a
_aa
geme
_ o _
y
em of
elao

_ hough hh alo
e  a
u
de
a
d hem, elao


hh  ould o
ly eo
eou
ly a
be o he
e h
g
a
hey
eally ex
,

e hey ae o
ly pojeed, a
 ee, 
o
he
e h
g
by he m
d. Thu
, hough  o

ou
ly h
k
of

he
e h
g
a

o elaed,  delbeaely ab
a

fom
a

e
g ha he
e elao

eally affe he h
g

hem
elve
. No he m
ake of all ho
e phlo
ophe
, hehe
a
e
, medeval o mode
, ho de
y ha a
y elao

ae eal,

eem
o be ha hey ay h
ab
e
o
oo fa. They o
e
d
ha all elao

ae
mply ead 
o he ealy by ou
hough; ha
o
e ae 
he ealy 
a
y ue
e

e

depe
de
ly of ou hough. They hu
exaggeae he le of
hough a
a _o

uve_ fao of k
o
o expee
ed
ealy; a
d hey ofe
do
o o
uh a degee ha aod
g o
he phlo
ophy huma
hough
o meely _d
ove
_ o _k
o
_
ealy bu paally _o

ue
_ o _eae
_ : o a all
eve

o
uh a degee ha og
o
ould be ma
ly a poe


heeby ealy 
a

mlaed o m
d a
d
o ahe a poe


heeby m
d 
a

mlaed o ealy. Aga

 all
uh deal

e
de
e

phlo
ophy e a

e ha
o all elao

ae
logal, ha hee ae
ome elao

hh ae
o mee podu

of hough, bu hh ae hem
elve
eal.
90. REAL RELATIONS; THEIR EXISTENCE INDICATED.A eal elao

_o
e
hh 

o a mee podu of hough, bu hh oba

beee
eal
h
g

depe
de
ly of ou hough_. Fo a eal elao
hee mu
 be
(_a_) a _eal_, 
dvdual _
ubje_; (_b_) a _eal fou
dao
_; a
d (__)
a _eal_, 
dvdual _em_, eally d

 fom he
ubje. If he

ubje of he elao
, o 
fou
dao
, be
o eal, bu a mee _e


ao

_, obvou
ly he elao
a

o be moe ha
logal. If,
moeove, he em be
o a eally d

 e
y fom he
ubje, he

he elao
a
be
oh
g moe ha
a me
al ompa
o
of
ome h
g
h 
elf, ehe u
de he
ame a
pe o u
de me
ally d


a
pe
. A elao

eal 
he fulle

e

e he
he exeme
ae
_muually_ elaed 
vue of a fou
dao
eally ex

g 
boh.
He
e S Thoma
def
o
of a eal elao
a
a _o

exo
beee

ome o h
g

vue of
omeh
g eally fou
d 
boh_: _habudo

e alqua duo
eu
dum alqud eale o
ve
e

uque_.(402)
No he que
o
: Ae hee 
he eal old, amo
g he h
g
hh make
up he u
ve
e of ou expee
e, elao

hh ae
o meely logal,
hh ae
o a mee podu of ou hough?a
adm of o
ly o
e
ea
o
able a

e. Tha hee ae elao

hh ae 

ome ue
e

e
eal a
d 
depe
de
 of ou hough-avy mu
 be appae
 o eveyo
e
ho
e me
al oulook o
h
g
ha

o bee
aped by he
peou


oph
e
of
ome fom o ohe of Subjeve Ideal
m. Fo _ex
pofe

o_ efuao

of Ideal
 heoe
he
ude
 mu
 o

ul
ea
e
o
he _Theoy of K
oledge_. A fe o

deao

o
he
pe
e
 po
 ll be
uffe
ly o
v

g hee.
F
, he
, le u
appeal o he famla example
me
o
ed above. Ae

o o l
e
, eah a yad lo
g, _eally equal_ 
le
gh, hehe e k
o
 o
o? I

o a l
e a yad lo
g _eally geae ha
_ a
ohe l
e a
foo 
le
gh, hehe e k
o  o
o? Suely ou hough doe

o
_eae_ bu _d
ove
_ he equaly o 
equaly. The 
bohe

_eally e
emble_ eah ohe, eve
he

o o
e 
h
k
g of h

e
embla
e; he e
embla
e 
hee hehe a
yo
e adve
o  o
o.
The moo
of he a
_eally depe
d
_ o
he foe of he
eam;  

o ou hough ha podue
h
elao

of depe
de
e. The eye 

_eally_
o o

ued a
o peeve lgh, a
d he lgh 
eally
uh
by
aue a
o aou
e he
e

ao
of v
o
;
uely  

o ou
hough ha podue
h
elao
of muual adapao

he
e
eale
. Suh elao

ae, heefoe, 

ome ue
e

e eal a
d


depe
de
 of ou hough: u
le


deed e ae pepaed o
ay h
deal

ha he l
e
, he bohe
, he a
, he
eam, he eye, a
d
he lgh
a od, ha
o meely elao

, bu all ade

a
d

ub
a
e
, all eale
ae mee podu
of hough, dea
,
ae
of
o

ou

e

.
Aga
, _ode_ 
bu a
y
em of elao

of o-od
ao
a
d

ubod
ao
beee
eally d

 h
g
. Bu hee 
eal ode 

he u
ve
e. A
d heefoe hee ae eal elao


he u
ve
e.
Thee 
eal ode 
he u
ve
e: I
he phy
al u
ve
e do e
o
expee
e a eal
ubod
ao
of effe
o au
e
, a eal adapao
of
mea

o e
d
? A
d 
he moal u
ve
e 

o h

ll moe appae
?
The dome

oey, he famly, 

o meely a
aggegae of

dvdual
a
y o
e of hom e may de
g
ae 
d
m
aely hu
ba
d o
fe, fahe o mohe, bohe o

e. The
e elao

of ode ae
eal; hey ae obvou
ly
o he podu of ou hough,
o podued by
, bu o
ly d
oveed, appehe
ded by .
I 
a pofou
d uh ha
o all he ealy of he u
ve
e hh
pe
e


elf o he huma
m
d fo a
aly

a
d 
epeao
, _
o
all_ he ealy of h
u
ve
e, 
o be fou
d 
he mee
um-oal of
he 
dvdual e
e
ha o

ue , o

de
g he
e e
e

eah ab
oluely a
d 

olao
fom he ohe
. No doe
_all_ 
eal
pefeo
o


 
he mee
um-oal of he ab
olue pefeo





 o, a
d 
hee
 
, ho
e vaou

dvdual e
e
. Ove a
d
above he
e 
dvdual e
e
a
d he ab
olue pefeo

, hee 
a
doma
of ealy, a
d of eal pefeo

, o



g 
he eal
_adapao
_, _
eao
_, _
edepe
de
e_, _aa
geme
_,
_o-od
ao
_ a
d _
ubod
ao
_, of ho
e ab
olue e
e
a
d
pefeo

amo
g hem
elve
. A
d f e ealze h
pofou
d uh(403)
e
hall have
o dffuly 
eog
z
g ha, hle he
hough-poe

e
heeby e 
epe h
u
ve
e podue logal
elao

hh e ulze 
h

epeao
, hee 
al
o 
h

u
ve
e 
elf a
y
em of elao

hh ae eal, hh ae
o

ve
ed, bu ae meely deeed, by ou m
d
.
Aod
g o deal

, elao

a
ubjeve aegoy of he m
d. I
belo
g
o phe
ome
a o
ly o
he 
oduo
of he lae 
o he
u
de
a
d
g. La

o moe ex
 
phe
ome
a, e
Ka
,(404) ha

phe
ome
a ex
 
hem
elve
; he fome ae elave o he
ubje 

hh he phe
ome
a 
hee, 

o fa a
h

ubje 
e
doed h
u
de
a
d
g; ju
 a
he lae ae elave o h

ame
ubje 

o
fa a
 
e
doed h
e

bly. Th

ambguou
a
d m
lead
g.
Of ou
e, la
o a
y ohe elao

do
o ex
 _fo u
_, ae _
o
k
o
_ by u
, ae
o _bough 
o elao
o ou u
de
a
d
g_, a

lo
g a
e do
o o

ou
ly ga
p he o em
a
d he fou
dao
o

hh he la, o a
y ohe elao
, e

. Bu hee ae elao

ho
e
em
a
d fou
dao

ae a
eo o, a
d 
depe
de
 of, ou hough,
a
d hh o

eque
ly ae
o a podu of hough.
Se

ao

, o ohe feel
g
be
g gve
, e
J. S. Mll,(405)

ue

o
a
d
mula
eou

e

ae he o o
do

o he ale
ave
of hh hey ae
ubjeed by he
aue of ou faule
. Bu, a
M.
Boa pe
e
ly a
k
,(406) hy do e apply 
a
y paula a
e he
o
e ale
ave of he o-faed aegoy ahe ha
he ohe? I

o
beau
e 
evey a
e he o
ee applao
made by ou faule


deem
ed by he obje
hem
elve
, by a
objeve a
d eal fou
dao

of he elao
?
91. MUTUAL AND MIXED RELATIONS; TRANSCENDENTAL RELATIONS.Thee ae, he
,

elao

hh ae 

ome ue
e

e eal. Bu 
ha doe
he ealy
of a eal elao
o


? Befoe a

e
g h
que
o
e mu
 exam
e
he ma
la

e
of eal elao

.
We have aleady efeed o he _muual_ elao
a
o
e hh ha
_a eal
fou
dao

boh_ of he exeme
,
uh a
he elao
beee
fahe
a
d
o
, o beee
a geae a
d a le

e qua
y, o beee
o equal
qua
e
, o beee
o
mla people.(407) Suh a elao

alled
a _elao aequpea
ae_, a elao
of _he
ame de
om
ao
_, f 
ha
he
ame
ame o
boh
de
, a
_equalequal_, _
mla
mla_,
_fe
dfe
d_, e. I 
alled a _elao d
qupea
ae_, of
_dffee
 de
om
ao
_, f  ha
a dffee

ame, 
da
g a
dffee
 k
d of elao
, o
ehe
de, a
_fahe
o
_,
_au
eeffe_, _ma
e
eva
_, e.
D

 fom h

he _
o
-muual_ o _mxed_ elao
, hh ha
a
eal fou
dao
o
ly 
o
e exeme,
o ha he elao
of h
o he
ohe exeme 
eal, hle he elao
of he lae o he fome 

o
ly logal.(408) Fo 

a
e, he elao
of evey eaue o he
Ceao 
a eal elao
, fo he e

e
al depe
de
e of he eaue
o
he Ceao 
a elao
gou
ded 
he vey
aue of he eaue
a
a o

ge
 be
g. Bu he elao
of he Ceao o he eaue 

o
ly logal, fo he eave a o
hh  
gou
ded mple

he
Ceao
o ealy d

 fom H

ub
a
e, hh
ub
a
e ha

o

ee

ay elao
o a
y eaue. Smlaly, he elao
of he
(f
e) k
o
g m
d o he k
o
obje 
a eal elao
, fo  

gou
ded 
a
e qualy, _vz._ k
oledge, heeby he m
d 

pefeed. Bu he elao
of he obje o he m
d 

o a eal
elao
, fo by beom
g aually k
o
he obje 
elf doe

o
u
dego a
y eal ha
ge o aque a
y
e ealy o pefeo
. We have

ee
aleady (42, 50) ha all ealy ha
a _a

e
de
al_ o
_e

e
al_ elao
o 
elle a
d o ll, o
ologal uh a
d
o
ologal good
e

. The
e elao

of ealy o he _Dv
e_ I
elle
a
d Wll ae _fomally_ o _aually_ vefed 
all h
g
; heea
he
a

e
de
al uh a
d good
e

of a
y h
g 
egad o a
y eaed

elle a
d ll ae fomal o aual o
ly he
ha h
g 
_aually_
k
o
a
d lled by
uh eaed faule
: he elao

of a h
g o a
m
d ha doe

o aually k
o a
d de
e ha h
g ae o
ly
_fu
dame
al_ o _poe
al_ uh a
d good
e

. Th
b
g
u
o a

eo
d gea dv
o
of elao

, 
o _e

e
al_ o _a

e
de
al_
a
d _ade
al_ o _pedame
al_.
A
e

e
al o a

e
de
al elao

_o
e hh 

volved 
he
vey e

e
e 
elf of he elaed h
g_. I e
e

o a
d 



epaable fom he o
ep of he lae. Thu

he o
ep of he
_eaue_ a

uh hee 

volved a
_e

e
al_ elao
of he
lae
depe
de
e o
he _Ceao_. So, oo, evey 
dvdual ealy

volve
e

e
al elao

of _de
y_ h 
elf a
d _d

o
_
fom ohe h
g
, a
d e

e
al elao

of _uh_ a
d _good
e

_ o
he Dv
e M
d a
d eaed m
d
. K
oledge 
volve
a
e

e
al
elao
o a k
o
obje. _Ade

_ 
volve he e

e
al elao
of
a
apude o 
hee 
_
ub
a
e
_. _Ao_ 
volve
a
e

e
al
elao
o a
_age

_, a
d _pa

o_ o a _pae

_; mae o fom a
d
fom o mae. A
d
o o
. I
ge
eal, heeve a
y
ubje ha
a




 a
d e

e
al exge
e o apude o 
l
ao
, heeby hee

e
abl
hed a o

exo
of h

ubje h, o a efee
e o,

omeh
g el
e, a
od
ao
o _odo_ o
omeh
g el
e, hee e have
a
e

e
al elao
.(409) Suh a elao

emed a

e
de
al
beau
e  a
be vefed of a
ubje 
a
y aegoy; a
d,

e 
add

oh
g eal o 

ubje  doe

o of 
elf o

ue a
y
e

aegoy of eal be
g. Lke he logal elao
 
efeed o hee

ode o b
g ou, by ay of o
a
, he ade
al o pedame
al
elao
hh 
he pope
ubje-mae of he pe
e
 hape.
92. PREDICAMENTAL RELATIONS; THEIR FOUNDATIONS AND DIISIONS.A

ade
al o pedame
al elao

o
e hh 
_
o e

e
al o he
elaed
ubje, bu
upeadded o, a
d
epaable fom, he lae_. Suh,
fo 

a
e, ae elao

of equaly o 
equaly,
mlay o
d

mlay. I 

o 
volved 
he
aue of he
ubje 
elf, bu


upe
dued o
he lae by ea
o
of
ome eal fou
dao
eally
d

 fom he
aue of h

ubje. I

ole fu
o

o efe
he
ubje o he em, hle he e

e
al o a

e
de
al elao


ahe a



 abue o apude of he
aue 
elf a
a
p
ple of ao
, o a
effe of ao
. The eal, ade
al elao


he o
e hh A
ole plaed 
a aegoy apa a
o
e of he
ulmae ade
al mode
of eal be
g. He
e  
alled a
pedame
al elao
. Wha ae 
p
pal
ub-la

e
?
Real elao

ae dvded aod
g o he
aue of he fou
dao

.
Bu
ome elao

ae eal _ex uaque pae_muual elao

, hle
ohe
ae eal o
ly o
he
demxed elao

. Moeove,
ome eal
elao

ae a

e
de
al, ohe
pedame
al. A
ole 
a

g

g
hee d

 gou
d
of pedame
al elao


eem
o have 
luded

ome elao

ha ae a

e
de
al.(410) He d

gu
he
(411) (_a_)
elao

gou
ded 
u
y a
d mulude; (_b_) elao

gou
ded 

effe
 au
aly; a
d (__) elao

gou
ded 
omme

uao
.
(_a_) By u
y a
d mulude he 
ommo
ly 
epeed o mea
de
y
o dve
y
o meely 
_qua
y_, bu 
a
y fomal fao, a
d
heefoe al
o 
_qualy_, a
d 
_
aue_ o _
ub
a
e_. Th
g
ha
ae o
e 
qua
y e em _equal_; o
e 
qualy, _
mla_; o
e 

ub
a
e, _de
al_. A
d f hey ae
o o
e 
he
e e
pe
e all
hem _u
equal_, _d

mla_, _d

_ o _dve
e_, e
pevely. Abou
qua
y a
a fou
dao
fo eal, pedame
al elao

hee a
be
o
dffuly. I
deed  

a ea

e

e mpled 
all elao

a
lea
 a
appehe
ded by he huma
m
d. Fo e appehe
d elao

, of
ha
oeve k
d, by me
al ompa
o
, a
d h

volve
he o

ou

e


of _
umbe_ o _plualy_, of _o_ h
g
ompaed.(412) A
d he
e
ompae h
g
o
he ba

of a
y _qualy_ e do
o o
ly by
d

gu
h
g a
d mea
u
g _
e

ve gade
_ 
h
qualy, afe he
a
alogy of _exe

ve_ o _qua
ave_ mea
ueme
 (80). Nevehele


ju
 a
qualy 
a d

 ade
 eduble o qua
y (77),
o
ae elao

ba
ed o
qualy dffee
 fom ho
e ba
ed o
qua
y. Bu
ha abou
ub
a
e o
aue a
a fou
dao
of _pedame
al_
elao

? Fo he
e, a
d

 fom a

e
de
al elao

,
ome
ade
 eally d

 fom he
ub
a
e
eem
o be equed. The

ub
a
al, 
dvdual _de
y_ of a
y eal be
g h 
elf 
o
ly a
logal elao
, fo hee ae
o o eally d

 exeme
. The

pef de
y of Joh
h Jame

vue of he ommo
huma

aue 
a eal elao

bu  ould appea o be a

e
de
al.(413)
The elao
of he eal Joh
a
d he eal Jame
o ou k
oledge of hem

he a

e
de
al elao
of a
y ealy o k
oledge, he elao

of o
ologal uh. Th
elao

_e

e
ally_ aual 
egad o
he Dv
e m
d, bu o
ly poe
al, a
d _ade
ally_ aual, 
egad
o a
y eaed m
d (42). The elao
of eal d

o
beee
o

dvdual
ub
a
e

a eal bu _a

e
de
al_ elao
, gou
ded 

he a

e
de
al abue of _o
e
e

_ hh haaeze
evey eal
be
g (26, 27).
(_b_) Effe
 au
aly, _ao e pa

o_, a
u
doubedly be he

gou
d of eal pedame
al elao

. If he ao

a

ve(414)
he _pae

_ o epe
 of he eal ha
ge aque
by h
lae he
ba

of a elao
of eal depe
de
e o
he au
e o _age

_. Aga
, f
he ao
povoke
eao
,
o ha hee 
eal 
eao
, eah
_age

_ be
g al
o _pae

_, hee a
e
a muual pedame
al elao

of 
edepe
de
e beee
he o age
e
. Fuhemoe, f he age


elf 

a
y ay eally pefeed by he ao
hee a
e
a eal
pedame
al elao
hh 
muual:
o meely a eal elao
of
effe o age
 bu al
o of age
 o effe. Th

ue 
all a
e
of
ha
hola

all u
voal a
d

 fom equvoal au
ao
.
Of he fome, 
hh he age
 podue
a
effe _lke 

aue o

elf_, he popagao
of he
pee
by lv
g h
g

he gea
example. Hee
o o
ly 
he elao
of off
p
g o pae

a eal
elao
, bu ha of pae

o off
p
g 
al
o a eal elao
. A
d
h
eal elao

pema
e
 beau
e  
gou
ded
o meely 
he
a

e
 ge
eave poe

e
bu 

ome eal a
d abd
g e
ul of
he
e poe

e
ehe
ome phy
al d
po
o

he pae


hem
elve
,(415) o
ome _
pef_ pefeo
abued by ex


de
om
ao
o he _
dvdual_ pae

: he pae

ae 
a
e

e
o

ued 
he off
p
g: ge
eao
eally pepeuae
he
pee
,
he
pef
aue, a
d 
h

e

e may be
ad o pefe he

dvdual pae

.(416) I
a
e
of equvoal au
ao
_.e._ hee
he effe 
dffee
 

aue fom he au
e, a
he
a ma
buld
a
hou
ehe age
 doe

o
o lealy be
ef by he ao
,
o ha 

uh
a
e
, hle he elao
of he effe o he au
e 
eal,
ome auho

ould egad ha of he au
e o he effe a
logal.(417) Whe
,
hoeve, e emembe ha he effe
 avy of all _eaed_ au
e



ee

aly depe
de
 o
he Dv
e _Co
u
u
_, a
d
ee

aly

volve
_ha
ge 
he eaed au
e 
elf_, e a
egad h
ha
ge
a

all a
e
he gou
d of a eal elao
of he eaed au
e o 

effe. Bu he ea
g a
d o

ev
g avy of he Dv
e Be
g
a

o gou
d a eal elao
of he lae o eaue
beau
e he
Dv
e Be
g 
Pue a
d U
ha
geable Aualy, aqu
g
o
e
pefeo
, a
d u
dego
g
o eal ha
ge, by
uh avy.(418)
(__) By omme

uao
a
a ba

of eal elao

A
ole doe

o
mea
qua
ave mea
ueme
, bu he deem
ao
of he pefeo
of
o
e ealy by 
be
g e

e
ally o
fomed o, a
d egulaed by,
a
ohe: a
he pefeo
of k
oledge o
e
e, fo 

a
e, 

deem
ed by he pefeo
of 
obje. Th

o of omme

uao
,
o e

e
al od
ao
of o
e ealy o a
ohe, 
obvou
ly he ba


of _a

e
de
al_ elao

. Some auho
ould o

de ha be
de

he a

e
de
al elao
of
e
e o 
obje, a elao
hh 


depe
de
 of he aual ex
e
e of he lae, hee al
o ex

a

ade
al elao


e
e o 
obje a
lo
g a
h
lae 


aual ex
e
e. Bu ahe 
hould be
ad ha ju
 a
he
a

e
de
al uh-elao
of a
y eal obje o 
elle 

fu
dame
al (poe
al) o fomal (aual) aod
g a
h

elle
meely _a
_ k
o h
obje o aually _doe
_ k
o ,
o al
o he
a

e
de
al elao
of k
oledge o 
obje 
fu
dame
al o
fomal aod
g a
h
obje 
meely po

ble o aually ex

g.
We gahe fom he foego
g a
aly

ha he hee ma
la

e
of
pedame
al elao

ae ho
e ba
ed o
_qua
y_, _qualy_, a
d
_au
aly_, e
pevely.
93. IN WHAT DOES THE REALITY OF PREDICAMENTAL RELATIONS CONSIST?We have

ee
ha
o all elao

ae puely logal. Thee ae eal elao

;
a
d of he
e
ome ae
o meely a
pe
of he ohe aegoe
of eal
be
g,
o meely a

e
de
al abue
vually d

 fom, bu

eally de
al h, he
e ohe ab
olue mode
of eal be
g hh e
de
g
ae a

ub
a
e, qua
y, qualy, au
e, effe, e.
Thee ae eal elao

hh fom a d

 ade
al mode of eal
be
g a
d
o o

ue a aegoy apa. The fa, hoeve, ha he
e
pedame
al elao

have bee
plaed by A
ole a
d h
folloe


a aegoy apa doe

o of 
elf pove ha he pedame
al elao


a
peal ealy _
u ge

e
_, eally a
d adequaely d

 fom
he eale
hh o

ue he ohe aegoe
(60). If he
pedame
al elao
be
o a _puely logal e
y_, f  be a
_e


ao

um fu
dame
o 
e_, o, 
ohe od
, f he obje of ou
o
ep of pedame
al elao
, ha
a fou
dao

ealy (_e.g._
lke he o
ep
of
pae a
d me), he
 may ea
o
ably be plaed

a aegoy apa, eve
alhough  may
o be 
elf fomally a
ealy. We have heefoe o
ee hehe o
o he pedame
al
elao

, o embode
, a
y mode of eal be
g adequaely d

 fom
he
e mode
hh o

ue he ohe aegoe
.
The pedame
al elao

eal 
he
e

e ha  mple
, 

addo
o o eally d

 exeme
, a eal fou
dao

o
e o boh
of he
e exeme
, a eal ade

uh a
qua
y, qualy, o
au
aly. Tha 
o
ay, o

deed 

fou
dao
o au
e,
o

deed fu
dame
ally o _
eu
dum
uum e

e 

ubjeo_, he
pedame
al elao

eal, 
a
muh a

fou
dao

a ealy

depe
de
ly of he o

deao
of he m
d. No doub, f he
pedame
al elao
, adequaely o

deed, mple

o ohe ealy
ha
ha of 
fou
dao
a
d em
, he
he pedame
al elao

doe

o o
a
a
y
peal ealy _
u ge
e
_, d

 fom

ub
a
e
, qualy, qua
y, a
d ohe
uh ab
olue mode
of eal
be
g. Th
, hoeve, doe

o peve
 
a
k
g a
a d

 aegoy
povded  add
a vually d

 a
d alogehe peula a
pe o
ho
e ab
olue eale
. No, o

deed adequaely, he pedame
al
elao
add
o he ealy  ha


fou
dao
he _aual
efee
e_ of
ubje o em. I
fa,  

h
efee
e of
ubje
o em, h
_e

e ad_, ha he elao
_fomally_ o



. The
que
o
heefoe may be
aed hu
: I
h
fomal elao
of
ubje
o em, h
_e

e ad_ a eal e
y _
u ge
e
_, eally d


fom he ab
olue e
e
of
ubje, em a
d fou
dao
, a
d 

o
ad

o
o he
e a
d all ab
olue e
e
a elave e
y,
aually ex

g 
he eal u
ve
e 
depe
de
ly of ou hough? O 

, o
he o
ay, 
elf fomally a mee podu of ou hough, a
podu of he me
al a of ompa
o
, a
_e

ao

_ a
a
pe

upeadded by ou m
d
o he exeme
ompaed, a
d o he fou
dao


vue of hh e ompae hem?

A good ma
y
hola

, a
d
ome of hem me
of gea
ame,(419) have
e
pou
ed he fome ale
ave, o

de
g ha he ealy of he
pedame
al elao
a

o be v
daedaga

 deal

, ho ould
edue all elao

o mee logal e
e
ohe
e ha
by aod
g
o he elao
o

deed _fomally_, _.e._ _
eu
dum
uum_ _e

e ad_,
a
e
y 
he aual ode of h
g

depe
de
 of ou hough: add
g
a
a
agume
 ha f elao
fomally a

uh 
a
yh
g a all, f
all elao
be
o a mee me
al fabao
,  
e

e
ally a
elave e
y, a
d ha ma
fe
ly a elave e
y a

o be
eally de
al h a
y ab
olue e
y. A
d hey lam fo h
ve
he auhoy of S Thoma
.(420)
The gea majoy of
hola

, hoeve, e
pou
e he
eo
d
ale
ave: ha he elao
, o

deed _fomally_,
eu
dum _e

e
ad_, 
a podu of ou me
al ompa
o
of
ubje h em. I 

o 
elf a eal e
y o a eal mode,
upeadded o he ealy of

exeme
a
d fou
dao
.
I
he f
 plae hee 

o
eed o
uppo
e he ealy of
uh a
elave e
y. _E
a
o

u
 mulpla
da pe
ee

aem._ I 

a
abu
e of eal
m o
uppo
e ha he _fomal_ eleme
 of a elao
,

_e

e ad_, 
a d

 a
d
epaae ealy. The ealy of he
paedame
al elao


afeguaded hou a
y
uh po
ulae. S
e
he pedame
al elao
, o

deed _adequaely_, _.e._
o meely
fomally bu fu
dame
ally,
o meely _
eu
dum e

e ad_ bu _
eu
dum
e

e 
_, 
volve
a

fou
dao
a
ab
olue ade
 hh 
eal

depe
de
ly of ou hough, he pedame
al elao


o a _mee
e

ao

_. I ha
a fou
dao

ealy. I 
a
_e

ao

um
fu
dame
o 
e_. Th

a
uffe
 ou
e-a

eo
o Ideal
m, a
d
a
uffe
 ea
o
fo ea
g elao
a
a d

 aegoy of eal
be
g.
Tha hee 

o
eed fo
uh a elave e
y ll be ma
fe
 f e
o

de he
mple a
e of o ba
of o
eah a yad lo
g. The le
gh
of eah 
a
ab
olue ade
 of eah. The le
gh of ehe, o

deed
ab
oluely a
d 

elf, 

o fomally he _equaly_ of h
h he
ohe. No ae boh le
gh
o

deed
epaaely he fomal elao
of
equaly. Bu boh o

deed ogehe ae he adequae fou
dao
of h

fomal elao
; boh o

deed ogehe ae h
elao
_poe
ally_,
_fu
dame
ally_,
o ha all ha 

eeded fo he _aual_, _fomal_
elao
of _equaly_ 
he me
al appehe

o
of he o le
gh

ogehe. The me
al poe

of ompa
o

he o
ly h
g equed o
make he poe
al elao
aual; a
d he podu of h
me
al poe



he _fomaly_ o _e

e ad_ of he elao
, he aual efee
e of
he exeme
o eah ohe. Be
de
he ab
olue ade

hh
o

ue he fou
dao
of he elao

omeh
g moe 
equed fo
he o

uo
of he adequae pedame
al elao
. Th

omeh
g
moe, hoeve, 
a m
d apable of ompa
g he exeme
, a
d
o a
y
eal e
y d

 fom exeme
a
d fou
dao
. A
eede
ly o he a
of ompa
o
he fomally elave eleme
 of he elao
, 
_e

e
ad_, a

o a
yh
g aual;  a
he mee _ompaably_ of he
exeme

vue of he fou
dao
. If he _e

e ad_ ee a
epaae
eal e
y, a elave e
y, eally d

 fom exeme
a
d
fou
dao
, ha
o of e
y ould  be? Be
g a
ade
, 
hould

hee 
, o be a mode of 

ubje. Bu f  dd  ould lo
e 

fomally elave haae by beom
g a

hee
 mode of a
ab
olue
ealy. Whle o o
eve  a
a
e
y a
de o
boh exeme
, a
d
bdg
g o o

e
g he
e ogehe, ould be o
ub
ue he ude
magey of he mag
ao
fo 
elleual hough.
I
he
eo
d plae, f a
ubje a
aque a elao
, o lo
e a
elao
, _hou u
dego
g a
y eal ha
ge_, he
he elao

o

deed fomally a

uh, o _
eu
dum_ _e

e ad_, a

o be a
ealy. Bu a
ubje a
aque o lo
e a elao
hou u
dego
g
a
y eal ha
ge. Theefoe he elao
o

deed fomally, a
d


fom 
fou
dao
a
d exeme
, 

o a ealy.
The m
o of h
agume
 may be poved by he o

deao
of a fe

mple example
. A hld aleady bo


ehe lage
o
malle ha


bohe ha ll be bo

o yea
he
e.(421) Bu afe he bh of
he lae hld he fome a
aque ho
e elao


ue

vely
_hou a
y eal ha
ge 

elf_, a
d meely by he goh of he
you
ge hld. Aga
, o
e he ball _A_ 

mla 
olou o a
ohe
he ball _B_. Pa
 he lae blak, a
d _eo p
o_ he fome lo
e


elao
of e
embla
e _hou a
y eal ha
ge 

elf_.

A
d h
appea
o be he ve of S. Thoma
. If, he e
,
a
ohe ma
beome
equal 

ze o me by go
g hle I ema

u
ha
ged 

ze, he
alhough _eo p
o_ I beome equal 

ze
o hm, hu
aqu
g a
e elao
, _
evehele

I ga
o
aque
oh
g
e_:
hl adve
 mh de
ovo, pe ho quod

po e

e ale aequal
pe eju
muao
em. Relao
, he

ay
, 
a
exame
al ealy _by ea
o
of 
fou
dao
o
au
e_, heeby o
e ealy 
efeed o a
ohe.(422) Relao


elf, o

deed fomally a
d

 fom 
fou
dao
, 

o a ealy;  
eal o

ly 
a
muh a

fou
dao


eal.(423) Aga
, elao


omeh
g 
hee
, bu
o fomally
a
a elao
, a
d he
e  a
d
appea hou a
y eal ha
ge



ubje.(424) A eal elao
may be de
oyed 
o
e o
ohe of o ay
: ehe by he de
uo
o ha
ge of he
fou
dao

he
ubje, o by he de
uo
of he em,
e
al
g he e

ao
of he efee
e, _hou a
y ha
ge 

he
ubje_.(425) He
e, oo, he ea
o
alleged by S. Thoma

hy elao
, u
lke he ohe aegoe
of eal be
g, a
be

elf dvded 
o logal e
y a
d eal e
y, _e

ao

_
a
d _e

eale_: beau
e fomally  
a
_e

ao

_, a
d
o
ly fu
dame
ally, o 
vue of 
fou
dao
, 
 a
_e


eale_.(426) A
d he
e, f
ally, he ea
o
hy S. Thoma
,
follo
g A
ole, de
be
elao
a
hav
g a le

e
ealy, a
e

e deblu
,(427) ha
he ohe o ab
olue
aegoe
of eal be
g:
o a
f  ee a
o of dm
uve
e
y, 
emedae beee

oh
g
e

a
d he ab
olue mode
of
ealy, bu beau
e be
g depe
de
 fo 
fomal aualy
o
meely o
a fou
dao



ubje, bu al
o o
a em o hh
he lae 
efeed,  a
pe
h
o meely by he
de
uo
of 

ubje lke ohe ade

, bu al
o by he
de
uo
of 
em hle
ubje a
d fou
dao
ema

u
ha
ged.
If, he
, he eal elao
, o

deed fomally o
eu
dum _e

e ad_


o a ealy, he elao
u
de h
a
pe 
a _logal_,
o a
_eal_, ade
.
To o

ue a muual eal elao
hee 

eeded a fou
dao


_boh_ of he exeme
. A
lo

g a
he em of he elao
doe

o
aually ex
,
o o
ly doe
he elao

o ex
 fomally a
d
aually, bu  

o eve
_adequaely poe
al_: he fou
dao

he

ubje alo
e 

o a
adequae fou
dao
.
To h
ve, hh de
e
a
y d

 ealy o he pedame
al
elao
o

deed fomally,  ha
bee
objeed ha he pedame
al
elao

hu
o
fou
ded h he a

e
de
al elao
. Bu h


o
o; fo he a

e
de
al elao

alay
e

e
al o 


ubje, haeve h

ubje may be, hle he pedame
al elao
,
o

deed fomally, 
a logal ade

epaable fom 

ubje, a
d
o

deed fu
dame
ally  

ome ab
olue ade
 eally d

 fom
he
ub
a
e of he elaed exeme
. Fo 

a
e, he _ao
_ hh
medae
beee
au
e a
d effe 

elf a

e
de
ally elaed o
boh; hle  
a he
ame me he adequae fou
dao
heeby au
e
a
d effe ae pedame
ally elaed o eah ohe.(428)
If ha e have alled he fomal eleme
 of a elao
be
oh
g eally
d

 fom he exeme
a
d fou
dao
,  follo
ha
ome eal
elao

beee
eaue
ae eally de
al h he


ub
a
e
;(429) a
d o h
 ha
bee
objeed ha
o elao
_

eaue
_ a
be, _quoad em_,
ub
a
al: Nulla elao,
ay
S.
Thoma
,(430) e

ub
a
a
eu
dum em 
eau
. To h
 may be
epled ha eve

he
e a
e
he elao

elf, o

deed
adequaely, 

o holly de
al h he
ub
a
e of ehe exeme.
I
upeadd
a
epaable logal ade
 o he
e.(431)
F
ally  
objeed ha he ve hh de
e
a d

 ealy o
he fomal eleme
 of a eal elao
, o 
_e

e ad_, equvale
ly
de
e
all ealy o elao

, a
d 
heefoe 

ub
a
e de
al
h he deal
 do
e aleady ejeed (90). Bu h

a
m
o
epo
. Aod
g o deal

, elao

gou
ded o
qualy,
qua
y, au
aly, e., ae exlu
vely 
he 
elle, 
ou me
al
avy a
d 
me
al podu
, 
ou o
ep
alo
e, a
d ae 

o
ue
e

e haae
 of ealy. Th

vey dffee
 fom
ay
g
ha ou o
ep
of
uh elao

ae gou
ded 
he eale

ompaed, a
d ha he
e eale
ae eally e
doed h eveyh
g ha
o

ue

uh elao

, he ompaave a of he 
elle be
g
equed meely o appehe
d he
e haae

a
d
o o gve he
elao

fomal omplee
e

.(432) Thee 
all he dffee
e ha
ex

beee
a heoy hh
o exaggeae
he o

uve fu
o
of
hough a
o edue all 
elleual k
oledge o a k
oledge of mee

ubjeve me
al appeaa
e
, a
d a heoy hh, hle eog
z
g h

fu
o
a
d 
podu
, ll
o allo ha he
e a
 a
y loud o
vel beee
he 
elle a
d a ge
u
e 

gh 
o objeve ealy.
The
e me
al poe

e
ae guded by ealy; he _e
a ao

_ hh
ae he podu
ae gou
ded 
ealy; moeove e a
que ell
d

gu
h beee
he
e _me
al_ mode
a
d podu
of ou 
elleual
avy a
d he _eal_ o
e

evealed o he m
d 
he
e mode
a
d
poe

e
. So lo
g, heefoe, a
e avod he m
ake of a
b
g o he
objeve ealy 
elf a
y of he
e me
al mode
(a
, fo 

a
e,
exeme eal

do he
hey a

e he exame
al ealy of he
_fomal_ u
ve
al), ou eog
o
of hem a


o ay jeopadze he
objeve valdy of 
elleual k
oledge. Pehap
a
exe

ve
mdy 
h
deo



ome degee aou
able fo he abu
e of
eal
m hh a
be
o he fomal eleme
 of a elao
a d


exame
al,(433) objeve ealy.

CHAPTER XIII. CAUSALITY; CLASSIFICATION OF CAUSES.

94. TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF CAUSE.The mode
of eal be
g hh e have
bee

o fa exam

g
ub
a
e, qualy, qua
y, elao
ae mode
of
ealy o

deed a
_
a_. Bu  a
po
ed ou 
a
ealy hape
(h. .) ha he u
ve
e of ou expee
e 

ubje o ha
ge, ha
 
eve _beom
g_, ha  
he
e
e of a o

uou
old-poe


hh 
appae
ly egulaed by moe o le


able p
ple
o la
,
he
e la
a
d poe

e
o

u
g he _u
ve
al ode_ hh  

he duy of he phlo
ophe o
udy a
d expla
. We mu

o eu
o
h
_k
e_ a
d _dy
am_ a
pe of ealy, a
d 
ve
gae he
p
ple
of ha
ge 
h
g
by a
udy of _Cau
e
_.
A
h he
ame
of he ohe ulmae aegoe
,
o oo hee, he
ge
eal
e

e of he em au
e (_au
a_, ) is famiiar  a,
whie a
asis reveas a rea varie f mdaiies f his mm

si
ifiai
. We 
dersa
d b a ase _a
hi
 whih has a psiive

i
fe
e f a
 sr 
he bei
 r happe
i
 f smehi
 ese_. I

phisph his is he mea

i
 whih has bee
aahed radii
a 
he erm si
e he das f Arise; hh i
is prese
-da sie
ifi
se he erm has ams s his mea
i
, mai
 hrh he i
fe
e f
mder
phe
me
ism.(434) The radii
a
i
f ase is sa
exp
ded b mpari
 i wih erai
ki
dred
i
s: _pri
ipe_,
_
dii
_, _asi
_, _reas
_.
A _pri
ipe_ is _ha frm whih a
hi
 preeds i
a
 wa
whasever_.(435) A
 sr f i
ri
si 

exi
bewee
w bjes f
hh is sffiie
  
sie he 
e a pri
ipe f he her;
b a mere exri
si r ime seqe
e is
 sffiie
. A _ia_
pri
ipe is sme _rh_ frm whih frher rhs are r ma be derived.
A _rea_ pri
ipe is sme _reai_ frm whih he _bei
_ r _happe
i
_
f smehi
 rii
aes a
d preeds.(436) If his pressi
i
vves a
rea a
d psiive i
fe
e f he pri
ipe 
ha whih preeds frm
i, sh a rea pri
ipe is a ase. B here ma be a rea a
d
i
ri
si 

exi
wih a
 sh i
fe
e. Fr i
sa
e, i
he
sbsa
ia ha
es whih r i
phsia
are he e
erai
f he

ew sbsa
ia frmaive pri
ipe
eessari presppses he
_privai
_ f he 
e whih a
eede
 i
frmed he maeria
pri
ipe; b his _privai frmae_ has
 psiive i
fe
e 
he
e
erai
f he
ew frm; i is, hwever, he
eessar a
d
ara
a
eede
  he e
erai
f he aer; he
e ahh his _privai
frmae_ is a rea pri
ipe f sbsa
ia ha
e (he press r
_fieri_) i is
 a _ase_ f he aer. The
i
f pri
ipe, eve

f rea pri
ipe, is herefre wider ha
he
i
f ase.(437)
A _
dii
_, i
he prper se
se f a
eessar 
dii
r _
dii
si
e qa

_, is smehi
 whih ms be reaized r ffied befre he
eve
 r effe i
qesi
a
happe
r be prded. O
he side f he
aer here is rea depe
de
e, b frm he side f he frmer here is

 rea a
d psiive i
fe
e 
he happe
i
 f he eve
. The
i
fe
e f he 
dii
is
eaive; r, if psiive, i is 

i
dire, 
sisi
 i
he remva f sme bsae_remve
s
prbibe
s_ he psiive i
fe
e f he ase. I
his preise a

dii
differs frm a ase: wi
dws, fr i
sa
e, are a 
dii
fr
he ihi
 f a rm i
he daih, b he s
is he ase. The
disi
i
is ear a
d i
eiibe,
r ma i be i
red i
a
phisphia a
asis f asai. A he same ime i is eas 

dersa
d ha where, as i
he i
dive sie
es, here is qesi
f
disveri
 _a_ he a
eede
s, psiive a
d
eaive, f a
 ive

ki
d f phe
me

, i
rder  bri
  ih a
d frmae he aw r
aws ardi
  whih sh phe
me

rs, he disi
i
bewee

ase a
d 
dii
is f mi
r impra
e.(438)
A
_asi
_ is _a
 irmsa
e r mbi
ai
f irmsa
es
favrabe  he ai
f a free ase_. Fr i
sa
e, a fred sae is
a
asi
fr bi
 heap;
ih is a
asi
f hef; bad
mpa
i
ship is a
asi
f si
. A
asi
has
 i
ri
si


exi
wih he effe as i
he ase f a pri
ipe,
r is i

eessar fr he prdi

f he effe as i
he ase f a 
dii
.
I is spke
f 
 i


exi
wih he ai
f a free ase; a
d i
differs frm a ase i
havi

 psiive a
d dire i
fe
e 
he
prdi
f he effe. I has, hwever, a rea hh i
dire
i
fe
e 
he prdi
f he effe b siii
 a
d aidi
 he
deermi
ai
f he free effiie
 ase  a. I
s far as i des
exer sh a
i
fe
e i ma be rearded as a paria effiie
 ase,

 a phsia b a mra ase, f he effe.

T ask fr he _reas

_ f a
 eve
 r phe
me

, r f he
are r
exise
e f a
 reai, is  dema
d a
_expa
ai
_ f he aer; i
is  seek wha _a
s_ fr he aer, wha makes his _i
eiibe_
 r mi
ds. Whaever is a ase is herefre as a reas
, b he
aer
i
is wider ha
he frmer. Whaever expai
s a _rh_ is a
_ia_ reas
f he aer. B si
e a rhs are 
er
ed wih
reaiies he ms have imae _rea_ reas
s, _i.e._ expa
ar
pri
ipes i
here
 i
he reaiies hemseves. The k
wede f hese
rea r 
ia pri
ipes f hi
s is he ia reas
f r

dersa
di
 f he hi
s hemseves. B he 
ia pri
ipes,
whih are he rea reas
s f he hi
s, are wider i
exe
 ha
he
ases f hese hi
s, fr he i
de pri
ipes ha are
 ases.
Frhermre, he rades f reai whih we disver i
hi
s b he
aivi f absra hh, a
d whereb we mpare, assif a
d defi
e
hse hi
s, we apprehe
d as expa
ar pri
ipes f he aer; a
d
hese pri
ipes, hh rea i
he hi
s, a
d herefre rea
reas
s, are
 ases.
Ths, ife is a rea reas
, hh
 a ase, f se
sibii i
he
a
ima ra
ism; he ss i
depe
de
e f maer i
is mde f
exise
e is a rea reas
, hh
 a ase, f is spiria
aiviies. He
e, bewee
a reas
a
d ha whih i a
s fr here
ma be 
 a ia disi
i
, whie bewee
a ase a
d ha whih i
ases here ms be a rea disi
i
(38).
T 
dersa
d a he i
ri
si pri
ipes whih 
sie he _esse
e_
f a
hi
 is  k
w he _sffiie
 reas
_ f is _reai_. T

dersa
d a he exri
si pri
ipes whih a
 fr is aa
_exise
e_ is  k
w he sffiie
 reas
f is _exise
e_; a
d 

dersa
d his aer adeqae is  reaize ha he hi
 depe
ds
imae fr is aa exise
e 
a Reai r Bei
 whih

eessari exiss b vire f is w

esse
e.
Wha has bee
aed he _Pri
ipe f Sffiie
 Reas
_ assers,
whe
appied  reai, ha ever exisi
 reai ms have a
sffiie
 reas
fr exisi
 a
d fr bei
 wha i is.(439)
U
ike he _Pri
ipe f Casai_ whih is a
aximai r
sef-evide
 rh, his pri
ipe is raher a
eessar psae
f a k
wede, a
assmpi
ha _reai is i
eiibe_. I
des
 mea
ha a reai, r eve
a
 si
e fi
ie reai,
is adeqae i
eiibe  r fi
ie mi
ds. I
he wrds f
Bsse, we d
 k
w everhi
 ab a
hi
:
s
e sav
s
e  de rie
.
I
reard  
i
e
 _esse
es_, if hese be mpsie we a

fi
d a sffiie
 reas
wh he are sh i
heir 
siive
pri
ipes; b i
reard  simpe esse
es, r  he simpe

siive pri
ipes f mpsie esse
es, we a
fi
d

sffiie
 reas
wh he are sh i
a
hi
 eve
ia
disi
 frm hemseves: he are wha he are bease he are
wha he are, a
d  dema
d wh he are wha he are, is, as
Arise remarked,  ask a
ide qesi
. A he same ime,
whe
we have 
vi
ed rseves ha heir aa exise
e
i
vves he exise
e f a Spreme, Sef-Exise
, I
eie

Bei
, we a
see ha he esse
e f his Bei
 is he imae
r
d f he i
ri
si pssibii f a fi
ie esse
es (20).
I
reard  
i
e
 _exise
es_ he Pri
ipe f Sffiie


Reas
is i
ide
 wih he Pri
ipe f Casai, i
asmh as
he sffiie
 reas
f he aa exise
e f a
 
i
e

hi
 
siss i
he exri
si rea pri
ipes whih are is
ases. The exise
e f 
i
e
 hi
s i
vves he exise
e
f a Neessar Bei
. We ma sa ha he sffiie
 reas
fr
he exise
e f he Neessar Bei
 is he Divi
e Esse
e Isef;
b his is mere de
i
 ha here is side his Bei
 a

sffiie
 reas
, _i.e._ a
 ase f he aers exise
e; i
is he re
ii
ha he Pri
ipe f Casai is i
appiabe
 he Neessar Bei
. The Pri
ipe f Sffiie
 Reas
, i

his appiai
f i, is ia pserir  he Pri
ipe f
Casai.(440)
95. CLASSIFICATION OF CAUSES: ARISTOTLES FOURFOLD DIISION.I
mder

imes ma
 sie
iss a
d phisphers have hh i pssibe  expai

he rder a
d rse f
are, he whe smi press a
d he e
ire

iverse f r experie
e, b a
appea  he perai
f _effiie

ases_. Espsi
 a meha
ia, as ppsed  a eeia, 
epi

f he 
iverse, he have de
ied r i
red a i
fe
e f _prpse_,
a
d eshewed a sd f _fi
a ases_. Frhermre, mis
eivi
 r

eei
 he aer f sbsa
e, a
d he dri
e f sbsa
ia
ha
e, he fi
d
 pae i
heir speai
s fr a
 
siderai
f
_frma_ a
d _maeria_ ases. Ye wih fi
a, frma a
d maeria
ases, s f a
ased b Arise(441) a
d he shasis,

saisfar expa
ai
f he wrd f r experie
e a
pssib be
f
d. Le s herefre mme
e b i
i
 he radii
a frfd
divisi
f ases.
We have see
aread ha ha
e i
vves mpsii
r mpsie
ess i

he hi
 ha is sbje  ha
e. He
e w _i
ri
si_ pri
ipes

ribe  he 
sii
f sh a hi
, he 
e a passive,
deermi
abe pri
ipe, is _maeria ase_, he her a
aive,
deermi
i
 pri
ipe, is _frma ase_. Sme ha
es i
maeria hi
s
are sperfiia,
 reahi
  he sbsa
e isef f he hi
; hese
are _aide
a_, i
vvi
 he 
i
f sme _aide
a_ frm wih he

ree pre-exisi
 sbsa
e as maeria (_maeria_ _se
da_).
Ohers are mre prf
d, ha
es f he sbsa
e isef; hese are
_sbsa
ia_, i
vvi
 he 
i
f a
ew _sbsa
ia_ frm wih he
prima maeria pri
ipa (_maeria_ _prima_) f he sbsa
e

deri
 he ha
e. B wheher he ha
e be sbsa
ia r aide
a
we a
awas disi
ish i
he resi
 mpsie hi
 w i
ri
si

siive pri
ipes, is _frma ase_ a
d is _maeria ase_. The
ae
ies i

are whih, b heir aivi, bri
 ab ha
e, are
_effiie
 ases_. Fi
a, si
e i is a

de
iabe fa ha here is
_rder_ i
he 
iverse, ha is presses ive evide
e f _reari_,
f perai
ardi
  _aw_, ha he sms reveas a _harm
is
-rdi
ai
f ma
ifd_ ae
ies a
d a _sbrdi
ai
f mea
s 
e
ds_, i fws ha here ms be wrki
 i
a
d hrh a
are a
direive pri
ipe, a pri
ipe f pa
r desi
, a pri
ipe ardi

 whih hse ma
ifd ae
ies wrk eher i
ffime
 f a prpse,
_fr he aai
me
 f e
ds_. He
e he reai f a frh ass f
ases, _fi
a ases_.
The separae i
fe
e f eah f hse fr ki
ds f ase a
be ear
israed b refere
e  he prdi
f a
 wrk f ar. Whe
, fr
i
sa
e, a spr hises a sae frm a bk f marbe, he aer
is he maeria ase (_maeria se
da_) f he sae, he frm whih he
i
des 
i b his abr is he frma ase (_frma aide
ais_),
he spr himsef as ae
 is he effiie
 ase, a
d he mive frm

whih he wrksm
e fame, eshei peasre, e.is he fi
a ase.
The frma a
d maeria ases are _i
ri
si_  he effe; he

sie he effe _i
fa esse_, he disi
i
f eah frm he
aer bei
 a
i
adeqae rea disi
i
. I is
 s sa
wadas
 a hese i
ri
si 
siive pri
ipes f hi
s _ases_ f he
aer; b he verif he e
era defi
ii
f ase. The her w
ases, he effiie
 a
d he fi
a, are _exri
si_  he effe, a
d
rea a
d adeqae disi
 frm i,(442) exri
si pri
ipes f is
prdi
, is _fieri_.
This assifiai
f ases is adeqae;(443) i a
swers a he
qesi
s ha a
be asked i
expa
ai
f he prdi
f a

effe: _a q?_ _ex q?_ _per qid?_ _prper qid?_ Nr is here a

sr f ase whih a

 be brh 
der sme 
e r her f hse
fr heads. Wha is aed a
exempar ase, _asa exemparis_, _i.e._
he idea r mde r pa
i
he mi
d f a
i
eie
 ae
, ardi

 whih he aims a
d srives  exee his wrk, ma be rearded as a

exri
si frma ase; r aai
, i
s far as i aids a
d eqips he
ae
 fr his ask, a
effiie
 ase; r, aai
, i
s far as i
represe
s a d  be reaized, a fi
a ase.(444)
The bjes f r k
wede are i
a re se
se ases f r k
wede:
a
 sh bje ma be rearded as a
effiie
 ase, bh phsia a
d
mra, f his k
wede, i
s far as b is ai

r mi
ds i
deermi
es he aivi f r 
iive faies; r, aai
, as a fi
a
ase, i
asmh as i is he e
d a
d aim f he k
wede.
The esse
e f he s is, as we have see
(69),
 exa a
effiie

ase f he faies whih are is prperies; b i is heir fi
a
ase, i
asmh as heir _rais
dre_ is  perfe i; a
d heir
sbjeive r maeria ase, i
asmh as i is he sea a
d sppr f
hese faies.
The frfd divisi
is a
aia,
 
iva: hh he maer, he
frm, he ae
, a
d he e
d r prpse, a 
ribe psiive  he
prdi
f he effe, i is ear ha he haraer f he asa
i
fe
e is wide differe
 i
eah ase.
Aai
, is members d
 dema
d disi
 sbjes: a fr asses f
ase ma be verified i
he same sbje. Fr i
sa
e, he hma
s is
a frma ase i
reard  he mpsie hma
i
divida, a maeria
ase i
reard  is habis, a
effiie
 ase i
reard  is as,
a
d a fi
a ase i
reard  is faies.
Frhermre, he frfd divisi
is
 a
immediae divisi
, fr i
fws he divisi
f ase i
e
era i
 _i
ri
si_ a
d _exri
si_
ases. Fi
a, i is a divisi
f he ases whih we fi
d  be
peraive _i
_ he 
iverse. B he phisphia sd f he 
iverse
wi ead s rada  he 
vii
ha isef a
d a he ases i

i are hemseves _

i
e
_, hemseves ased b a
d depe
de
 
, a
Case _side_ r exri
si  he 
iverse, a _Firs_, _U
ased_,
_U
reaed_, _Sef-Exise
_, _Neessar Case_ (_Casa Prima_,
_I
reaa_), a 
e he _effiie
_ a
d _fi
a_ ase f a hi
s. I


ras wih his _U
reaed_, _Firs Case_, a he her ases we
have
w  i
vesiae are aed _reaed_ r _se
d_ ases (_asae
se
dae_, _reaae_).
A ase ma be eiher _a_, _adeqae_, r _paria_, _i
adeqae_,
ardi
 as he effe is de  is i
fe
e se, r  is

i
fe
e i

j
i
wih, r depe
de
e 
, he i
fe
e f sme
her ase r ases _f he same rder_. A reaed ase, herefre, is
a a ase if he effe is de  is i
fe
e i
depe
de
 f her
reaed ases; hh f rse a reaed ases are depe
de
, bh as
 heir exise
e a
d as  heir asai, 
he i
fe
e f he
Firs Case. Wih he aivi f reaed effiie
 a
d fi
a ases
he Firs Case a
ampish dire whaever hese a

ampishexep heir ver asai isef, whih a

 be aaized
wih hem, b fr whih He a
spp _emi
e
er_. Simiar, whie i
is i
mpaibe wih His I
fi
ie Perfei
ha He dishare he
f
i
f maeria r frma ase f fi
ie mpsie hi
s, He a

immediae reae hese aer b he sima

es prdi
(_ex

ihi_) a
d 
i
f heir maeria a
d frma pri
ipes.
A ase is said  be _i
a se
d_ whe
i is aa exerisi
 is
asa i
fe
e. A
eede
  sh exerise, a eas _pririae

arae_, i is said  be _i
a prim_: whe
i has he expedie pwer
 dishare is f
i
as ase i is _i
a prim prxim_, whie if
is pwer is i
a
 wa i
mpee, hampered r 
read, i is _i
a
prim rem_.
Ma
 her divisi
s f ase, sbrdi
ae  he Ariseia
divisi
,
wi be expai
ed i


exi
wih he members f his aer.
96. MATERIAL AND FORMAL CAUSES.These are prper sbje-maer fr
_Csm_. We wi herefre ver brief sppeme
 wha has bee
said
aread 
er
i
 hem i


exi
wih he dri
e f _Cha
e_ (h.
ii.). B a maeria ase we mea
_ha  f whih a
hi
 is made_:
_id ex q aiqid fi_. Maer is rreaive wih frm: frm he 
i

f hese here ress a mpsie reai e

dwed wih eiher esse
ia
r aide
a 
iwih he frmer if he maeria pri
ipe be
abse i
deermi
ae a
d he rreaive frm sbsa
ia, wih he
aer if he maeria pri
ipe be sme aa exisi
 i
divida
reai a
d he frm sme sperve
i
 aide
. Prper speaki
 

rprea sbsa
es have maeria ases,(445) b he erm maeria
ase is sed i
a
exe
ded se
se  si
if a
 pe
ia, passive,
reepive sbje f frmaive r aai
 pri
ipes: hs he s is
he sbjeive r maeria ase f is faies a
d habis; esse
e f
exise
e; _e
s f differe
ia_, e.
I
wha des he psiive asa i
fe
e f a maeria ase 
sis?
Hw des i 
ribe psiive  he aaizai
f he mpsie
reai f whih i is he maeria ase? I _reeives_ a
d _
ies wih_
he frm whih is eded frm is pe
iai b he ai
f effiie

ases, a
d hs 
ribes  he e
erai
f he 
ree, mpsie
i
divida reai.(446)
I is b reas
f he asai f he _frma ase_ ha we speak f a
hi
 bei
 _frma_ sh r sh. As rreaive f maeria ase i
fi
ds is prper appiai
i
refere
e  he 
sii
f rprea
hi
s. The frmaive pri
ipe, aed _frma sbsa
iais_, whih
aaes, deermi
es, speifies he maeria pri
ipe, a
d b 
i
wih
he aer 
sies a
i
divida rprea sbsa
e f a defi
ie
ki
d, is he (sbsa
ia) frma ase f his mpsie sbsa
e.(447)
The maeria pri
ipe f rprea hi
s is f isef i
differe
  a

speies f bd; i is he frm ha remves his i
defi
ie
ess a
d
deermi
es he maer, b is 
i
wih he aer,  
sie a
defi
ie pe f rprea sbsa
e.(448) The exise
e f differe

speies f ivi
 ra
isms a
d differe
 pes f i
ra
i maer i
he

iverse impies i
he 
sii
f hese hi
s a mm
maeria

pri
ipe, _maeria prima_, a
d a mipii f differe
iai
,
speifi
, frmaive pri
ipes, _frmae sbsa
iaes_. Tha he
disi
i
bewee
hese w pri
ipes i
he 
sii
f a

i
divida rprea sbsa
e, wheher ivi
 r i
ra
i, is
 mere
a vira disi
i
bewee
meaphsia (e
eri a
d speifi) rades
f bei
 i
he i
divida, b a rea disi
i
bewee
separabe
e
iies, is a shasi hesis esabished i
he Speia Meaphsis f
he ra
i a
d i
ra
i dmai
s f he 
iverse.(449)
Si
e he _frm_ is a perfei
, aai
 pri
ipe, he erm is fe

sed s

ms wih _as_, _aai_. A
d si
e besides he
esse
ia perfei
whih a bei
 has b vire f is sbsa
ia frm
i ma have aide
a perfei
s b reas
f sperve
i
 aide
a
frms, hese, , are frma ases.
I
wha des he asa i
fe
e f he frma ase 
sis? I

mm
iai
 isef i
ri
sia  he maeria pri
ipe r passive
sbje frm whse pe
iai i is evked b he ai
f effiie

ases; i
aai
 ha pe
iai b i
ri
si 
i
herewih, a
d
hs deermi
i
 he i
divida sbje  be aa r frma a

i
divida f sh r sh a ki
d.
The maeria a
d frma ases are _i
ri
si_ pri
ipes f he

sii
f hi
s. We
ex pass  a
a
asis f he w _exri
si_
ases, a
d firs f he effiie
 ase a
d is asai.
97. EFFICIENT CAUSE; TRADITIONAL CONCEPT EXPLAINED.B effiie
 ase we

dersa
d ha _b whih_ a
hi
 akes pae, happe
s, rs: _id a
q aiqid fi_. The wrd f r exer
a a
d i
er
a experie
e is he
se
e f i
essa
 _ha
es_: me
a
d hi
s
 
 are, b are

sa
 _bemi
_. Nw ever sh ha
e is rii
aed b sme aive
pri
ipe, a
d his we a he effiie
 ase f he ha
e. Arise
aed i o ,  _ nc_  _mvn_
nc;  aan, , _pincipium motus
vl mutationis in alio_, th pincipl of motion o chang in som oth
thing. Th sult achivd by this chang, th actualizd potntiality,
is calld th _ffct_; th causality itslf of th fficint caus is
calld _action_ (), _mi
_, _ha
e_a
d, frm he pi
 f view
f he effe, _passi_ (). The perfei
r e
dwme
 whereb a

effiie
 ase as, _i.e._ is effiie
 (), s c lle _ ctve
power_ (_potent seu vrtus ctv _); t s lso c lle _force_ or
_potent l energy_ n reference to n nm te gents, _f culty_ n
reference to nm te gents, espec lly men n nm ls. Ts ctve power
of n effcent c use or gent s to be c refully stnguse from te
_p ssve potent lty_ cte upon n unergong c nge. Te former
connotes perfecton, te l tter n mperfecton: _unumquoque gt
nqu ntum est n ctu, p ttur vero nqu ntum, est n potent _. Te scope
of te ctve power of c use s te me sure of ts ctu lty, of ts
perfecton n te sc le of re lty; wle te extent of te p ssve
potent lty of _p tens_ s me sure of ts rel tve mperfecton. Te
ctu ton of te former s _ cto_, t t of te l tter _p sso_. Te pont
of ontologc l connexon of te two _potent e_ s te _c nge_ (_motus_,
), his bei
 a 
e he frma perfei
 f he passive
pe
iai i
he _paie
s_ r effe, a
d he immediae erm f he
effiie
 r aive pwer f he _ae
s_ r ase. _Ai_ a
d _passi_,
herefre, are
 expressi
s f 
e a
d he same 
ep; he express
w disi
 
eps f 
e a
d he same reai, _viz._ he ha
e:
_ai e passi s
 idem
mer ms_. This ha
e akes pae
_frma_ i
he sbje p
whih he effiie
 ase as, fr i is
a
aai
f he pe
iai f he frmer 
der he i
fe
e f he

aer: ; . C
sidered i

he pe
iai f his sbje : _uju
n cc_

cad _a

_. Cn
dd a
a m   acv w  
cau
 : _uju
 c_ 
cad _ac_.
T ac a _ac_ and _a

_ a ay and bjcvy n and 

am _mu
_ d
n ma aan
  bn add a
w

aa
um ca
,  y a bjc
 d
nc
cnc
,(450) and 


ucn  cn
u m d
nc
ca
(60).
Dub
a
mm
a
d, a
S. Tma
ma
,(451) abu 
a

n a  acn  an an 
n may n  a bu n
 _an
_: _ac  n a

_. I 
ca, wv,  cnnu
,
a  acn 
may n  _an
_   
 acuan n
 any nay   an, bu   a

v nay  
_an
_:  
n  a a  _mu
_  can, wc 
b
_ac_ and _a

_, a 
ac, dndny  cu
 n  nunc
  an,  cn cau
   can. T acv w  an
cn cau
 
an ndx   a
acuay;  xc
 

w (_.._ _acn_) d
n may c  an,  

n an acuan  any a

v nay   a;  may
c
 _an
_. Ony _mmann_ acn c
 an, and
n n a
an bu a
_an
_  cv   acuay cd
by  acn (_c._ 103 _na_).
W may, n, dn cn cau
 a
_ xn
c nc  
can  ducn  anyn by man
 acn_: _ncum
xn
cum a u u mu
v duc  mdan acn_.
I 
a 
 nc a
cmad w maa and ma cau



nunc 
bvu
y  n nau  
; a
 a
cmad
w   xn
c cau
,  na cau
, _n dn xcun
_,
n, wv, _n dn nnn
_. T nd, n a
azd bu a

azab, n n xcun bu n nnn, d
ca

uncn and
x

nunc a
na _cau
_ and n 
d  na cau
,
a
w aa a, 
_ 
  a cau

_: _n

 umu
n
xcun
d mu
n nnn_.
Can  ducn, n  dnn, 
 b und
d n n 

c
n
 n wc  
u

an x
n
ubjc  maa, bu
n  wd
n
 n wc  ncud
any ducn  nw ay, vn
can  ducn _x n_.
Acn, , 
 b und
d n  wd
n
 n wc  ncud

 acn   F
 Cau
, wc acn 
ay dnca w 


nc   a. W cncv can a  anay  
cn acn  cad 
cnd cau

: w av n __
cnc   nn cn   Dvn acvy. In a cad
cn cau

n ny 
 acn 
, bu a
  cncy,
c, w, acuy, wc 

_xma_ nc, ay d
nc
m  nau  

nc   an;  m 
a
ub
anc, 
a an accdn.
Fnay,  acn  a cad cn cau
 
 an
v
(_an
n
_)  mmann (_mmann
_) accdn a
 can wu by
 acn a 
ac n
mn 
 (a
wn _
un_ a


_ a_)  n  cau
 
 (a
wn a man a
n

w
). In  m ca
  acn c
n  an bu  
n,  _an
_; n  a ca
  c
 an 
,

_an
_ and _an
_ bn  
am dnca cnc

ndvdua.(452)
98. SOME SCHOLIA ON CAUSATION. THE PRINCIPLE OF CAUSALITY.B
numan  nca nd
 cn cau
, and anay
n 
nau  cn cau
ay, w may
 dwn  can
-vdn
axm
and a
m
cncnn cau
an n na. (_a_) T m

man  
 
 _Pnc  Cau
ay_, wc a
bn
nuncad n a vay  way
: _Wav an
a
a cau
_; _Wav
bn
 b a
a cau
_; _Wav 
cnnn a
a cau
_; _Nn
ccu
wu a cau
_. N vyn a bn
 b a
nc

ay
a _maa_ cau
,  a _ma_ cau
, ay d
nc m 
. F
n
anc,
m
ua bn
,    uman
u, av n maa
cau
, n any ma cau
  cn
uv nc d
nc m 


nc. Smay,  w unv
, avn bn cad _x n_,
ad n -x
n maa cau
. A  maa bn
, wv,
wc a ducd, nad, bu n acua x
nc n  cu

  nc

an can
wc caacz  y
ca unv
, av
b maa and ma cau

. Bu  Pnc  Cau
ay 

many  xn
c cau

. I 
cmmny und
d ny  cn
cau

; and ny n ad  
 

-vdn. W
a
 a
a
a ma  ac nn an
wu a _na_ cau
: a
nn u
 vad
ay u and u. T
, wv,

a cncu
n, n a nc. Wa 
ay a
-vdn,
axmac, nc

ay nc 
a _wav an
a
an_ EFFICIENT
_cau
_. Ony  Nc

ay, S-Ex
n, Ena Bn, a


ucn a
n  H
acua x
nc n Hm
, n H
wn 

nc.
Ta any bn wc 
cnnn cud x
 _ndndny 
m
 acua bn_ a
 cau
  
x
nc; a  cud av
cm n x
nc  bun  x
 _m ab
u nnn

,  b
ducd  bu n acua x
nc wu any acua bn 
duc _;  a, nc x
n and
ubjc  can,  cud
und can and av 
na
acuazd _wu any acua
bn  cau

uc can_ (10)a 


vy unn ab and
ab
uy unan  u nnc; a 
u a
n my
dca
 b nn
cay m

b. N 
 u
n  a m

ycca ncncvaby,
uc a
m b du  a n-cnnud
cu
m  a

can  da  a bnnn w  da  a cau

 
bnnna
nmn

nay cnnd.(453) T 

u
n  an m

by wc u a
n cacay dca
 b
a a, nca m

by. T Pnc  Cau
ay 

a nc

ay, _a _,
-vdn nc.
(_b_) _Evy

ucny
acv w
b aay

c mu
 av an ad ua cn cau
_, _.._ a cau

c,
ucny  n 
ca  bn,  av 
 duc  c n u
n; w
  c wud
uncau
d, wc 
m

b.

(_c_) _An c cann a

uc b acuay m c an 
ad ua
(cad) cau
_. T a
n 
a  c a

uc 
ay
dndn  
acuay n 
ad ua cad cau
. I dv


acuay m  a. Nw  
ncncvab a an an cud b
 acv, ducv nc  a a cn, a  ad
 acuay, an 
 




. Wav b  nau  cn
cau
ay, _ac_ and _a

_ (102),    dndnc  
ducd acuay un  acv w  
ad ua cn cau

(10),  ay  
dndnc bd
u
 n a n 
naua d  cn cau
an a  ad  ay can b
acuazd an  an 
caab  acuazn,  a  an can
nauay acuaz a   m c ad  ay an 

acuay 
wn. W mu
, wv, ba n mnd a  
u
n 

 _ad ua_ cad cau
  an c; and a  accun _uy_ 
 acuazan  any na ay wa
v w a cd 
cnz n a cau
an  cad cn cau

 _cncu
u
_ 
 _F
 Cau
_.
(_d_) T acuay   c 
n 
ad ua cad cau
 
cau

, _n acuay and may, bu nay_  _vuay_. I
 cau
 duc an c  
am nd a

 (_cau
a
____unvca___), a
wn vn an
m
aa 
c
, 
cn   c 

ad  b n  cau
 _ uvany_
(_a uvan_);   duc an c  a dn nd m 

(_cau
a ____anaa___), a
wn a
cu ma 
a
au,  cn
  c 

ad  b n  cau
 _mnny_ (_mnn_).
(__) _Omn an
a n uanum 
 n acu._ T av w  a
bn 
n n  
wn acua cn:   an an

n 
ca  ay,  n  wd
 m c 
ad
 bn,   and m c w b  c
acvd by 
xc
  
av w
. In ac u c 
   cn
 any nau 
anay

 
an
. Hnc  maxm
 n
d  aady:
(__) _Oa
 uu 

; ua

 a a

 naua; mdu

and
 uu mdum 

nd._ Oan 
 y  nau; w nw
wa any n 
by wa  d
.
(__) _N a ua
uam
cm_; , aan, _Omn an
a
m

b_. T
 a nducv nazan
ad m xnc, and
av nc   naua an  an
, 
cay n 
anc wd. Lvn an
m
duc ny  wn nd. Mv,
vy ancy n  unv
 a
av w
 a dn nd;
acn accdn  
nau  duc
can c
and 
 ny;

 cann duc: 

, n  naua d  n
, and
w  naua _cncu
u
_   F
 Cau
. Bu cad cau

av a
a

v _bdna caacy_ (_na bdna
_) wby 
nau can b
 vad by  F
 Cau
 a y can duc, w
H

ca,
unaua _cncu
u
_, c
 an ny  d
an 
 wn  amb   naua w
.(454)
(__) Fm a nwn c,  wa
v nd, w can au w
cany, _a 
_,   _x
nc_  an ad ua cn
cau
, and  _
m nwd_   _nau_ 
uc a cau
.(455) By
vu   nc  cau
ay w can n  x
nc  an
ad ua cau
 cnann   uvany  mnny a 
cn
  c n u
n.
99. CLASSIFICATION OF EFFICIENT CAUSES.(_a_) W av aady d 
 d
ncn bwn  _F
_ Cau
 and _Scnd_  _Cad_
Cau

. T m 
ab
uy ndndn  a  bn
b a

 H
w and a
  xc
  
w. T a a
dndn,  b, un  m.
T d
ncn bwn a 
,  may,  ndndn cau
, and

cnd, 
ubdna,  dndn cau

can b und
d n ny 
cau

unv
ay, bu a
 a
bann amn cad cau

m
v
.
In na  _
ubdnan_  a cau
  a
u  an cau

may b  _

na_  _accdna_: 

na, wn 
cnd
cau
 dnd
  
x
nc   an nd
n
ab cmmn
 
cncyn  _
n_ acua nunc    cau
;

accdna wn 
cnd cau
 a
ndd cvd 
x
nc 

cncy m 
 cau
, bu 
nw n n dndn,  

x
nc  acn, n  a. Tu
, vn an
m
a, a
cau

,
accdnay
ubdna   an an
m
: y dvd 
x
nc m  a, bu a ndndn  
 wn n 
mauy y cnnu  x
, and v, and ac  m
v
and 
m
v
. Bu a cau
, n   and, a, a
cau

,
_

nay_
ubdna   Ca, na
muc a
y can x
 and
ac ny n cn
an dndnc n  v 
n and v acua
cn
vn and cncun nunc   Ca.
I 
bvu
a a  mmb
 any

 cau

_

nay_

ubdna  n    _mu
 x

muanu
y_. W
uc
a

cud b nn dnd
, , n  u
n w an
_acuay nn muud_ 
nn
cay 

b. T
dcuy
cann b ud w
uc c aan
 an nn 

n cau


_accdnay_
ubdna  n an;  
uc a 

wud
n nvv an acuay nn muud  n
x
n

muanu
y. In  ca
  

nay
ubdna cau

, mv,


, wav abu 
nny, mu
 cnan,  a my
_abv_ , _n_ cau
 wc 
_
_ n 
n
  bn
_ndndn_,  xm m 
ubdnan caac
c  a 

. And  a
n 
bvu
: Snc n n  m can x
  ac
xc dndny n an, and 
n an, and
 n,  

man
 a 

cann x
 a a un

 

m n
cau
 wc, un  a  
, x

and ac
wu
uc

ubdnan  dndnc. Hnc, _n 

nay
ubdna cau

an
nn 


m

b_.(456) In Naua Ty 

cn
dan
a 
um manc.
(_b_) An cn cau
 may b d
cbd a
_mmann_  _an
v_
accdn a
 m  
acn man
wn  cau
 
,  

ducd n
mn 
. T acn   F
 Cau
 
may
mmann, bn dnca w  Dvn Nau 
;  
vuay
an
v wn  
cav,  av amn cau
.
(_c_) An cn cau
 
 a _nca_  an _n
umna_
cau
. Wn w cau


 cmbn  duc an c a n  m
u

   m 
cad  nca and  a 
n
umna cau
. Tu
I am  nca cau
   wd
I am
wn; my n 
 n
umna cau
  m. Suc an c 

away
abud   nca cau
, n   n
umna. T
nn  an n
umn 
u a ama nn. An n
umn 

 nca an  d wa  a cud n w
 d,  a
a
 n
 a
y. An n
umn  
ay a cau
. I
cnbu

vy   ducn   c. Hw d
 d
?
By a
n  
nau 
ucu  nunc
, md
, and dc

n a acua way,  cncy   nca cau
. Bu 

y   n
umna cau
 cm
n ay ny wn  a 

bn acuay u
d by a nca cau
. A n, a
aw, a amm, a
ad,
av ac 
wn n
umnay. T n w n cu, n 
aw mud
n, n  amm d, n 
ad w,   an a u


m. Eac w duc 
wn nd  c wn u
d; bu nn  m
w duc any c xc wn u
d: u ac a
n 

manny and nny  w  duc 
wn  c n
u
.(457) W av n
ancd  u
  _aca_ n
umn
. Bu
nau 
 vd

m anc
w wa may b cad _naua_
n
umn
. T _
mn_ wby vn an
m
aa  nd 

an n
anc. In a 


n
  vau
mmb
  bdy a
cad n
umn
  uman 
n a
nca cau
, n
umna

_cnjunca_.
T nn  an n
umna cau
 nvv
n (_a_)
ubdnan 
 a, n 
n
umna acvy,  a nca cau
, (_b_)
ncaacy  duc  c w
 an by mdyn and dcn
 nunc   nca cau
. T
y wby 
n
umna cau
 md
 dmn
n a acua way 
nunc   nca cau
, 
cad by S. Tma
an _ac_ 
_a_   m;  d
ncn bwn  nca and 
n
umna cau
 bn a wa
 m ac
by vu  a w
manny nn n  a
a naua cn,  a ac
a
an
n
umn ny by vu   an
n mn wc  dv
m
 nca cau
 wc uz
.(458)
W may, , dn an _n
umna_ cau
 a
_n wc, wn
acn a
an n
umn, duc
 c n by vu  
nn
w an, bu by vu  a w cmmuncad   by
m nca
cau
 wc ac
u _. A _nca_ cau
, n   and, 

_n wc duc

c by vu  an acv w manny
nn n 
_.
T d
nan
_nca_ and _n
umna_ a bvu
y cav.
Mv, _a cad_ cau

may b cad _n
umna_ n an 
 _F
 Cau
_. F, n ny a y dndn n  a  
_cn
van_   nau and acv w
; y a a
 dndn,
n  acn, n  acua xc
  
 w
, n  F

Cau
 (  _cncu
u
_   a).(459) Y
m cad cau


av 
 w
manny, and can xc
 m wu
ubdnan
  cau
; w 
nd,   xc
   
uncn
, n ny  Dvn _cncu
u
_, bu a
  mn  
cau
. Hnc  m a y cad _nca_ cad cau

,
and  a _n
umna_ cad cau

.
(_d_) Ecn cau

a dvdd n __ cau

and _nc

ay_
cau

. A  
-dmnn cau
 
_n wc 
n dmnd
by 
nau  n n  acn_, bu _a
 w  c
n, 
dmnn 
_,  ac  ab
an, wn a  cndn
 u

 acn a 
n. Man 
a  an,   cau
,  

dba acn
. A nc

ay cau
,  naua cau
 a
 

mm

cad, 
_n wc 
dmnd by 
nau  n nvaab n
 acn_,
 a, and  cndn
 u
  acn, 
cann nauay ab
an m acn n a nvaab mann. A 
y
ca anc
  nanc wd, a an and anma an
m

bna man m
, a nc

ay cau

.
T dm   uman w 

ab
d aan
 dmn
m n
P
ycy.(460) T dcu
 dmn

aan
 
dcn
a   m
 a ba
d n m
cncn
,  n nu
and
auu
a

umn
. W may mnn w  m .(461) F
acvy, y
ay, wud b _cau


_ acvy:  wud va 
aw  unv
a cau
an. W y a  acvy 
by n man

cau


acvy. T  an m
 
n  u
 and u


n
  cn cau
  
 ac
. I 
by 
cau
a, cn
nunc a  ac   cc 
dmnd and cd. F
cau
ay vdny d
n va  nc

ay, _a _ nc

  abv und     Pnc  Cau
ay. Buy
u n 
cnd ac va
 aw  unv
a cau
an,
_.._  aw a vy vn n nau mu
 b  
u 
m

 nmna ancdn
wc _nc

a_ , and wc, ,
wnv vd, _mu
_ duc 

u and n ; and by

van 
aw  mv
a
u
d  acv
m 

dman  a uay and unmy wu wc n
cnc
nwd 
uc nmna wud b 

b. T 
w y, 
y,
a  aw  unm cau
an n nau,  aw wc 
nwn a

Law   Unmy  Nau, and wc, und     Law
 Unv
a Cau
an 
cnundd by dmn

and nmn


w  ny d
nc Pnc  Cau
ay
n by any man
a
aw  _nc

ay_ cau
an.(462) T
amn a Nau 
unm n

acv

n  x

n  an _a _, nc

ay u,
   Pnc  Cau
ay. I 
a nazan m xnc.
And xnc 

  x
nc  ad
n 
a-van
unmy. In  dman  y
ca nau  
 x

n  
F W   Au  Nau, w may macuu
y da m 

y
ca unmy  , ma nd
. In  dman  dba
uman acv
 
 x

n  a 

u
bu n 


a unmy wc 
dndn n   w  man. And ju
 a

 

by  mac
n  m dman d
n d
y 
uay n wc  nazan
  y
ca
cnc
a
ba
d,
 n d
 ac  uman  w nd w


unab  nazan
  uman
cnc
(ca,
ca,
ca, cnmc, c.) abu uman cnduc. W  aaanc 
mac
n  y
ca dman,   dnay ay   w n 
uman dman, ny _cacu
_, _mv

_, _u


_, 

u
wud,  cu
, b cac, cau
, unaccunab,
unnb, and
cnc nwd  m wud b m

b: 
 a

umn a ay 
 w  nn u
, and 

 a ua, dy x

n  aw, n  wd
, 
a

umn a  unv
 
nb, 
a  u
 cndn

cnc nwd abu  unv
. Bu dmn


m 
a

um a Dvn Pvdnc and uman  w mu
 nc

ay my
a  w unv
  y
ca nmna and uman acv
wud
b an unnb ca
; and avn cd 

ca

cacw n a auu
a

umn y n  w aduay xc

a b n Dvn Pvdnc and uman dm m 
cnc
mnd!
(__) Ecn cau

a  _y
ca_  _ma_. A y
ca
cn cau
 
_n wc duc

c by 
wn  w
and acn_w mmday  by man
 an n
umn. F
n
anc,  bad ay 
 y
ca cau
   mn 
ma
  ba
by man
  cu. A ma cau
 
n wc
duc

c by  
nan 
mn a
d  v 
 mnd  a  an; by nducn  a u xam, advc,

ua
n, m

, a
, cmmand
, na
, c.,  duc 
c n u
n. F n
anc, a ma
 
 ma cau
  wa 


van d
n bdnc  
cmmand
. T mv

  by way 
nducmn   a a  cu
 _na_ cau

  a

acn. Bu  m, by
n m , 
 ma cau
  
acn:  
undubdy m an a m cndn;  cnbu


vy and cny   c. H
y
ca cau
an, wv,
d
n ac   c 
, bu ny   c wu n 
mnd  
van by 
cmmand. I 
cau
ay cnncd w 
y
ca acn  
van by man
 an nmda n wc w
may ca _mna_  _
ycca cau
an__ac_ _nnna
_,
acn  cnn n  mnd  a cnv an.
T an myd by a ma cau
  duc an c y
cay may b
cad an n
umna cau
 n a wd and 


n
  
m,
 n
umnay bn ma, n y
ca. Ony  an
can b
ma cau

; and a
a u y a md ma cau

ny wn y

duc  c u  y
ca an  an  an.

Wa  y my n  an
, n y nanma n
umn
, bu
an
ndwd w
n
 cnn and
n
 a,  duc
c
? I a man
 
d a an, 
  _ma_  
_y
ca_ cau
   nju
ncd by  d? Ta  

nca _cn_ cau
 
un u
nab. Bu 
  nca
_y
ca_ cau
 and  d  _n
umn_? W n  
m 
 ca  nca cn cau
 a _ma_ cau
 n a ca

w
 nvn
bwn 
y
ca acn and  c an
nmda n  
ycca  nnna acn, vn u, a

n  
n xam, 

ycca n 
 
nn, n 
ncua, d.
(__) T cn cau
,    cau

, may b  _aa_ 
_a_, accdn a
 duc
 c by c-an w 
cau

,  by 
 an. T am   nducv
cnc


d
cv  ac nd  naua vn  nmnn  a cau
 n
 cmn
v
n
   w u  _
v_ anc

cau

, and _nav_ ancdn and cncman _cndn
_
wc a _nd
n
ab_ and _nc

an_ nc
  ann

uc nd  vn.(463)
(__) W can d
nu
 bwn  _mmda  dmnn_,  m
 

_xma_, and  m  

_m_, cn cau

 an
vn. Tu
,  acan   u
   ca  dynam n a
c 
 mmda  dmnn cau
   x
n wc bu


 c ;  n   u
,  acn   ca, c., 
m xma cau

;  ma n   u
, dynam, n
umn
,
c.,  m m cau

. Aan  am   nducv
cnc


 d
cv  a _xma_ cau
  vn
,(464) avn 
nv
an  uma cau

, a
w a
 anay

 cau
ay

,  
y.
(__) Fnay, w mu
 d
nu
 bwn  _ndvdua_ an 

a
cau
 ( _
u
um_  
n a ac
);  an
_nau_ and
_acv w_ a
cau

; and  _acn_,  xc
  
w a

cau
. T m,  ndvdua, cnc an, 
 ncum
_ ud_ a, and 
cad  cau
a _u ua_. T nau and 
acv w   an a ac a ncum _ u_ an
a, 
m and  xma nc  acn 
cvy; and ac 

cad a cau
a _u ua_. T acn   an 
 cau
  
c n 
n
 a  acua ducn  __  anyn 

 mmda cau
  
n _n ac 

_. C
ndn  

d
ncn
w d
nu
 bwn  cau
 _n acu m m_, _n
acu m xm_, and _n acu
cund_. T
 d
ncn
a  n
 manc. By nn m, and by 
n
   nn
c
(ma and maa) cau

 naua nmna, many mdn
cn


and 

av cnundd cau
 and c w  c



 cau
an, and dcad a cau
 and c a n d
nc
a
, bu ny w mna a
c
 n and 
am ay.(465)
T
am may b
ad  a  d
ncn

 a numad.
Ty a ab
uy 

na   man  ca da
n
 u
n  cau
ay. N m n ama u
 
 m
und 
ca
ncanc, and a 
am m m
a
c and ambuu
n 
ua mann
, an  m
_cau
_. T

ny  n  Lc   Inducv
Scnc
, w n ny  d
cvy, bu  xac ma
umn,
 y
ca cau

, 
 a  
ac.

Wn w ca n n, w
M. J
,(466)  cau
 

an,  a an bwn m 
n away

am....
W
ay a mcua acn 
 cau
  a, a  a
 
un 
 cau
  w, a
avan 

mm

 cau
  da, a jau
y 
a  un cau
  cm. W

ud n  
 ca
 manan a cau
 and c a
ccay nc

ay; n a wu mcua mn and n
mcua mn wu a. In 
cnd  c cann
x
 wu  cau
, bu  cau
 may x
 wu 
c,  
un
n
n  mn bu nn w
. In
 d  cau
 cann x
 wu  c, 

avan mu
 duc da, bu  c may x
 wu
 cau
,
nc da nd n av bn ducd by
avan.
In  u ca
 w can av  cau
 wu  c, and
a
  c wu  cau
;  jau
y may x
 wu
ducn cm, and cm may ccu wu  mv 
jau
y. I 
an n a w d n away
man 
am
n by u wd
wn w
ay a w n
a ad a

cau
 and c; and anyn w wud ca

y and nam 
vau
md
n wc w n
may b cau
ay ad wud d
a a
vc  ca n n.
In  ua accan   m _cau
_, 
am nd 
vn can av a _uay  (cn) cau

_. Da, 
xam, may b bu abu n dn ca

by dn
d
a

 accdn
. Bu  w und
and by  a cn
cau
  any vn nd  c 
um-a  anc
and
cndn
wc wn 
n _nc

a_ 
nd  an
c, and wc a ccvy and
vay _nd
n
ab_
 
ducn, n  
bvu
a a vn _ nd_ 
c can av _ny n nd_ 
uc a u  ancdn

a
a cau
, ju
 a
any n ndvdua c can av ny
n ndvdua a cau
, _vz._  n wc acuay ducd
; a _
ma_ a cau
 wud duc a _
ma_ c, bu
cud n duc  numcay dnca ndvdua c 
 
ma cau
.(467)
T mdva
ca
c
d
cu

d  u
n n cnnxn w
 bm  ndvduan: Wud Axand  Ga av bn

am ndvdua ad  bn bn   an
an P
and Oyma? T u
n 
ady nb. T 
n bn
 
  an
m ndd av bn a

ma a
yu
w   acua Axand  
y, bu wud n and cud
n av bn  acua Axand  
y. Nwaday

u
n d
cu

d n 
cnnxn 
n
 muc w 

am nd  naua nmnn can b ducd by dn nd

 a cau
  an
w  
u
n dnd
wy n
 wd   naw mann aacd   m a
cau
,(468)bu a w  w a  nducv

cn

da 
acn away
  _nc

an and
nd
n
ab_ cau
 (, a
 
a
 cad, 
ccan  cmmn
ua cau
) 
a acca da.

CHAPTER XIV. EFFICIENT CAUSALITY; PHENOMENISM AND OCCASIONALISM.

100. OBJECTIVE VALIDITY OF THE TRADITIONAL CONCEPT OF EFFICIENT

CAUSALITY.W av
n w mdn
n


, nmn

, and 
v


av dubd  dnd  w   uman mnd  aan  a
nwd  any bjcv ay c
ndn   cay 

ub
anc ( 61 _
._). Ty a n a
ma way  adna
cnc  cn cau
ay. And n dvn  n  vd
aac
n  a vady  
nn y av mad a m
adn
u
    and ma uncn   nducv
cnc
. T
c am   naua
cn
 

 u and bn   
_w u  nc

an and nd
n
ab_ (nmna)
_ancdn
_  any vn nd  vn, and  mua  naua aw
  cnnxn w 
nd  vn. T 
n acua
bjcn  
can 
 ancdn
 _nvaab_,  vn 
_nc

ay_  _nc

an_, ancdn
  vn; vdd  d

n cam wa  cann vand wa, a
w
a
 a (104), 

n u, _vz._a  nvaaby  nc

y  
cnnxn
bwn nmna ancdn
and cn
 un

wy nvab,
aa, ab
u n caac. H may y cam  any
uc

ab
d cnnxn  yca, cndna nc

y wc
caacz
a nducvy 
ab
d aw
 y
ca nau. T
a
uc ancdn
and cn
 un
n  unv
;  a cnnxn

bwn m wc a m an m _ca
ua_ cnnxn
 _m

 unc_, wc a cnnxn
 y
ca aw, na
muc a
y a
cnnxn
ba
d n  _nau
_  anc
n an _dy_ unv
,
cnnxn
 
 anc
w  naua c
. A 


undnab. Mv,
 n a
_
cn
_ cnn
m
 
nnc
cncnn
uc cnnxn
bwn nmna,  nnc
and
nazan
ba
d n  a

umd unmy  nau,  
w n
n 

. Nay, vn   c

 d
na 
 u

nvaab nmna ancdn
by    y
ca cau

w
nw wa  man
; u w cv
m dan  cnu
n, na
muc
a
w
 m aan   nn  uay  unmy 
cnnxn _.._   nn  _y
ca aw_, a m, _cau
ay_,
wc adnay x

d
mn u d
nc m 
, _vz._
 nn  _
v nunc_  n n n  bn  ann
 an. Bu wn _nmn
 

_ ad 
u
a w cann
 a

ud aan
  dan  cnu
n by
uc 
an
a


  M n  wn a

a:(469)
I m
, n, a wn n  cu
  
n uy I
a
  cau
  any nmnn, I d n man a cau
 wc 
n

 a nmnn; I ma  n 
ac n  uma 
nca cau
  anyn. T ad a d
ncn ama n
 wn
  Scc may
can
, and 
cay  Rd,
 cau

w wc I cncn my
 a n _cn_, bu
_y
ca_ cau

. Ty a cau

n a
n
 an, n wc
n y
ca ac 

ad  b  cau
  an. O 
cn cau

 nmna,  w any
uc cau

x
 a
a I am n cad un  v an nn. T nn 
cau
an 
dmd, by 
c
 may
c
m
 n vu
a  
n mmn,  my a my
u
and m
 wu
,
uc a
cann,  a a
 d
n, x
 bwn any
y
ca ac and a  y
ca ac n wc  

nvaaby cn
 un, and wc 
uay md 
cau
;
and nc 
dducd 
u
d nc

y  a
cndn ,
n  

nc
and nn cn
un  n
,  nd 
u cau
,  cau
 wc 
n ny wd by, bu acuay
duc
,  c. N
uc nc

y x

  u



 
n n uy, n w any
uc dcn b und n 

wn a
. T ny nn  a cau
, wc  y 
nducn  u
, 

uc a nn a
can b and by
xnc. T Law  Cau
an, wc 
 man a 
nducv
cnc, 
bu  ama u, a nvaaby

ucc

n 
und by b
van  ban bwn vy ac
n nau and
m  ac wc a
cdd ; ndndny
 a cn
dan

cn  uma md  ducn
 nmna, and  vy  u
n adn  nau 
Tn
n m
v
.
T
a

awc x


ay w  nmn
 and 
v

aud n ad   ay,  a a
  cn
cby, 
_cn_ cau

ay b

w naccuac
, m
cncn
, and
a
 n
nuan
.(470) Bu w a cncnd  ny w  dna
a any nn  an _cn_ cau
 can b and m xnc,
and  dub cn
 uny ca
 n  bjcv vady  
nn.
T Sn

m wc ad
u 
 ncua acv
a
m
anc a

can

nn
a
 cn
cu
n

, a
 

ca 

u  P
v
m wc cnnd
a a vad nwd 

cnnd   x
nc and m and
ac an

n
 nmna.
In u
dnyn   mnd a w  aann  a vad nwd 
anyn
ua
n
b
uc a

ub
anc, w, c, cn cau
,
c.P
v
m a


v n An
c
m.
In uan  

y, n
 a a
 dn
a w av any
und
n xnc  bvn n  a x
nc  cn
cau

, w may
 dwn n  
 ac 
unv
a b 
 
 uman ac a  a n  unv
 cn cau

 
vn
a an n . Mn unv
ay bv a y m
v
a

an
cnbu by a a and 
v nunc   acua
ccunc   wn u
, a
nn
, w

, d

,
n
an
;
a  mna 
v

a , wa , w, a,  m any
 xna, bdy w
d ay, 
vy, and cny
duc  cau
 
 w
; a xna nmna av a a
nunc n ann
n  wn bd
, a  bun
m and d
nu

m; a xna nmna a
 av a a and 
v
nunc n 
n
 an
, and u 
 n  mnd
by 
ducn   cn
cu

a

uc a

n
an
; nay a
xna nmna av a a and 
v nunc n n an; a
by acn and nacn y ay duc  can
a a
cn
any a n ac n  unv
: a 
un d
ay a and
  a, a 
wn  
d n
nm a
ay a

v nunc n  x
nc  c
n  av
, a 
a n  
n a
undubdy a a nunc n  da wc

u
m . And  any man  dnay nnc and an cmmn

n
 
d a
uc b 
an u
n, a n a
uc ca


cnnxn bwn  n
, ac
 vn
wc  d
na
a

cau
 and c, 
a m cnnxn  nvaab m
 unc
bwn ancdn
and cn
 un
, a n n ca
 
 vdnc 
any _
v, ducv nunc_   n ac un  , 
w 
m ncduu
y and dcn  a  
bjc

u
y,   w
my a
 a  _v_  unv
a
b  b an u
n. H
cnvcn   a and bjcv
vady  
nn  cn cau
, a

mn wc 
vy
nunc
 ann  n
, 

 und and nadcab a
 mu
 nc

ay b undd n, and cnmd by, 
cn
an
xnc   a wd n wc  v
and mv
. N a 



 b ab  xan  _nau_  
cn nunc

n wc  bv
.

a
y m
 
dnay nnc
_x
nc_  a ac
and  bv n 
nunc  cau
 n
xand.

Evn   w a 
  m n b ab


n 
n Bu bn a an man 
 a

n
 nu  d
nu
 bwn 
and 
_nau_, 
xanan, 
_ umd_;
a x
nc  a _
v cn, ducv_
c, wv 
nunc 
 b cncvd 

A
cnd aumn   bjcv vady   cnc  cn

cau
 may b dawn m a cn
dan   _Pnc  Cau
ay_.
T xnc n wc  an man und

b n  vady
 
nn  cau
 
n m unnd
n
 xnc n 

aw and bu cndn,
 
a ;  


n
 xnc
anazd, a

mad n 
nnc
nanu
y and a
uncn
cu
y, a
by    
-vdn Pnc 
Cau
ay, a wav an
a
a cau
. Wn  an man bv

a a  vau
anc
n nau,   
 numad abv, a
n my _ma_ ancdn
 cncman
  c
, bu
a _ay ducv_  
 c
,  
ay ayn 
unv
a and nc

ay ua an vn, a ann, a can,
a cmmncmn  any nw acua md  bn dmand
 x
nc 
an acua bn a
cau
 u mbdd n  Pnc 
Cau
ay,  
, a, and   vn  
xnc:  

_can_  cau

 
 vn
n  vau

n
and n

wc  ad
a
 an
 duc
 
 vn
. In ma n

uc acan
 may vy 

by  n da. Bu n acua
acan   nc a a 
ay  ud  
ab
n
 bjcv vady   cnc  cau
. T a 


wnu
y, a
w
a
dny a  Pnc  Cau
ay
nd

acan n  dman  _cad_ n
, w d, n
 wd
, a n cad bn
can b cn cau

(102), and w
nv

cnz, and u y, a  cnc  cn
cau
 
an bjcvy vad cnc. And y d
 bcau
 y

a
nc vn
, bnnn
, ann
, can
, a a,  mu

b ay and bjcvy x
n an cn cau
  mwav and
wv
uc cn cau
 may b: w  b n  mand,
n  nn, c.
W av aady xamnd Hum
am  dny  nca
nc

y   Pnc  Cau
ay and 
ub
u 
a
ubjcvy  
yccay nc

ay n 
xcan undd n abua a

can  da
. Kan, n
  and, adm

-vdn, nc

ay caac 
 Pnc; bu d
a,
nc 
nc

y 
nndd
by  mnd
m
n a
ubjcv m  u n  daa 

n
 cn
cu
n

,  nc 
vady acab ny 
cnnxn
wn  wd  mna aaanc
, and n a a
  wd  a bn. H u
an

 d
cu

n 
 dman  E
my, w n 
n  
y 
nwd  Pnc  Cau
ay can b
wn  b acab
 a cnnn ay, and  b  may
myd n Naua Ty   u
  
ab
n 
a x
nc  an Uncau
d F
 Cau
.
101. ORIGIN OF THE CONCEPT OF EFFICIENT CAUSE.W av
n a unv
a
b n  a x
nc  cn cau


undd n
xnc. T man   cnc, and 
acan  xn
n
  wd wn and aund u
, a adua.(471) Acv w, c,

ny, cncy, acuy,  by wav  nam w may ca , 

 cu
 xncd ny n 
acua xc
, n acn, mn,
ducn  can. Ou 
 xnc  
xc
 
und n u
cn
cu
n

 u wn 
na acv
, mna and bdy: n u
n n, wn  c
n, n u dba cn  u mna
c


, and n  dba xc
  u
n
 acu
and
bdy an
. In a 
w a cn
cu
 xn w, c,
ny: w and _u
v
_ a
an
 cn cau

 u
mna c


and bdy mvmn
. W and 
 ann
a

du   xc
  _u wn w  duc m_. Sn  uman
bn
bav   u
v
, w n by anay a y a
 




and xc
 acv w
  u wn, a y, , a cn
cau

. Fnay, b
vn a c
   
 ducd by
u
v
, w n u
v
 n  maa wd aund u
, a
a
 cn
 un n can  can
n xna nau, w
anc  nanc, w n by anay a 
 ca n
av
a
 w
, c
, n
, wby y duc 
 c
. W
u
n


y ny  m and
ac cnnxn
bwn y
ca
ann
n xna nau, u nc and
acn and
nacn, _.._ cau
a dndnc  vn
n  acv nunc 
cncy  y
ca n
a
an
 cau

.(472) Tu
, u
nwd   x
nc and nau   c
, w
and n

wc cn
u _maa_ n
cn cau



 , and
dvd by anay m, u nwd   _mna_ and bdy w

wc va m
v
 u
n u cn
cu
va c


a

cn
un u wn 
na cn cau
ay.
T
cncn  cn cau
ay vn n  nanma n

xna nau, _a  anay  u wn va w
_ a
vad
n u cn
cu
acv
, 

mm
d
aad a
nav
anm
m. I ju
 dnd
n  mann and d n wc w


 anay. Ob
vn a u a nn  cau
 

nn  w cmbnd w a u
 and an nd (u
ncudn
_cn_ and _na_ cau
ay), Nwman ma
(473) a Accdny,
wv  wd 
yun,  mvmn
and can
 y
ca nau
av bn and a
nanu
y a
cbd by 
   
nc and
w  ddn an
, w aun vy a  ,  wd
, 
munan
and 
am
,  a and 
a
,  d  
vju
 a
cdn aan, by ban  und a an, my
a wa a
bu
d m a
nnc. T

anm
m.
S, , wud b  cncn   c
 w
 nanma
nau a
w

ub-cn
cu
_cn_ and _an_
(Lbnz), , aan, a
udmnay  dmn
d w-w
(Cu
n).(474) Py
ca nmna, a

uc, a wu
n
, a
Nwman
y b
v
; and cn
 uny w may n abu  m any

 cn
cu
cncy, w cv  av. Bu Nwman
aa
  n  
 dcn wn  add
a xnc
ac
u
nn abu y
ca nmna a
cau

.(475) T u

bwn 
 xm
. Ta n xnc n  wd
n
 n wc
 ncud
ana nan , and nnc m,  daa 
nna and xna
n
 cn, xnc cany va
 u

 _x
nc_  y
ca nmna a
cn cau

,  n 
wd
a  
a and cn cau
ay n ny n u wn

n
bu a
 n  xna y
ca unv
; and a
  _nau_
 
cau
ay  a
 v
u
a a

m  ab
nman.
By u
un 
a u
n a  w
a b d  xamn
can dcu
wc  a    _Occa
na
m_:  
 dnyn a cau
,  a a
 my ca cau
, can b

n any u
n
 cn cau

. A dad n uy n  nau 
 acv w
, c
 n
  nanc unv
, _.._
n  nau  _ca_ cn cau
ay, bn
 C
my;
ju
 a
a
ma n uy n _va_, _
nn_ and _
ua_
cn cau
ay bn
 P
ycy. H w av ny  a
can
wa 
cmmn and 

na  a cn cau
ay a

uc, wa n
na 
nvvd n  xc
  cn cau
ay, n _ac_ and
_a

_, and wa a  man mcan
vad n a
udy  .
102. ANALYSIS OF EFFICIENT CAUSALITY, OR _Ac_ AND _Pa

_: (_a_) THE
FIRST CAUSE AND CREATED CAUSES.W av aady d   unv
a
dndnc  a cad cau

n  F
 Cau
; and w
a av
cca
n  un   n cnnxn w Occa
na
m. Gd a
cad
a
cnd cau

; H a
vn m  w
 acn; H cn
v

 bn and  w
n x
nc; H a

 w
 u

m n ac; H cncu
w a  acn
; H 
 
_nca_ cau
  a  c
; and n an  Hm y a a

n
umna cau

: Du

 cau
a acn
cuju
b n uanum _da_
vum and,  n uanum _cn
va_ am,  n uanum _aca_
acn,  n uanum _ju
vu_ mn
aa vu
a.(476)
In u anay

 can (10) w
aw wy n n, cad an can b
 _ad ua_ cau
   _nw acua
_  cn
nvvd n
can, and w w a  bd, by a nc

y  u, 
n  x
nc  a F
 Cau
, an Uncann, Inn Suc 

 nw acua
.(477)
T nc un wc  aumn wa
ba
d 

: a 
acuay   c 

mn v and abv  ay wc 
ad n  a

v nay  
cad maa cau
 and n 
acv w
 
cad cn cau
 ancdny  

ducn: a   ducn  
acuay, 
_nvum


_, m
 nuncby way  c-an  _cncu
u
_ w
 cad cn cau
 an Acua Bn n wm  acuay 
a c

cnand n an mnny c way. Evn w  Dvn
_cncu
u
_ a cad cau
 cann 
 _ca_, bcau
 vn w 

_cncu
u
_ 
cncy aan
ny   mdyn  cann 
-x
n bn: and n can  
n -x
n bn, n
maa cau
, n a a

v nay  b acuad. Bu _wu_

_cncu
u
_ n ny can  n ca;  cann vn, a
an
cn cau
, acua a a -x
n nay. And wy?
Bcau
 
cncy cann aan   _ducn  nw acuay_.
I dmn
 md  
acuay, and n c
y 

cncy   cad cau
. Bu _ 
v ny  cn_
 
nw acuay can b ducd ny by  Inn, Can

,
Inxau
b Suc  a acuay, c-an w  cad
cau
(478) (103).
Bu,  m b bjcd, a
cad cn cau

a m
v

 ad ua and ab
uy ndndn nc
  w acuay
  c
? Ty cann b
uc; and a  
m a
n a
y a n away
_n ac_. W y
uc y
ud b away
and
nc

ay n ac: y
ud away
and nc

ay cnan n
m
v
, and a acuay and n an mnny c mann, a 
cn
 a  c
wc y aduay duc n 
unv
. Bu xnc
w
u
a cad cau

a n away

acn, a  acv w,  cau
ay _n acu m_ 
n 
b dnd w  acn,  cau
ay _n acu
cund_; and
a
n 
u
a
nc 


,
nc acn 

mn m an
_acv w_,
nc a cau
 acn a
m acuay an 
am

cau
 n acn,  mu
 av bn dmnd  ducd  acn by

m acuay  an 
. T

uu
 acuay  cn
n an acn cau
, a
cmad w 
am cau
   
acn,

 Dvn _cncu
u
_. In  wd
, an acv w wc 
ay
d
nc m 
acn  u
 b mvd  ducd  _
_ ac
(wc 
_ac_) n 

an a a

v nay  ud  b
mvd  _
_ ac (wc 
_a

_), by
m ay d
nc acua
bn. A cad cn cau
, , by a

n m 
a 

,  m w  ac, n 
a  acn, 
cd by
avn 
acv w acuazd, _.._ by  Dvn _cncu
u
_: n


n
 acn 
a cn   an. Bu  
n an
nav cn   a


nc;  
n a mann 

ab van  cn   a
w
;  
n 
cmn  any a

v nay   a; n  

y
a n a _can_   an a

uc;  
, a
w av
ad
aady, a an ndx   a
cn n 
ca  a
bn.(479) Acn ay c
 _an
_; and ny wn 


dnca n 
cnc ndvduay w  _an
_ 
 a
manny cd by  acn.
T acn  cad cau

, , dnd
n  acn  
F
 Cau
. W dv u nn  acn m  m and ay 
anacay   a. I w cma m w
a nd a,
nw
andn many dnc
,  nn  acn n na nvv

a
m  unmxd cn wc can, wu anm
m, b
ad anacay   Dvn Acn. T Dvn Acn 
dnca
w  Dvn Pw and  Dvn E

nc. In cau


nc, w
and acn a ay d
nc. T Dvn Acn, wn cav, a
n
 
m a _can_ n 
c
n
 (10, 11),   duc

bn _x n_, wa
 acn  cau
cann av  m
 ducn  nw bn _x n_, bu ny  can 
-x
n bn. T Dvn Acn, w n can  cn
vn
 cncun w cau
, m
n Gd n a an
n m w
 ac; wa
 acn  cau
d
my
uc an
n n
m. Suc a  dnc
; bu w m  

n 
amn:  Dvn Acn m
n Gd an cncy wc a


m _ n  nw bn dndny n 
cncy_.(480)
S, , d
 _acn  cau
_. _P
v cn nunc n
 n
d, and  n, ducn,  __  nw acua bn
n  , w a an  a dndnc n 
cncy_:
uc

 

na n  a cn cau
ay, w  Gd  
cau
.(481)
103. (_b_) ACTIO IMMANENS AND ACTIO TRANSIENS.L u
cma n  nx
ac  cy mmann
ua cau
ay  u,  


cy mmann anc cau
ay  vn n
, and  an
v
y
ca cau
ay   anc
 nanc nau. T m  an
mmann acn man
 wn  vy acuy wc c
,
acn 
acuy a
a ab: u
ac
 u mna n 
ncua ab
cad _
cnc
_, ac
  cc n  ab

 w cad _vu
_  _vc
_.(482) O  man
a a
 wn
 an: a
wn n  va c

 nun  vau
a
and
mmb
  vn an
m
 nac a
cu  w and
dvmn   vn ndvdua wc 
 cau
  

uncn
.(483) In 
 ca

 an 
 
 _an
_, wa

vy ancy n  nanc unv
 ac
n un 
, bu ny n

m  n, _an
vy_. Bu mmann acn, n 

an
an
v acn, 
ducv  a cann,  cu
, n 
y
ca
n
 n wc 
m 
dnd w mn and
und
d  ca can, bu n  may
ca
n
  an

_acuan 
m a

v nay_ (10, 11).(484)

Wa, n, d w nd cmmn   mmann and  an
v cau
ay
 cad cau

? _An acv w  nunc n 
d   an,
an acuan  
acv w_,  by  acn   cau


n 
an,  by  umn  a cndn
 u
  
acn   an, and n a ca

by  cncu
u
  F
 Cau
;
and, _n 
d   c,  ducn 
m nw acuay, 
acuan 
m a

v nay, dndny n  cau
_ nw n
acn.
Tu
w
 a n a ca

_acn_,   xc
  cn
cau
ay, m
a _
mn wc wa
n acua bcm
acua_,
a _
mn wc wa
n_, _nw 
_; and a 
_bcmn_, 

_acuan_, 
_ducn_, 
ay and 

nay dndn n 
nunc,  cncy, 
m acua bn  bn
, wc w
 ca _cn cau

_.
104. ERRONEOUS THEORIES OF EFFICIENT CAUSALITY. IMAGINATION AND
THOUGHT.A w can  anyn m abu  nau  

cnncn n bwn cn cau
 and c, wc w ca
_acn_? Scuan
and 
 a ndd n abundanc.
Sm  
 can b
wn  b a
; and u
u nwd 
 a nau  acn may b a a
 navy  n

vy cd. Ou cnc  acn 
dvd,   a
u cnc
, m xnc; and au w a cn
cu

_
ua_ acn n  xc
  nc and w, y 

n
aaby ad w
nn acn and 
aan w
anc and ca acn. N can w cncv  d
cb

ua acn wu  ad  manan ma
,  n
anua  an a bwd m  dman  ca
n
, wc a   bjc   uman nc.(485)
Nw n a 
 
a dan:  dan  m
a n
manan ma
 u
, and  vn a a
n
 
anua n cnx
w 
anua mu
 b y
und
d  ay ny anacay.
In anay
n  nau  cn cau
ay w m b md
 n a w und
d  by mann
m
  a _w_
 _an
nc_ 
m
  acua ay m _an
_ 
_an
_. I 
u u a n d
cbn _acn_, 
acua cnncn n bwn _an
_ and _an
_, w av 
u
 anua
u
v 
m
uc manan ma. W av n
n n  ma,  a uman anua 
ba
d un
n

cn
cu
n

 y
ca nmna. Wn w d
cb cncy
a
an nunc  cau
 n c,   c a
dndn
n  cau
,  m m
u

a wn, ju
 a

a
u

a ann. S, , wn w
a   c
a
a
n, nan,
nn,  manan, m 
cau
.(486) Bu w av   a
u
v
wa
uc anua
_man
_, _.._, wa cnc
 x


, and n wa
manan ma
accmany  u
  .
Nw wn w c a 
n


y ny  m and
ac

 unc
and ccan
  nmna wc w ad a

cau
ay cnncd, and wn w  cnvncd a  


mn m an 
n  cau
a cnnxn,wc
mn
m w d
cb n  m
u
ad abv,w mu
 n u
w w av any ana und  n n a 


mn m 
ay anyn n  nau  a
aa

an
nc 
m acua ay m _an
_  _an
_.
T a ndd many 

and
cn

w
m 
bv a  

uc a ca an
nc 
m acuay
m cau
  c, a cn cau
ay 
xand by ,
and cann b nby xand w
. A
a ma 
ac  
n ana und  bvn n any
uc
an
nc, and vn w 
uc an
nc,
 a m

bn  ny nb xanan  cn
cau
ay,  wud av  w bm ny
unxandand n my  bm 
ua, mmann
cau
ay,  wc  
man
y nacab, bu vn 
bm  ca, an
v cau
ay.(487)
W av aady d a
m n (9-11)   
y
wc a
ndavud  duc a can,  a a
 a
ca can,  mcanca can; a ua
, w
,
c
, n
  unv
,  uma ac
 am

 ma n mn; and a cn cau
ay  a w 
an
nc 
aa mn m ac  ac  m
bdy  bdy. A u anay

 a
uc 
bn

C
my. Bu w may ca a w   m bvu

cn
dan
aady ud aan
 m.
In  
 ac,  am  xan a _ ua
_ n 
maa unv
a  w
, c
, n
,  maby
manann a bjcvy and xamnay y a a uy
_ uanav_ a
, a
aa mn
 mad
n
xan  uaav ac
and d
ncn
n  wd 
u
n
 xnc a a, bu
my an

 bm 
xann m m  
y  ma   
y 
mnd, by ma n m a
ubjcv a  mann  Kan

anay

 xnc (11).
In 
cnd ac, wn w ndavu  cncv,  and
ncuay, w _mn_,  ndd any  y
ca  a
ny, cud acuay a

 b an
d m _an
_ 
_an
_, w 
 b
aay n cnac  n, w nd

uc a
u
n 
vy unnb. Mn 
n a

ub
anc; and   
an accdn  cann ma m
ubjc

ubjc. T da a ca cn cau
ayvn
mcanca cau
aycan b xand by
uc a an
nc 
acua accdna md
 bn m _an
_  _an
_ 

ba
d n a vy cud and nu
cncn  wa an
accdna md  bn ay 
(65).
T m w c n  nau  a can n  unv
,
and   cn cau
ay wby  
azd,  m
cnvncd w mu
 bcm a  can b n
a
acy
xanan  
 ac
wc d
n cnz and a 
accun  
a undamna ac: a cnnn a bn

_n a acua_, a  
ay na and ay
acua; a  u cnc
 a

v nay and
acv w a n m
ubjcv mna mn
, w a
b
 a m uav 
y
mazn uncn (a  mann
 Kan

y), bu a y a ay and bjcvy
vad cnc
cnc
wc m  m  A
 av
vn 

 ny n
 n  nau  cn
cau
ay wc 
a any a
a
acy and nb a

a a
 
.

O 
a ac  advca
  mcanca y 

cn cau
ay av, n  d ac, ad  a 
accun. And  
ay bcau
 w  vva  am
m a
 dawn  mdn 
y 
adna A
an
cncn  cnnn bn a
na and acua wa



  (64), a
uc a cud and ay unnb accun
 cn cau
ay, a
a w  mn, a
bn ab 
nd
uc cnnud and wd
ad accanc.
An a
n   vanc  
ndncy  xan a
y
ca cn cau
ay a
a aan 
aa mn

 ma 
 b und n 
n

 vw   uman mnd
wc cnund
ncua u w mna may, wc
cunnanc
ny _cuab_ ac
n 
xanan
, and
dnunc
a
may
ca, ccu, and unvab a
xanay nc

uc a
c
, w
, na
,
c., wc a n dcy cuab n  manan.(488)
And  
a cuu
ac a  

uc 

m
v

w a ay uy   ca wc y ay a  d 
 adna may
c
:  ca  n
xanan
 cn cau
ay,  n
ancwc a ay
n xanan
. F w y u wad  y  
w  mn a
a a xanan   _ umd_ 
cn cau
ayand  uma and ny xanan  
wn ac   uman mnd,  w a  acc  vw 
 ma xnn   adna may
c
m
md
y cnn
m
 
n   nvab
mcan
  ac  cn cau
ay, and, wu
un   any 
v xanan   a nau 
acn  cn nunc,  
cnn 
umn 

anay

navy by nn u  unnb and
u
y caac   d xanan
.
In  xac md
  y
ca
cnc
,  uanav
vauan  a ca c
w mcanca, y
ca,
 cmca, n m
 mcanca w , wc 
ma
ud by 
mn  ma u
ac, and n  a y
ca
nazan nwn a
 aw    uvanc  n
, 
   uay  acn and acn,w can dc y u
aan a
n
  cncn  cn cau
ay a
a
m an
nc  ncan  acua y
ca and ma
uab
n
amn bd
. I 
an 
ab
d ac n ny a a
ca an
aduay 
  ny  w  acn by
acuay xc
n 
w, bu a 


 ny 
n
dc n   amun  ny and by  cn

  acn; and 
ac wud nauay
u
  mna
cu  a an
nc 
m acua ma
uab ny m
cau
  c. Bu  d
n nc

ay my
uc
an
ncvn   a w nb, wc, a
w
av
n,  
n. T ac 
u nby xand by
 naua
u
n a n n a
 _an
_ xau



acv w by xc
  _an
_ an
n
m m 
acuay. Smay,  ac a a m
 ca ny
can b ma
ud n m
 mcanca ny d
n a a
my a y a _ay a_ mcanca ny, bu ny a
naua an
can by  u
  n m  ny duc
an m n  uvan uany. And nay,  aw  
cn
van  ca ny n  unv
 
xand by
 aw    uay  acn and acn, and wu

cu
   unnb
u
n a 

um-a 

ny 
n uncann and uncanab _acuay_.
T 
ju
 n  cn
dan wc a 

 aa

 avu  an
nc y  cau
ay, bu wc n
anay


w
w u
y  d xanan 
, and w
unnb 
m
 nmnn  can mu
 b  

w a  a
  und
ncanc   nc a
a a bn wc 

ubjc  can mu
  nc

y b
_ay na and ay acua_. W aud   na
a

umn  y
ca
cn

a ca acn 
wa
v nd a 
ac _ny n cnac_, w mda 
mmda, bwn  bd
n u
n.(489) Nw  
w 
ba n mnd a 

n a
-vdn u  nc,
bu ny an y

, a vy ma y

and n wc
w
admaby, bu
 ny an y

. I m

a

umn a
m
 
ub
anccad  unv
a
acuay x

and 
a
ac,
vn a
a mdum 
 acn  avan, , adan a, ccy and
man
m, bwn  a and   an
, 
un and

a
. T
w
u
n 
 ny n ab
anav  _ac n d
an
_. I 
 bd
ay ac n
n anand  ac a y d 
undnab,and  
w n
uc mdum bwn m, n  cau
a nunc  n
bdy
ud b ab  duc an c n an bdy
aay
d
an m, and n y
cay cnncd by any maa mdum
w,  m. Hnc w u
n
: I

anav, _ac
n d
an
_, manab? _.._ can w m any _
v
manan ma_  _w_ 
wud a  ac? And
cndy:
I
 _n ab_, _cncvab_, _nn
cay 

b_? W
nd n 
a  an
w  m u
n n  nav.
Bu a
  a u
n a w can
ay 
a w av nv
m any cn    nn
c m

by  _ac n
d
an
_. T cn acn  a n cau
 m
a 
a
acv w and 
cn
vd n x
nc w 
w by
 Ca  F
 Cau
, a 
w 
ducd  ac by
 Dvn _cncu
u
_, and a _dndny n 
cau


acn_
m can a 
ac,
m nay 
acuazd
n
m  n bn. Nn m an 

nvvd n
 na cnc  cn cau
ay. O cu
 a
nunc n  n
d, and a dndnc n  , my

m _a_ cnnxn  cau
 w c. Bu 
_
aa_
cnnxn a nc

ay cndn  a cnnxn? I
a
_y
ca_, _nmna_, _manab_, _ux_ 
m ny
u   cau
 n  c,  mmday  u

m mdum a
a cann, a nc

ay cndn  a
nunc? T 
nn   nd n
ua cau
ay;
and  dmand anyn   nd  cau
ay n na wud
b  ma  manan, n u,  
 and ma
u  
a. Bu a
_
aa_ cnnxn 


na   a
cnnxn nvvd n _
acua nd_  cau
ay,
_ca_ cau
ay? Pa
. Bu  a
nv bn vd. T
 
nwn abu  ay 
ac, abu  uma
nau  maa nmna and  an  u mnd
, 
ju
y anyn   dma
m n
uc an uma u
n. I
may w b a  w ad a d n
 n 
 n
w
cud nunc _ac n d
an
_  b ab
uy ncmab
w  

nc
  n
wc d a
a ma  ac
cn
u  acua ca unv
. Bu n  ab
nc 

uc n
 w cann nunc _ac n d
an
_  b

nn
cay m

b. Py
ca
cn

a

um a a
a

ma  ac bd
d n ac _n d
an
_. Gand 
a

umn  b cc, 
 man
an n u
n
w by a mac y cud ac _n d
an
_, _.._ w
 n
uc acn wud b ncmab w  nau a

n ca cau

.
Own  a vy naua ndncy  
 n manan ma
w
a ncnd n ny  nunc a
m

b any c


md  wc 
n 
vy manab, bu a
  n a
w y und
and a c

nc w av vdd u
v

w an manan ma  wn a
a ma  ac 

ma may cv an ny und

cncn  y  
c

. Hnc  ay van da a w _ac n
d
an
_ 
m

b, _ nacn  bd
n cnac_ 

cy nb and 
n
n dcu
. Wn a
bad ba n mn
 
an a 
  cmmunca


m  a  
mn   , and a 
a: nn

m! And n a  y
ca, cmca, and
ub
ana
can
n  maa unv
 a ducb  
cmmn
dnmna! T amc 
y, w 
w md
 
ua

 ma and mn, 
a duy
m 
y; bu
ununay  

ca 
 _ d
n xan
cau
ay  can_. N can 
 ac
b xand by any

y wc n
 m
 mnay mcan  a
a can:  mcan a cann ay nvv
a
a

v na
and a acv w
 c
n 
nmna wc cn
u  cann ay   unv
.
105. THE SUBJECT OF EFFICIENT CAUSALITY. OCCASIONALISM.W av

ab
d  bjcv vady   cnc  cn cau
ay
and anay
d 
mcan
. T av bn 

w, w
admn  bjcv vady   cnc, av manand a n
cau,  a a
 n ca cau, can b an cn cau
.
Ecn nunc 
, n  vw, ncmab w  nau  a
ca
ub
anc: ny
ua
ub
anc
can b cn cau

:
ca n
, cndn
, and ann
, a a ny  _cca
n
_
n wc
ua
ub
anc
ac cny n and u a cad
nau. Hnc  nam   y: _Occa
na
m_. T a w m

 :  md, wc adm
a cad

 mnd
a
cn cau

; and  m xm vw, accdn  wc n
cau can b an cn cau
, na
muc a
cn cau
ay 



nay a Dvn abu, a av   Dvny.
T
 wa
n un nwn n  Mdd A
,(490) bu  wa
n 

vnn cnuy a can d
c
 D
ca
,Guncx
(1625-1669) and Mabanc (1638-1715),x

y nd  m 
Ca
an an

 ma and
 and  Ca
an dcn a
ma 


nay n,  nacv. Accdn   auu
and
unvn a

n ad dwn by Guncx a
a nc: _Qud n
c

umd a_, _d nn ac
_,w d n cau
 u wn
n
an

a
nn c


, n u wn bdy mvmn
, na
muc a
w d n
nw _w_ 
 a  ac; n can bd
cau
 m, any m an u
wn cad

, na
muc a
bd
a 

nay nacv.
Accdn  Mabanc  mnd can cv n nc

ay _nxu
_
bwn c
and any cau
  an  Dvn W;(491) mv
cn cnvnc
u
a cn cau
ay 

mn 

nay
Dvn and ncmmuncab  cau
;(492) and nay n bd

can b cau

,  y a 

nay n, n u mnd
and w
,

 w d n nw w a vn cud mv any an  mmb  u
bd
.(493) Y Mabanc, a  c
  ncn

ncy w 
wn
nc
,
auad
 w n man by awn an xcu
vy
_mmann_ cncy 
ua cau

.(494)
Suc 
 acn  Occa
na
m. Ou cc
m   w b
b.(495)
(1) Aan
  dcn a cau
nay a n, and cann b,
cn cau

, w dc  
 aumn aady und (100)
aan
 Pnmn
m and P
v
m, aumn m  unv
a b
 man nd, ba
d n  
mny  cn
cu
n

a
anay
nd by uman nnc. Cn
cu
n



n my a
c


 u, manan,
n
an, vn, c., _a  ac_
wn u mnd
; n my a u bdy mvmn
,
uc a

a n,
wa n, wn, _ccu_; bu a _w a  cau

 m_.(496) I

d 
ay a w d n cny mv u mb
bcau
 w may
n b ab  und
and  xan uy _w_ an unxndd vn
can mv a maa mb.(497) Cn
cu
n



  ac a
 vn d
mv  mb; and a 
nu.(498) T ac 
n
n,  _ umd_   ac 
u an n. N 
 any
und wav   a

n a a cau
, n d  duc an
c, mu
 _und
and w_  xc
  
wn cncy bn

a c abu. Mv, Mabanc
cnc

n  a a
 mmann
acvy   w 
a a vn
an adm

n a  
n 
nau   cau a

uc nn ncmab w 
bn an
cn cau
.
(2) Au Mabanc ba



y many n dducv, _a
_ a
nn
m a cn
dan   Dvn abu
, 


y
m 
ay day   cn   F
 Cau
, and

cay   Dvn W
dm. T
ay,  n
anc, a Gd cad an
an
 w adad  d
ca  uncn 
n a
 uman
y, and n  dny a  a d
ca

 any uncn, 

anamun  accu
n Gd  y. T 
n a
n n 

y
m wy
any cad n  cndn  n
wud b vn  aa
_cca
n_   F
 Cau
 ducn any dn c. Evyn
wud b an  uay aa cca
n,  a nn wud b n
any nb
n
 an aa cca
n,  any xc
  
Dvn cau
ay. T admab d   unv
w 
uny n
vay, 
adaan  man
 nd
, 
adan  cad
cn

an nb man
an   Dvn cn
n
 a

umn a cau
cny c-a w  F
 Cau

n azn and manann 
d. Bu  y w a n,
nav, u


 
u
, wa cud b  _a
n d_
  dv
d ndwmn
and cn
? S a m man
n
 w
dm, w and dn

 Gd y wud vdnc an am

and

n


day.
(3) Occa
na
m m
 d
ncn bwn cau
and a

na Gd. Au Mabanc, vn cac a  wa
,

d aan
  an
m   m
ab Snza, 
wn
y
m
cnan
 undvd m  
ncu
. F,  cau

a n cn cau

n ny a  vay and mucy
mann

, a
cnbun nn wad
 d   unv
,
bu  vy x
nc _a
d
nc a
_
m
 av n _a
n
d_. Mabanc ma
z
 u a _Gd d
nn u


_:
_Du n a n dnu_. Vy w. I, n, a bn _d

nn_, wa u
 

vd by 
x
nc? O wa u
 
? Wa

 ma
u  a cau
ay,  n 
acn and 
w 

acn? S nmay n ac 

nn  cau
ay bund u w

 nn   vy ay  n
a  cnc  an ab
uy
n, nacv ay 

cacy nb. I 
am
 an axm n

ca
c 
y a vy nau a

cav acvy,
vy bn 
an: _Omn n

 
uam anm; Omn

naua dnau ad am anm_. Hnc  wa w ca cau

ad ay n  acvy d
nc m a   F
 Cau
, n
wa und
cud w
u
 m  av a a and  x
nc 
 wn d
nc m  ay   Inn Bn? O w cud
u
n  awun

  nnc a y a n ay
cau
, bu ny
 many a

, a
c
, man
an
  n and

 x
n ay? Wc 
Pan
m.
(4) Occa
na
m ad
 Subjcv Ida
m by d
yn a und
  bjcv vady  uman
cnc. Hw d w nw  a
nau
 n
? By a
nn m  acv
n vu  
nc, _Oa
 uu 

_.(499) Bu  n
av n acv
,
n an
,
uc a
nn 
u
y. Hw,  n
anc, d w
ju
y by ana dmn
an, n 
n 
ubjcv
m, 
cmmn-
n
 nan   daa 
n
 cn
cu
n

a

van  u
 a and xamna x
nc  a maa unv
?
By aun, n vu   nc  cau
ay, m u
cn
cu
n

 u wn a

vy n xna
n
 cn,  
a x
nc  bd
u
d u mnd
, a
_xcan
_  u
cnv acvy and _aa cau

_  
 cn
cu
, cv
c


. Bu  cca
na
m w u
uc nnc wud b
u
y, and w
ud n, w B y, a ny Gd and mnd

x
, bu n any maa unv
. Mabanc adm
 

b
vady  
nnc  mmaa
m m 
nc
, and
und

wn b n  x
nc  an xna maa unv


y n a n Dvn Rvan.(500)
I ny man
 an
w can dcu
ud by cca
na


aan
  

by  abun a cncy  cau
.
(1) Ty au a cn cau
ay 

mn 

nay Dvn,
and  cann b cmmuncad  cau
.
W y a w  ab
uy ndndn cau
ay   F

Cau
 


nay Dvn, an nd  d  cau
ay, dndn
n  m, bu nn  

a, can b and 
cmmuncad 
cau
. And ju
 a
 ac a cau
av a bn, a
x
nc, d
nc m, bu dndn n,  x
nc   Inn
Bn, d
n da m 
umacy   a,
  ac
a cau
av a cn cau
ay, d
nc m, bu dndn
n,  cau
ay   F
 Cau
, d
n da m  a


umacy.
(2) Ty u a cn cau
ay 
cav, and  nn
and ncmmuncab.
W y a  
a an d
ncn bwn cav acvy and
 cn acvy w cam  cau
. Can 
 ducn
 nw bn m nnn

. Gd an,  Inn Bn, can ca;
and, um, accdn   cmmn vw  T
c 

a
cau cann vn b an n
umn   F
 Cau
 n 

ducn  nw bn m nnn

. And  man a
n  

aa
 b a  cncy   cau, acn,  cu
, w
 Dvn _cncu
u
_, nc

ay 
u


m -x
n bn a

maa n wc  a, and 
cnnd   _can_ 

_dmnan  nw m
 md
_  
-x
n ay. Suc

cncy,
ubdna   Dvn _cncu
u
_ and md 
uc an
d  c
, 
any d
nc m cav acvy.
(3) Bu  cau, acn w  Dvn _cncu
u
_, 
cnbu

mn a and 
v   c  cnbu

nn. T m anav 
nadm

b,  Gd 
 cau
 
vyn a and 
v: _mn nvum n

 a D_. And n 
a anav, wc 
 u n,  _cncu
u
_ 

uuu
;
Gd d
a; and cau
a n ay cn cau

.
W y a  m anav, n  a, 
 u n. Bu
 m anav d
n my a  cau duc
any nw
ay _ndndny   F
 Cau
_; n 
 ncmab w
 u a Gd 
 au and cau
  a 
v ay: _mn
nvum n

 a D_. N dub, w w  cncv  c-an 
Gd and  cau a  mann   c-an  w aa
cau

 
am d, ducn by  jn cncy
m n
a c   c-an  w 

dawn a ca, wud
w a  cau

a   jn c wud b ndndn
  Dvn _cncu
u
_ and abuab   cau an, a 
cau wud duc
m ay ndndny   F
 Cau
. Bu
a 
_n_  way n wc  F
 Cau
 cncu
w cad
cau

. Ty a n aa cau

 
am d. Eac 
a a
cau
 n 
wn d. Ty
 c-a a Gd, b
d
avn
cad and nw cn
vn 
cnd cau
, and mvn  a
w
 ac, duc
Hm
  w c dcy and mmday by 
cncy  H
_cncu
u
_; w a 
am m 
cnd cau
,
u
ducd  ac, and acn w  _cncu
u
_, a
 dcy and
mmday duc
 w c. T 
n c, n can _n
ac 

_, n can _n _, and  n acn a
cn
dd
n 
ubjc cand,
nc  acn a 
ac n 
a:
_ac  n a

_. T
can, 
acn cn
dd u
a

vy,
 _n a

_, 
 a m  ac cncy,  Dvn and 
cad, n ay   n and ay   . I 
n and
ndv
b;  
wy du , and wy aand by, ac cncy;
n, wv, und 
am ma a
c. W may d
nu
 n  w
ma
:  
a _nvum n
_, a nw acuay,
mn 
v and
acua
uaddd   x
n d  a, cnnn bn; bu 

n bn n na  acuay n na,  

m

ccay, nay ndvduay, dmna md  acuay  acua
bn. W av
n a  
c
y bcau
 vy a c a

m a
c a  dmand
 
ad ua xanan, and a


ny nb
uc,  
nc and nunc  a uy acua,
uncann, nn, nxau
b ducv nc  a acua
cnnn ay: nc  nc

y and cacy   Dvn
_cncu
u
_. And
may  
bcau
  nw acuay nvvd n
vy can 
an ndvduay dn md  acuay a w can
dc n   nd , and  cacy ,  cad cau
: 
nau  
a,  caac and
c and nn
y  
acv
w 
wa dmn
 ndvduay   a 
u,  
a ducn  wc  a
by  ad   Dvn _cncu
u
_
aand.
(4) Bu Gd can Hm
 duc  a 
u _und b ma
_
wu any cncy   cau. T  dcuy man

a  a cncy 

uuu
and u


: and _na nn
un
mucanda a nc

am_.
W y a a
a ma  ac  c
ducd n  dnay

cu
  nau a ducd by Gd und b ma
; bu a
 by
 cad cau
 und b ma
: na
muc a
 ma
a
bu mnay d
nc a
c
 n a 
u wc 
, a
ad


xn
c cau

, ndvdua and ndv
b. T d
ncn  

ma a
c
ny 
u
 az w _d ac_
uc an c 

du   can   F
 Cau
 and cad cau

. Ta Gd
_cud_ duc a
uc c
wu any cad cau

w mu

d
nu
. Sm
uc c
H cud n duc wu cad
cau

, 
uc ducn wud b
-cnadcy. H cud n
duc,  n
anc, a vn xc a
 ac  a cad w, 
a u xc a
 ac  a cad nc,  a va can
xc a
 ac  a vn cau. Bu aa m
uc ca

wc
wud nvv an nn
c m

by, Gd cud  cu
 duc,
wu cad an
,  c
wc H d
duc u 
cad cncy. I 
, wv, n a u
n  wa _cud b_, bu
 wa _acuay 
_. And w n a  aumn
aady
 
v cncu
vy a cau
a n _d ac_  n, nacv,
am

and unmann n
y wud b  Occa
na
m w  u
nan   unv
  u acua xnc; bu a 

cau
a n a u
n
 cn cau

, and a ju
 a
by 
vy c-x
nc w Gd, a
cnnn bn
, y d n da
m H
Inn Acuay bu a
w  H
Inny,
 by
 can w Hm a

ubdna and dndn cn cau


y d n da m H

umacy a
F
 Cau
, bu a
w
  nn and nxau
b c
 H
W
dm and Omnnc.

CHAPTER XV. FINAL CAUSES; UNIVERSAL ORDER.

106. TWO CONCEPTIONS OF EXPERIENCE, THE MECHANICAL AND THE
TELEOLOGICAL.W av
n a a can n  unv
 dmand
 

xanan can a nc
, _vz._ a

v nay,
acuazan, and acv w  cncy; n  wd
a 
n
 maa, ma and cn cau

. D 
 nc


uc  xan  cu
  nau   n un mnd? Mcan



ay, Y
; 
 nc
xan 
 a a
 
caab 
xanan. T


ay, N; 
 nc
d n  m
v

accun   unv
  u xnc: 
unv
 va


a
a _c
m
_: nc  dmand
 
xanan a nc

cau

 an
, _na cau

_,  x
nc  wc m

u
, an  d
n, and  a
 nnc.
T bm w  n  unv
 man

 x
nc and
nunc  na cau

a
bn
mm
muad n 

 n
a
n: I
 a bd
av wn
n d  y,  
 my a
y y bcau
 y av wn
? Suc a ac
amn   bm

m
adn,  
u

a  anav
a muuay
xcu
v, a w mu
 v   na cau

  cn
cau

. A
a ma  ac w acc b. Ecn cau

accun 
 cu
  nau; bu y nd  b dmnd by  nunc 
na cau

. Mv,  u
n w a 
nunc  na
cau

xnd
_nay_ (_naa
_), a
 
cncay md
a

cnday u
n; n d
 advca  na cau
ay n 
unv
 unda   dcd 
nau and
c n vy n
anc and
da, any m an  y
ca
cn
 d
 n u a 
y
ca aw
mbdd n an ndvdua naua vn,   b
 


ay w a dubu
cmn  ma 
anc  nanc, 

w a can
  vn c 
anma  vab. T




, a
aan
 a  mcan
m, 

my a _
a na cau

n  unv
, a  unv
 d
ay man

 
nc and nunc  na cau

_.(501)
T a w way
, wv,  cncvn 
nunc a
man
 unv
. T cncn  na cau
ay n na 
, a
w
a

,  cncn  acn _ an nd_, m a _mv_, w a
_u
_, _an_  _d
n_   aanmn 
mn. I m

aanmn, dnan, adaan  man
 nd
(55). Nw a a

 _aa
_  b, vadn  unv
 vyw and dcn 

acv
,
uc an adaan. T admab  ubum  c
wc

cu
 ua mn
  avny bd
;  xac mxu 
a

wc ma 
u am

uab  anc ;  d
anc
and av 
n
 
un and  a, wc
cu cndn

avuab  anc ;  cmca an
man
wby nanc
mn
and cmund
  m  vn
ub
anc  an
and a
u
ad  a

man a
d by anma an
m
; 
wnduy add acy  vn
c
n  anma wd, and
 muua ndndnc  an
and anma
;  nd

vay 
n
nc
wc
cu  
van and w-bn  vn
ndvdua
and
c
; m
 naby  adaaby and adaan 
 mundan cau
 uman u

by man m
,nnumab ac


uc a

 cnvnc u
a  n
  unv
 a _u
u 
n an_, a y a cn
ud and d

d n an  n
an _a
 y ad bn dbay c
n_ 
u n an, 
 n amnu
y  n muua c-dnan and
ubdnan

a by  nacn and ndndnc y w u a an 
d
n and _
ub
v a
man
 dn nd
_. T

uaby 
n
_avy  n an_, 
amny   nau and
acvy  ac w  nau and acvy  vy , w may
d
na a
_xn
c_ nay. T Ca a
wd
  aan
and d

 a cau
n cndn

ac and m a
uc
amnu
bu uy xn
c an
 muua adaan d _d
ac_ ban and cnnu  va bwn m und H
udanc.
Bu a 
 cau
m
v
, n  wn ndvdua nau
,
 uay ndn  any dn md  acn,
 a  dy
cncunc   acv

du  an na ccan and
mu
 dvny m

d un m m wu, and n  any
u
v nc nn
c  m
v
ndvduay? D
ca
,
Lbnz and can
u
  y  amc dynam
m adn
 cn
un  ma, w cnzn a av and xn
c
nay n  unv
 n 
n
 xand,
m  ad 
ndvdua anc
  unv
 a
m cn cau

, n 
m
v
ndwd w any mmann, nn
c dcv nc 
 acv
, and
 cnbun by m xn
c aanmn  
d   unv
. Sca
c 

, n  cnay, wn
 u  A
,(502) cn
d a vy ancy n  unv


ndwd w an _nn
c nc  nay_ wc cn
any
dc

acv
wad
 azan  a cn wc 

   and wc cn
u

nn
c nd (45-46). And w
ac u
nd
 
wn  cn by  naua ay  

acv
, ac 

 ad  a 
a y
muanu
y
az  xn
c u
 wc cn


n  d and amny 
 w unv
. Tu
 xn
c and av nay wby a
cn
  cn
u  unv
 a _c
m
_ 

cnday and 

and
ubdna   d, nn
c, mmann and ab
u nay
wby ac ndvdua cad nau mv
by a ndncy  aw  

bn wad
 azan  a _d_ wc _c
_  a


naua nd.
In d  und
and  nau  
nn
c and xn
c nay
n  unv
, and  vndca 
x
nc aan
  
y 
Mcan
m, w mu
 nx anay
  cnc, and nv
a 
nunc,  wa a cad _na cau

_.
107. THE CONCEPT OF FINAL CAUSE; ITS OBJECTIVE VALIDITY IN ALL NATURE.
CLASSIFICATION OF FINAL CAUSES.Wn w
a   _nd_   ya, 
 _nd_  a wa, w man  xm m  uma n; and 
m cnvy
n nn  a cau
. Smay, w a 
n 
ay I av
   _nd_  my w , w
ud und
and m  man
my a
 ad n
d . Bu wn  ac dbay and a
nn
bn
, y u
uay ac 
m _cn
cu
u
_, w
m _bjc
n vw_,   acvmn  aanmn 
mn; y cnnu 
ac un y av aand 
bjc; wn y av aand  y
ca
  ac; 
aanmn
yncnz
w  _nd_   acn,
a n 
m n 
n
 ju
 u
ad. Pbaby 


a
n wy  m _nd_ a
bn xndd m 
na
n
 

ny  _bjc_   aanmn  wc an nn an
ac
. T
bjc  cn
cu
d
 _nduc
_  an 
 ; and
bcau
  u
nunc
 an  ac  v
 nn  a
_cau
_:  
a _na cau
_, an _nd_ n  cau
a
n
. F
n
anc, a yun man w

 bcm a mdca dc:  _a 
an_ 
 _nd_  w


cu. F 
u
  u
u
a
cu
 
ud
and a


can xamnan
; 
 ac
wby 
ua
m
 by bann a can und  nwd and
 a
_man
_   nd nndd by m. H nd n d
 
 aay
abu
_  wn
a _; bu  d
d
 m a
_u
u  

u
_, a
_man
_  
nd: n
 a a
 w
m a
man

w
m n   wn
a  bu bcau
   nd, _ nm_.
H _and
_  nd a
a _d_;  _nnd
_ 
aanmn; 
_c
_  _
c
_ can ac
 n
 acn a
man

uab
 
u
. An nd  na cau
, , may b dnd a

_
mn andd a
a d, and wc, bcau
 d
d a

uc,
nunc
 w  c

m acn  n  acn judd
nc

ay  u
u   aanmn  
d_. Hnc A


dnn  nd a
:  cujus gr t lqu ft: _t t for
te s e of wc n gent cts_.
Te en unerstoo n ts sense s _motve_ of cton; not only woul
te cton not t e pl ce wtout te gents ntenng te en, sowng
te l tter to be _conto sne qu non_; but, more t n ts, te en
s goo, ppreene n wlle, _ s postve nfluence_ on te
ultm te effect or ssue, so t t t s re lly _c use_.
M n s conscous of ts fn lty, or nfluence of fn l c uses on s
own elber te ctons. As n ntellgent beng e cts for ens, n
orers or regul tes s ctons s me ns to tose ens; so muc so t t
wen we see m ns cts, s wole conuct, utterly unrel te to r ton l
ens, wolly t v r nce n out of jont wt te usu l ens of
ntellgent um n ctvty, we t e t s n nc ton of loss of re son,
ns nty. Furtermore, m n s free; e _cooses_ te ens for wc e
cts; e cts _electv propter fnes_.
But n te om n of nm l lfe n ctvty s tere ny evence of te
nfluence of fn l c uses? Most unoubtely. W tc te movements of
nm ls see ng ter prey; observe te we om n of nm l nstncts;
stuy te el bor te n ntrc te lnes of cton wereby tey protect n

foster n preserve ter lves, n re r ter young n prop g te ter

speces: coul tere be cle rer or more bun nt evence t t n ll ts
conuct tey re _nfluence_ by objects wc tey _ ppreen_ n see
s _sensble goos_? Not t t tey c n conceve n te bstr ct te _r to
bont ts_ n tese tngs, or freely coose tem s goo, for tey re
nc p ble of bstr ct tougt n consequent free coce; but t t tese
sensble objects, ppreene by tem n te concrete, o re lly nfluence
or move ter sense ppettes to esre n see tem; n te nfluence
of n object on sense ppette sprngs from te gooness of ts object
(44, 45). Tey ten tow rs _ ppreene_ goos; tey ct _ ppreensv
propter fnes_.(503)
Fn lly, even n te om ns of unconscous gences, of pl nt lfe n
norg nc n ture, we  ve evence of te nfluence of fn l c uses. For
ere too we wtness nnumer ble v re, complex, ever-renewe ctvtes,
const ntly ssung n results useful to, n goo for, te gents wc
elct tem: oper tons wc contrbute to te _evelopment_ n
_perfecton_ of te n tures of tese gents (46). Now f sml r effects
em n sml r c uses ow c n we refuse to recognze even n tese
ctvtes of pysc l n ture te nfluence of fn l c uses? Wenever n
werever we fn gre t n complex v rety of ctve powers, forces,
energes, ssung nv r bly n effects wc sut n evelop n perfect
te gents n queston,n wor, wc re _goo_ for tese
gents,weter te l tter be conscous or unconscous, oes not re son
tself ct te to us t t ll suc om ns of cton must be subject to
te nfluence of fn l c uses? Of course t woul be mere unreflectng
ntropomorpsm to ttrbute to _unconscous_ gences
_conscous_
subjecton to te ttr ctng n rectng nfluence of suc c uses. But
te recognton of suc nfluence n ts om n mples no n ve
supposton of t t sort. It oes, owever, mply ts very re son ble
vew: t t tere must be some re son or groun n te n ture or
consttuton of even n n nm te gent for ts ctng lw ys n unform
m nner, conucve to ts own evelopment n perfecton; t t tere must
be n te n ture of e c n every one of te v st multtue of suc
gents wc m e up te wole pysc l unverse re son or groun for
e c co-oper tng const ntly n  rmonously wt ll te oters to
secure n preserve t t gener l orer n regul rty wc en bles us to
pronounce te unverse not _c os_ but _cosmos_. Now t t groun or
re son n tngs, wereby tey ct n suc
m nnernot nfferently,
c otc lly, c prcously, mlessly, _unntellgbly_, but efntely,
regul rly, rel bly, purposvely, _ntellgbly_s re l prncple of
ter n tures, mpressng on ter n tures
efnte tenency, rectve
of ter ctvtes tow rs results wc, s beng sute to tese
n tures, be r to tese l tter te rel ton of fn l c uses. A rectve
prncple nee not tself be conscous; te nner rectve prncple of
n nm te gents tow rs w t s _goo_ for tem, w t _perfects_ tem,
w t s terefore n true n re l sense ter en (45, 46), s not
conscous. But n vrtue of t tey ct s f tey were conscous, n y
ntellgent, _.e._ tey ct _executv propter fnes_.
Of course te exstence of ts prncple n n nm te gences
necess rly _mples_ ntellgence: ts nee s our very
contenton g nst te wole plosopy of mec nsm, postvsm
n gnostcsm. But s ts ntellgence re lly entc l wt
te gences of n ture, so t t ll te penomen of experence,
wc consttute te _cosmos_ or unverse, re but p ses n te
evoluton of One Sole Re lty wc s contnu lly m nfestng
tself uner te stnct spects of n ture n mn? Or s ts
ntellgence, toug _vrtu lly mm nent_ n te unverse, re lly

stnct from t_re lly tr nscenent_, Supreme Intellgence

wc  s cre te n contnues to conserve ts unverse n
govern ll ts ctvtes? Ts s stnct queston: t s te
queston of Monsm or Tesm s n ultm te nterpret ton of
um n experence.
We conclue ten t t w t we c ll _fn lty_, or te nfluence of fn l
c uses, perv es te wole unverse; t t n te om n of conscous
gents t s _conscous_, _nstnctve_ wen t solcts _sense ppette_,
_volunt ry_ wen t solcts _ntellgent wll_; t t n te om n of
unconscous gences t s not conscous but _n tur l_ or _pysc l_
solctng te _n ture_ or _ ppettus n tur ls_ of tese gences.
Before nqurng nto te n ture of fn l c us lty we m y nc te
brefly te m n vsons of fn l c uses: some of tese concern te
om n of um n ctvty n re of mport nce to Etcs r ter t n to
Ontology.
(_ _) We  ve lre y stnguse between _ntrnsc_ n _extrnsc_
fn lty. An ntrnsc fn l c use s n en or object wc perfects te
n ture tself of te gent wc tens tow rs t: noursment, for
nst nce, s n ntrnsc en n rel ton to te lvng org nsm. An
extrnsc fn l c use s not one tow rs wc te n ture of te gent
mme tely tens, but one wc, ntene by some oter gent, s _e
f cto_ re lze by te tenency of te former tow rs ts own ntrnsc
en. Tus, te gener l orer of te unverse s n extrnsc en n
rel ton to e c nvu l gency n te unverse: t s n en ntene
by te Cre tor n _e f cto_ re lze by e c nvu l gency ctng n
ccor nce wt ts own p rtcul r n ture.
(_b_) Very sml r to ts s te f ml r stncton between te _fns
opers_ n te _fns oper nts_. Te former s te en necess rly n
_e f cto_ re lze by te ct tself, by ts very n ture, nepenently
of ny oter en te gent m y  ve expressly ntene to tt n by me ns
of t. Te l tter s te en expressly ntene by te gent, n wc
m y v ry for one n te s me n of ct. For nst nce, te _fns
opers_ of n ct of lmsgvng s te ctu l ng of te menc nt; te
_fns oper nts_ m y be c rty, or self-en l, or v nty, or w tever
oter motve nfluences te gver.
(_c_) A n to tose lso s
pysc l, or n tur l en,
en. Te former s t t tow
n tur ls_ of unconscous
ppreene by conscous

te stncton between n unconscous, or

n
conscous, or ment l, or ntenton l
rs wc te n ture or _ ppettus
gences tens; te l tter s n en
gent.

(__) An en m y be eter _ultm te_ or _proxm te_ or _nterme te_. An

ultm te en s one wc s sougt for ts own s e, s contr ste wt
n nterme te en wc s wlle r ter s me ns to te former, n
wt
proxm te en wc s ntene l st n sougt frst s me ns to
re lzng te oters. It soul be note t t proxm te n nterme te
ens, n so f r s tey re sougt for te s e of some ulteror en, re
not ens t ll but r ter me ns; only n so f r s tey present some goo
esr ble for ts own s e, re tey properly ens, or fn l c uses.
Furtermore, n ultm te en m y be suc bsolutely or rel tvely:
bsolutely f t c nnot possbly be suborn te or referre to ny
ulteror or ger goo; rel tvely f, toug ultm te n
p rtcul r
orer s comp re wt me ns le ng up to t, t s neverteless c p ble
of beng suborn te to ger goo, toug not ctu lly referre to

ts l tter by ny explct volton of te

gent t t see s t.

(_e_) We c n reg r te en for wc n gent cts eter

_objectvely_,_fns_ _objectvus_,or _form lly_,_fns_
_form ls_. Te former s te objectve goo tself wc te gent
wses to re lze, possess or enjoy; te l tter s te ct wereby te
gent form lly secures, ppropr tes, untes mself wt, ts objectve
goo. Tus, Go Hmself s te objectve  ppness (_be ttuo objectv _)
of m n, wle m ns ctu l possesson of, or unon wt, Go, by nowlege
n love, s m ns form l  ppness (_be ttuo form ls_).
(_f_) We m y stngus lso between te _re l_ en (_fns_ _qu_ or
_cujus_, n te _person l_ en (_fns_ _cu_). Te former s te
goo _wc_ te gent esres, te goo for te s e of _wc_ _cujus_
_gr t _) e cts. Te l tter s te subject or person _to wom_ e wses
ts goo, or _for wom_ e wses to procure t. Tus,
l bourer m y
wor to e rn _ susten nce_ for _mself_ or lso for _s f mly_. Te
re l n te person l en re never wlle sep r tely, but lw ys s one
concrete goo.
(_g_) Te stncton between _prncp l_ en n n _ ccessory_ en
(motvum _mpulsvum_) s obvous. Te former c n move to ct of tself
wtout te l tter, but te l tter strengtens te nfluence of te
former. A re lly c rt ble person, wle effc cously move to gve lms
by symp ty wt te poor, m y not be unnfluence by v nty to let oters
now of s c rty.
(__) Fn lly we m y note te teologc l stncton between te
_n tur l_ en, n te _supern tur l_ en, of m n s r ton l
n mor l gent. Te former s te en _ue_ to m ns n ture, te
l tter s n en wc s gr tutous n unue to s n ture. Go
mgt not  ve cre te te worl or m n, n n ts sense even
te n tur l en of m n s gr tutous gft of Go; but gr nte
t t Go  ecree to cre te te worl n m n, n en
corresponng to m ns n ture n powers w s ue to m: te
nowlege, servce n love of Go s nown to m n by te lgt of
n tur l re son. But s m tter of f ct Go, n Hs ctu l
provence,  s ecree for m n n ncomp r bly ger n purely
gr tutous en, n en reve le to m n by Go Hmself, n en
entrely unue not only to m n but to ny n every possble
cre ture: te Be tfc Vson of te Dvne Essence for ever n
e ven.
108. CAUSALITY OF THE FINAL CAUSE; RELATION OF THE LATTER TO EFFICIENT,
FORMAL, AND MATERIAL CAUSES.We c n best n lyse te nfluence of te
fn l c use by stuyng ts nfluence s exerte on conscous n
ntellgent gents. Te fn l c use  s postve nfluence of some sort
on te proucton,  ppenng, ctu lz ton of effects. W t s te n ture
of ts nfluence? Te fn l c use exerts ts nfluence by beng _ __
goo_, n ppreene goo; t exerts ts nfluence on te ppette of
te gent, solctng te l tter to perform cert n cts for te
re lz ton, tt nment, possesson, or enjoyment of ts goo. But t
must not be conceve s te _effcent c use_ of ts movement of te
ppette, nor m y ts nfluence be conceve s _ cton_. An effcent
c use must ctu lly exst n orer to ct; but wen te fn l c use, s n
ppreene goo, exerts ts nfluence on te ppette _t s not yet
ctu l_: not untl te gent, by s cton,  s re lze te en n
ctu lly tt ne t, oes te en, s goo, ctu lly exst. We must

stngus between te en _ s tt ne_ n te en _ s ntene_,

between te _fns n executone_ n te _fns n ntentone_. It s not
te en s tt ne t t s fn l c use; s tt ne t s n effect
pure n smple. It s te en s ntene t t s
fn l c use; n s
ntene t oes not yet ctu lly exst: ence ts nfluence c nnot be by
w y of _ cton_. Per ps t s te _e _ or _cognton_ of te ntene
en t t exerts te pecul r nfluence of fn l c use? No; te _e _ or
_cognton_ of te en ctu lly exsts, no oubt, n te conscous gent,
but ts s only conton, _conto sne qu non_, for te
ppreene goo, te fn l c use, to exert ts nfluence: _nl voltum
ns pr ecogntum_. It s not te cognton of te goo, owever, t t
moves te gent to ct, t s not te e of te goo t t te gent
esres or strves for, but te goo tself. It s te goo tself, te
nown goo, t t exerts te nfluence, n ts nfluence conssts n te
_p ssve ncln ton_ or _ ttr cton_ or _tenency_ of te ppette
tow rs te goo:
tenency wc necess rly results from te very
presence of te goo (not re lly or pysc lly of course, but
represent tvely, ment lly, _ntenton lly_, by _esse ntenton le_;
cf. 4) n te gents conscousness, n wc s form lly te
ctu lz ton of te c us l power or nfluence of te fn l c use. Just
s te effcent c use nfluences by ctng, s ys St. Tom s,(504) so
te fn l c use nfluences by beng ye rne for n esre.
Loo e t from te se of te gent t t unergoes t, ts nfluence s
_p ssve yelng_: ts next becomes n _ ctve_ moton of ppette;
n n te c se of free wll
elber te ct of ntenng te en,
followe by cts of coosng me ns, n fn lly by cts comm nng te
executve f cultes to employ tese me ns.
Loo e t from te se of te fn l c use, te nfluence conssts n n
_ ttr cton_ of ppette tow rs unon wt tself s goo. Te m tter
c nnot be n lyse muc furter; nor wll m gn ton m ges elp us ere
ny more t n n te c se of effcent c us lty. It must be note,
owever, t t te nfluence of te fn l c use s te nfluence not of
re lty s ctu l, or n ts _esse ctu le_, but of
re lty s present
to percevng mn, or n ts _esse ntenton le_. At te s me tme t
woul be mst e to nfer from ts t t te nfluence of te fn l
c use s not _re l_. It s sometmes escrbe s ntenton l c us lty,
_c us lt s ntenton ls_; but ts must not be t en to me n t t t
s not re l: for t s not te _esse ntenton le_ of te goo, _.e._
te cognton of te goo, ts presence n te mn or conscousness of
te gent, t t moves te l tters ppette: t s te ppreene goo,
ppreene _ s re l_, s possble of ctu l tt nment, t t moves te
gent to ct. Te nfluence m y not be _pysc l_ n te sense of beng
prouctve of, or nterc nge ble wt, or me sur ble by, corpore l
energy, or n terms of mec nc l wor ; nor s t; but t s none te less
re l.
But f te nfluence of fn l c use re lly re ces to te effect of te
gents ctons only troug te meum of te l tters ppette, n
terefore troug
ln of ntenton l c us lty, oes t not t once
follow t t te ttrbuton of fn l c us lty to te om n of
unconscous n norg nc ctvtes, c n be t best merely met porc l?
Te ttrbuton to suc gences of n _ ppettus n tur ls_ s
ntellgble nee s str ng n per ps not unpoetc met por. But
to conten t t t s nytng more t n met por, to cl m serously
t t n nm te gences re sw ye n nfluence by ens,s not ts
re lly to substtute mystcsm n mystery for r ton l specul ton n
n lyss?

Mec nsts re wont to smss te octrne of fn l c uses n te

pysc l unverse wt off n c rges of ts n. Tey re but too
re y to ttrbute t to
mystc l tttue of mn. Fn l c uses, tey
s y, re not scovere n n nm te n ture by te col, c lcul tng,
unemoton l n lyss to wc re son submts ts ctvtes, but re re 
nto t by mns wc llow temselves to be prompte by te m gn ton
n emotons to personfy n ntropomorpze n nm te gences. Te
ccus ton s s pl usble s t s unjust. It s pl usble bec use te
ttrbuton of fn l c uses to n nm te n ture, n of n ppettus
_n tur ls_ to ts gences, _seems_ to mply te recognton of
conscous, ment l, ntenton l nfluence n ts om n. But t re lly
mples notng of te sort; n ence te njustce of te c rge. W t
t oes mply s te exstence of genune _ n logy_ between te n ture
n n tur l ctvtes of pysc l gences on te one  n n te
ppette n ppettve ctvtes of conscous gences on te oter. Te
exstence of ts n logy s bsolutely unen ble. Te orerly,
nv r ble n unformly sut ble c r cter of pysc l ctvtes, smply
forces our re son to recognze n pysc l gences _n tures_ wc ten
tow rs ter evelopment, n wc by ter ctvtes tt n to w t s
_goo_ for tem, to w t _perfects_ tem. In oter wors we  ve to
recognze t t e c by ts n tur l lne of ctvty tt ns to results
t t re goo n useful to t _just s f_ t ppreene tem s suc
n conscously tene tow rs tem. Te n logy s tere; n te
recognton of t, so f r from beng
mystc nterpret ton of f cts,
s n element ry logc l exercse of our re sonng f culty. Te
scol stcs emp sze ter recognton of te n logy by c llng te
_n ture_ of n unconscous gent,te prncple of ts ctve tenences
tow rs te re lz ton of ts own perfecton n _ ppettus n tur ls_:
n expresson nto wc no one f ml r wt scol stc termnology woul
venture to re  ny element of mystcsm.(505)
Every sep r te gency n n ture  s unform moe of ctvty; by
followng out ts lne of cton e c co-oper tes wt ll te oters n
m nt nng te orerly course of n ture. Tese re f cts wc c ll for
expl n ton. Tey re not expl ne by te supposton of mec nsts t t
tese gences re mere effcent c uses: effcent c us lty oes not
ccount for orer, t  s got smply notng to o wt orer or
regul rty. Consequently te l st wor of te mec nc l plosopy on te
f ct of orer n te unverse sAgnostcsm. In opposton to ts
tttue we re f r from contenng t t tere s no mystery, or t t ll
s cle r eter n reg r to te f ct of _c nge_ or te f ct of
_regul rty_. Just s we c nnot expl n everytng n _effcent_
c us lty, so neter c n we expl n everytng n _fn l_ c us lty. But
we o conten t t te element of orer, evelopment, evoluton, even n
te pysc l unverse, c n be p rt lly expl ne by recognzng n ts
sever l gences _n ture_,
prncple of evelopment, p ssve
ncln ton mpl nte n te very beng of tese gences by te
Intellgent Autor of ter beng.
In conscous gences ts ncln ton or tenency to ctons conform ble
or _conn tur l_ to ter beng s not lw ys n ct; t s rouse by
conscous cognton, percepton, or m gn ton of _goo_, n oper tes
ntermttently. In unconscous gences t s congent l n const ntly n
ct, _.e._ s tenency, not s ctu lly oper tve: for ts ctu l
evelopment ue contons of envronment re requre: te see wll not
grow wtout sut ble sol, temper ture, mosture, etc. In conscous
gences te tenency, consere entt tvely or s re lty n tem, s
n _ ccent l form_; n unconscous gences t s ter _form
subst nt ls_, te form tve subst nt l prncple, wc etermnes te
specfc type to wc ter n ture belongs.(506)

In ll gences te ncln ton or ppette or tenency to cton rses

from form; n elcte ppette from n ntenton l form,
n tur l
ppette from n tur l form: _Omns ncln to seu ppettus
consequtur form m; ppettus elctus form m ntenton lem, ppettus
n tur ls form m n tur lem_. Te scol stc vew t t fn l c us lty
perv es ll tngs s expresse n te porsm, _Omne gens gt propter
fnem_: Every gency cts for n en.
From our n lyss of fn l c us lty t wll be seen t t te en
becomes c use by exercsng ts nfluence on te gent or effcent
c use, n tus nt tng te cton of te l tter. We  ve seen lre y
t t m ter l n form l c uses exercse ter c us lty epenently on
te effcent c use of te c nge or effect prouce by te l tter. We now
see t t te fn l c use, te en s _ntene_, etermnes te cton of
te effcent c use; ence ts c us lty ols te prm cy s comp re
wt t t of te oter c uses: t s n ts sense te c use of c uses,
_c us c us rum_.(507) But wle te en _ s ntene_ s te st rtng
pont of te wole process, te en _ s tt ne_ s te ultm te term of
te l tter. Hence te scol stc porsm: _Fns est prmus n ntentone
et ultmus n executone_. An ts s true were te process nvolves
seres of cts tt nng to me ns suborn te to n en: ts l tter s
te frst tng ntene n te l st tt ne.
Te fn l c use, te en s ntene, s extrnsc to te effect. It s
ntrnsc to te effcent c use. It s _form _ or etermn tve
prncple of te l tter: _form ntenton ls_ n conscous gents,
_form n tur ls_ n unconscous gents.
109. NATURE AND THE LAWS OF NATURE. CHARACTER AND GROUNDS OF THEIR
NECESSITY AND UNIVERSALITY. SCIENTIFIC DETERMINISM AND PHILOSOPHIC
FATALISM.By te term _n ture_ we  ve seen t t Arstotle n te
scol stcs me nt te essence or subst nce of n gent reg re s nner
prncple of te l tters norm l ctvtes, s etermnng te bent or
ncln ton of tese, n terefore s n re l sense ter fn l c use.
Hence Arstotles efnton of _n ture_ s _ cert n prncple or c use
of te moton n rest of te tng n wc t t prncple s roote
fun ment lly n essent lly n not merely ccent lly_.(508) Te
scol stcs, recognzng t t ts _ntento n tur e_, ts subjecton to
fn lty, n _unconscous_ gences must be te wor n te nex of
ntellgence, n oter wors t t ts _ n logc l_ fn lty n n nm te
tngs must connote _proper_ fn lty, properly purposve moe of
cton, n te utor of tese tngs, conceve ts _n ture_ or
_ntento n tur e_ s te mpresson of
vne rt or pl n upon te very
beng of ll cre tures by te Cre tor Hmself. Hence St. Tom ss profoun
n well- nown escrpton of _n ture_ s _te prncple of
vne rt
mpresse upon tngs, n vrtue of wc tey move tow rs etermn te
ens_. Defnng _ rt_ s _te just concepton __ of extern l wor s to be
ccomplse_,(509) e observes t t n ture s sort of rt: s f
sp-buler were to enow s m ter ls wt te power of movng n
 ptng temselves so s to form or construct sp.(510) An elsewere
e rem r s t t n ture ffers from rt only n ts t t te former s n
ntrnsc, te l tter n extrnsc, prncple of te wor wc s
ccomplse troug ts nfluence: so t t f te rt wereby sp s
constructe were ntrnsc to te m ter ls, te sp woul be constructe
by n ture s t ctu lly s by rt.(511)
Suc, ten, s te teleologc l concepton of te n ture of e c
nvu l gency n te unverse. Wen we spe of unvers l _n ture_,
extern l _n ture_, pysc l _n ture_, te course of _n ture_, te

l ws of _n ture_, etc. we re usng te term n collectve sense to

sgnfy te sum-tot l of ll te gences wc consttute te wole
pysc l unverse; n furtermore n ll suc contexts we usu lly
unerst n by _n ture_ te worl of _corpore l_ tngs s stnct from
te om n of _mn_ or _sprt_.
Te proof of ts vew,t t te gences of te pysc l unverse re not
merely effcent c uses, but t t tey ct uner te nfluence of ens;
t t tey  ve efnte lnes of cton wc re n tur l to tem, n
wereby tey re lze ter own nvu l evelopment n te m nten nce
of te unverse s _cosmos_; t t by ong so tey reve l te nfluence
of _ntellgent purpose_,te proof of ts vew les, s we  ve seen, n
te f ct t t ter ctvtes re regul r, unform, n mutu lly useful,
or, n oter wors, t t tey re prouctve of _orer_ (110). Be rng
ts n mn let us nqure nto te v rous me nngs scernble n te
very f ml r expressons, l ws of n ture, pysc l l ws, n tur l
l ws.(512)
We m y unerst n frstly by
l w of n ture ts nn te tenency we  ve
been escrbng s mpresse upon te very beng of ll cre te tngs by
te Cre tor. It s n ts sense we spe of tng ctng n tur lly,
or ccorng to te _l w_ of ts n ture, or ccorng to ts n ture,
wen we see t ctng ccorng to w t we conceve to be te en ntene
for t, ctng n
m nner conucve to te evelopment of ts own
nvu lty, te preserv ton of ts specfc type or n, n te
fulflment of ts rle n te gener l sceme of tngs. W t ts
n tur l moe of cton s for ts p rtcul r n of tng, we g ter
from our experence of te regul r or norm l ctvty of tngs of ts
n. Tus, we s y t s _l w_ of oxygen n yrogen to combne n
efnte proportons, uner sut ble contons, to form w ter; _l w_ of
ll p rtcles of m tter n te unverse to ten to move tow rs one
noter wt
efnte cceler ton; _l w_ of lvng org nsms to
reprouce ter n. Ts us ge comes ne rest to te orgn l me nng of
te term _l w_: precept or comm n mpose on ntellgent gents by
superor. For we conceve ts n tur l tenency mpresse on pysc l
gences by te Cre tor fter te n logy of precept or comm n. An we
 ve goo re son to o so: bec use _unformty of conuct_ n ntellgent
gents s te norm l result of ter obeence to l w mpose upon tem;
n we see n te ctvtes of te pysc l unverse n _ ll-perv ng
fe ture of regul rty_.
Seconly, we tr nsfer te term _l w_ to _ts result tself_ of te
n tur l tenency of te beng, of te convergence of ts ctvtes
tow rs ts en. T t s to s y, we c ll _te unform moe of cton_ of
n gent _l w of n ture_, _n tur l_ or _pysc l l w_. Ts us ge,
wc s common n te postve scences, mples
less profoun,
more
superfc l, but perfectly legtm te moe of ppreenng n stuyng
te c nges n penomen of te pysc l unverse.
Trly, snce te sever l gences of te unverse co-exst n tme n
sp ce, snce tey const ntly nter ct on one noter, snce for te
exercse of te n tur l ctvtes of e c _cert n extrnsc contons
of rel tonsp wt ts envronment_ must be fulflle, n ccur te
nowlege n ex ct formul ton of tese rel tons re obvously requste
for scentfc n pr ctc l nsgt nto te moe of ctvty of ny
n tur l gency. In f ct te pysc l scentst m y n oes t e for
gr nte te n tur l tenency n te unformty of cton resultng
terefrom, n confnes mself to _scoverng n formul tng te
rel tons between ny gven n of cton n te extrnsc contons
requste for ts exercse_. Suc, for nst nce, woul be ny cemc l

l w settng fort te me sure, n te contons of temper ture,

pressure, etc., n wc cert n cemc l elements combne to form
cert n cemc l compoun. To ll suc formul e scentsts gve te ttle
of _pysc l l ws_, or _l ws of pysc l n ture_. Tese formul e,
penomenon t es pl ce, settng fort
escrptve of te m nner n wc
wt te gre test possble qu ntt tve ex ctness te penomen l
f ctors(513) t t enter nto n precee n ccomp ny t, re l ws n
stll more superfc l n stll less plosopc l sense, but
sense
wc s most commonly n justly ccepte n te postve or pysc l
scences.
Before ex mnng te fe ture n c r cterstc of _necessty n
unvers lty_ wc enters nto ll tese v rous conceptons of
pysc l l w we  ve ere to observe t t t woul m e for
cle rness, n for better unerst nng between pyscs n
met pyscs, between scence n plosopy, between te
nvestg tor wo see s by observ ton n experment for te
proxm te penomen l contons n pysc l c uses of
penomen , n te nvestg tor wo see s for te ultm te re l
groun n expl n ton of tese l tter by specul tve n lyss of
tem, n by re sonng from te scentsts scoveres bout
tem,f t were unerstoo n gree t t nvestg ton nto te
scope n sgnfc nce n ultm te groun of ts fe ture of
st blty n te l ws of pysc l n ture belongs to te
plosoper r ter t n to te scentst. We  ve lre y c lle
ttenton to te f ct t t te proprety of suc n obvously
re son ble n ntellgble vson of l bour s lmost
unvers lly mtte n teory bot by scentsts n by
plosopers; toug, unfortun tely, t s not lw ys remembere
n pr ctce (100).
In teory te scentst ssumes, n very properly ssumes, t t
te gences wt wc e e ls re not c prcous, unrel ble,
rregul r, but st ble, rel ble, regul r n ter moe of cton,
t t n sml r sets of contons n crcumst nces tey wll ct
unformly. Wtout nqurng nto te ultm te grouns of ts
ssumpton e premses t t ll s conclusons, ll s nuctve
gener lz tons bout te ctvty of tese gences, wll ol
goo of tese l tter just n so f r s tey o ct ccorng to
s gener l postul te s to ter regul rty. He ten procees, by
te nuctve processes of ypotess n experment l
verfc ton, to etermne w t gences prouce suc or suc n
event, uner w t contons tey brng ts bout, w t re ll
te penomen l contons, postve n neg tve, nteceent n
concomt nt, n te bsence of ny one of wc ts event wll
not  ppen, n n te presence of ll of wc t wll  ppen.
Tese re, n ccor nce wt s ssumpton, _etermnng_ c uses
of te event; te nowlege of tem s from te specul tve pont
of vew extremely mport nt, n from te pr ctc l st npont of
nventon n pple scence extremely useful. As scentst e
 s no oter nowlege n vew: e ms t scoverng te ow,
te _quomoo_, of n tur l penomen ,ow, for nst nce, uner w t
contons n n w t me sure, w ter s prouce from oxygen n
yrogen. Wen e  s scovere ll tese postve n neg tve
contons s _scentfc_ nowlege of te form ton of w ter s
complete.
But tere re oter questons n reg r to n tur l penomen to
wc te experment l metos of te postve scences c n offer

no reply. Tey c n tell us notng bout te _wer_ ow wc

resolves tself nto wy. Tey c n gve no nform ton bout
te ultm te c uses, orgns, re sons, or essences, of tose
penomen . As P steur n oter equ lly llustrous scentsts
 ve procl me, experment l scence s essent lly postve,
_.e._ confne to te proxm te penomen l contons n c uses
of tngs; t  s notng to s y, nor  s t ny nee or ny rgt
to s y nytng, bout te ultm te n ture, or frst orgn, or
fn l estny, of te tngs n events of te unverse.
Yet suc questons rse, n cl mour nsstently for soluton.
_How_ s t, or _wy_ s t, t t n tur l penomen re unformly
ln e to cert n oter penomen l nteceents or pysc l
c uses? Is t bsolutely mpossble, nconcev ble, t t ts
sequence soul be foun not to obt n n even sngle nvu l
nst nce? Wy soul tere be suc unform sequences or l ws
t ll? Are tere exceptons, or c n tere be exceptons to tese
l ws of pysc l n ture? W t s te c r cter n w t re te
grouns of te _necessty_ of tese l ws? Every lvng org nsm
comes from
lvng cellnot from _ ny_ lvng cell, but from
_some p rtcul r n_ of lvng cell. But _wy_ re tere suc
ns of cells? Wy re tere lvng cells t ll? Wence ter
frst orgn? Ag n, gr nte t t tere re fferent ns or
types of lvng cells, _wy_ soul
p rtcul r n of cell gve
rse, by vson n evoluton, to n org nsm of te s me n
or type s te p rent org nsms? Wy oes t not _ lw ys_ o so?
Wy re w t bologsts escrbe s monsters n te org nc
ngom possble? An wy, snce tey re possble, re tey not
s numerous s w t re recognze s te norm l types or ns of
lvng org nsms?
Now tese re questons n reg r to wc not only every
professng pysc l scentst n every professng met pysc n,
but every tn ng m n, _must_ t e up some tttue or oter. A
refus l to conser tem, on te ple t t tey re nsoluble, s
just s efnte n tttue s ny oter; nor by ssumng ts
tttue oes ny m n, even toug e be
spec lst n some
ep rtment of te postve or pysc l scences, esc pe beng
met pysc n or plosoper, owever muc e m y eprec te
suc ttles; for e s t ng up re sone tttuewe presume t
s suc, n not te outcome of mere prejuceon ultm te
questons. An ts s plosopy; ts s met pyscs. Wen,
terefore, pysc l scentst eter vows or nsnu tes t t
_bec use_ te metos of pysc l scence, wc re sut ble for
te scovery of te _proxm te_ c uses of penomen , c n tell m
notng bout _ultm te_ questons concernng tese penomen ,
_terefore_ tere s notng to be nown bout tese questons, e
s not only commttng mself, _nolens volens_, to efnte
plosopc l vews, but e s ong
serous sservce to
pysc l scence tself by msconcevng n ms-st tng ts
rgtful scope n lmts. He  s just n equ l rgt wt ny
oter m n to utlze te est blse truts of pysc l scence to
elp m n nswerng ultm te questons. N y, e m y even use te
unverfe ypoteses n system tc conceptons(514) of pysc l
scence for w t tey re wort n elpng m to etermne s
gener l worl-vew. But s competence s spec lst n pysc l
scence oes not confer upon m ny _spec l_ qu lfc ton for
estm tng te v lue of tese truts n ypoteses s evence n
te om n of ultm te problems. Nor c n e, bec use e s
scentst, or even bec use e m y go so f r s to ssert te rgt

of spe ng n te n me of scence, cl m for s p rtcul r

nterpret ton te prvlege of exempton from crtcsm; n ts
s true no m tter w t s nterpret ton m y beweter t be
gnostcsm, mec nsm, teleologsm, monsm, or tesm. Tese
observ tons m y ppe r element ry n obvous; but te
nsnu ton of postvsm n penomensm, t t w tever s not
tself penomen l n verf ble by te experment l metos of
te pysc l scences s n no wse now ble, n te nsnu ton
of mec nsts t t ter worl-vew s te only one comp tble
wt te truts of scence n terefore te only scentfc
plosopy, justfy us n reter tng n emp szng even suc
obvous metoologc l conser tons. Be rng tem n mn, let
us now ex mne te unformty n necessty of te l ws of
pysc l n ture.
Unerst nng by n tur l l w te n tur l ncln ton or tenency of te
cre ture to efnte lne of ctvty, ts l w s of tself etermnng
or necesst tng. Moreover, t s bsolutely nsep r ble from te essence
of te cre ture. Gr nte t t te cre ture exsts, t  s ts tenency to
exert n rect ll ts forces n energes n
efnte, norm l w y,
for te re lz ton of ts en. Ts _nsus n tur e_ s never bsent; t
s observ ble even were, s n te gener ton of monsters by lvng
org nsms, t p rt lly f ls to tt n ts en. A l w of n ture, t en n
ts sense, s bsolutely necess ry to, n nsep r ble from, te cre te
gent; t mts of no exceptons; no gent c n exst wtout t; for t
s entc l wt te very beng of te gent
But te unformty of cton resultng from ts n tur l tenency, te
unform seres of norm l oper tons wereby t re lzes ts en, s not
bsolutely necess ry, nvol ble, unexcepton l. In te frst pl ce te
Autor of N ture c n, for ger or mor l purpose, prevent ny cre te
gency supern tur lly, mr culously, from ctu lly exercsng ts ctve
powers n ccor nce wt ts n ture for te prosecuton of ts n tur l
en. But p rt ltogeter from ts, bstr ctng from ll spec l
nterference of te Frst C use, n confnng our ttenton to te
n tur l orer tself, we  ve to conser t t for ny pysc l gency to
ct n ts n tur l or norm l m nner cert n extrnsc contons re
lw ys requste: oxygen n yrogen, for nst nce, wll combne to
prouce w ter, but only uner cert n contons of cont ct, pressure,
temper ture, etc. Ts gener l requrement rses from te f ct lre y
mentone, t t pysc l gences co-exst n tme n sp ce n re
const ntly nter ctng. Tese extrnsc contons re, of course, not
expressly st te n te formul ton of tose unformtes n qu ntt tve
escrptons c lle l ws of n ture n te secon n tr
nterpret tons of ts expresson s expl ne bove. It s t en s
unerstoo t t te l w pples only f n wen n were ll suc
contons re verfe. Te l w, terefore, s st te c tegorc lly, oes
not express n bsolutely necess ry, unvers l, n unexcepton l trut.
It m y mt of exceptons.
In te next pl ce, wen we come to ex mne tese exceptons to unformty,
tese f lures or frustr tons of te norm l or n tur l ctvtes of
pysc l gences, we fn t possble to stngus rougly, wt
Arstotle, between two groups of suc unformtes or l ws. Tere re
frstly tose wc, so f r s our experence goes, seem to prev l
_ lw ys_ (), unexceptin y; nd
ecndy, th
e which
eem t prev i
_gener y_, _r the m
t p rt_ ( ), u n
unxcnay. T m wud b  ucm  acv w
,
n
, c
, _d ac_ 
n and van away
and vyw

n a y
ca anc
, and 
uc a caac a  cndn

 u
   acua an wud b away
vd. Suc, 
n
anc, wud b  c  avy n a ndab ma; and
nc  aw  avan 
add a
a-vadn, unv
a,
unxcna. Bu  a  naua  nma c
wc a 
ucm  w
, c
, n
, n a-vadn, bu 
cd 

ca u
 anc
, dndn   acua ducn n 

nc  a a and cmx vay  xn
c cndn
, and
ab   b mdd by  nn acn  numu

naua anc
. Suc,  n
anc, wud b  naua w
and
c


wby vn an
m
aa  nd. T aw,
, wc
a
  b a unmy  nau a vn
an
m
duc 
n
ma  m
v
n nd, 
a na
aw, admn xcn
.
Oan
and c
wc w m  nau   cau

a
cad naua ( , ).(515) Some au
e

podue he
aual effe
_alay
_ ( ),
oters prouce ter n tur l effects _usu lly_, _ s gener l rule_ (
).(516) Oper tons n effects wc re prouce by te
nterferng nfluence of extrnsc gences ( vie
, as
ppsed 
ara), a
d
 i
arda
e wih he
are f heir
pri
ipa ase, are aed b Arise _aide
a_ ( ,
); n tese, e rem r s, people commonly escrbe
s ue to c nce ( ).(517)
A are famiiar wih eve
s r happe
i
s desribed as fris,
aide
a, exepi
a, 
expeed, wih hi
s happe
i
 b
ha
e, b (d r bad) k r fr
e.(518) There are erms i

a a
aes expressive f his experie
e_ass_, _srs_, _fr
a_,
, etc. Te noton unerlyng ll of tem s t t of sometng
occurrng unntenton lly, _pr eter ntentonem gents_. Weter c nce
effects result from te cton of ntellgent gents or from te oper ton
of pysc l c uses tey re not ntene,by te elber te purpose of
te ntellgent gent n te one c se, or by te n tur l tenency, te
_ntento n tur e_, of te mere pysc l gency n te oter. Suc n
effect, terefore,  s not _n tur l_ c use; ence t s consere
_excepton l_, n s lw ys more or less unexpecte. _N ture_, s
Arstotle rgtly observes,(519) never prouces
c nce effect. Hs
me nng s, t t wenever suc n effect occurs t s not brougt bout n
ccor nce wt te n tur l tenency of ny pysc l gency. It results
from collson or concence of two or more suc gences, e c ctng
ccorng to ts n ture. Te unters ct of frng t wl fowl s n
ntenton l ct. Te boys ct of comng nto te tc et to g ter wl
flowers s n ntenton l ct. Te ccent l sootng of te boy s te
result of
concence of te two ntenton l cts. Sml rly, e c of
ll te v rous gences wc brng bout te evelopment of n embryo n
te m tern l womb  s ts own mme te n p rtcul r n tur l effect, n
only me tely contrbutes to te gener l effect of brngng te embryo to
m turty. As rule tese p rtcul r effects re f vour ble to te gener l
effect. But sometmes te mme te ens o not subserve ts ulteror
purpose. Te result s ccent l, excepton l,
ev ton from te
norm l type, n nom ly, monster n te om n of lvng org nsms.
Arstotles n lyss, correct so f r, s ncomplete. It ssgns no
ultm te expl n ton of te f ct t t tere re suc encounters of
nvu l n tur l tenences n te unverse, suc f lures n te
suborn ton of p rtcul r ens to wer ulteror ens. As m tter of
f ct tese c nce effects, ltoug not ntene by te n tures of
nvu l cre te gences, re not wolly n entrely unntene. Tey

re not wolly mless. Tey enter nto te gener l pl n n sceme of

tngs s nown n wlle by te Autor of N ture. Tey re nown to Hs
Intellgence, n wlle n rule by Hs Provence. For Hm tere c n be
no suc tng s c nce. Effects t t re ccent l n rel ton to
cre te c uses, effects t t run counter to te n ture or _ntento
n tur e_ of tese, re foreseen n wlle by Hm n m e to subserve
t t wer n more gener l en wc s te unvers l orer of te worl
t t He  s ctu lly wlle to cre te. It s only n rel ton to te
n tures of nvu l gences, n to te lmte orzon of our fnte
ntellgences, t t suc penomen c n present te spect of fortutous or
c nce occurrences.
Before p ssng on to e l, n our conclung secton, wt te gre t f ct
of orer, let us brefly comp re wt te foregong expl n ton of n ture
n ts l ws te ttempt of mec nsts to expl n tese wtout
recognzng n te pysc l unverse ny nfluence of fn l c uses, or ny
nc ton of purposve ntellgence. We  ve venture to escrbe ter
tttue s plosopc f t lsm.(520) Accorng to ter vew tere s no
groun for te stncton between penomen t t  ppen n tur lly n
penomen t t  ppen ccent lly or by c nce. All l e  ppen by
te s me n of gener l necessty: te gener ton of monster s s
n tur l s te gener ton of norm l offsprng; te former, wen t
occurs, s just s nevt bly te outcome of te pysc l forces t wor
n te p rtcul r c se s te l tter s te outcome of te p rtcul r set
of effcent c uses wc o ctu lly prouce te norm l result: te only
fference s t t te former, occurrng less frequently n s te result
of r rer n less nown conjuncton of pysc l c uses t n te
l tter, s not expecte by us to occur, n s consequently reg re, wen
t oes occur, s excepton l. Now t s qute true t t w t we c ll
c nce effects, or excepton l effects, result just s nevt bly from
te set of forces oper tve n ter c se, s norm l effects result from
te forces oper tve n ters. But ts le ves for expl n ton sometng
wc te mec nst c nnot expl n. He reg rs pysc l l w merely s
gener lz ton, beyon experence, of some experence unformty; n e
ols t t ll our pysc l l ws re provson l n te sense t t wer
n eeper nowlege of te ctu l contons of nter cton mong te
pysc l forces of te unverse woul en ble us to elmn te
exceptonswc re ll pp rent, not re lby rest tng our l ws n suc
compreensve w y s to nclue ll suc c ses. We m y, nee, mt
t t our pysc l l ws re open to revson n rest tement n ts sense,
n re _e f cto_ often mofe n ts sense by te progress of
scence. But te mport nt pont s ts, t t te mec nst oes not
mt te exstence, n pysc l gences, of ny l w n te sense of
_n tur l ncln ton tow rs n en_, or n ny sense n wc t woul
mply ntellgence, esgn, or purpose. On te contr ry, cl mng s e
oes t t ll pysc l penomen re _reucble to mec nc l motons of
nert m sses, toms, or p rtcles of m tter n sp ce_, e s oblge to
reg r ll pysc l gences s beng, so f r s ter n ture s
concerne, wolly _nfferent_ to ny p rtcul r form of ctvty.(521)
Commtte to te nefensble vew t t ll qu lt tve c nge s
reucble to qu ntt tve (11), n ll m ter l fferences to
fferences n te loc ton of m ter l p rtcles n n te velocty n
recton of te sp t l moton mpresse upon e c by oters extrnsc to
tself, e  s left mself no f ctors werewt to expl n te ctu l
orer n course of te unverse, oter t n te purely _nfferent_
f ctors of essent lly or n tur lly omogeneous p rtcles of nert m tter
enowe wt loc l moton. We emp sze ts fe ture of nfference; for
te concepton of n nert p rtcle of m tter subject to mec nc l moton
mpresse upon t from wtout, s te very type of n nfferent gency.
W t suc n entty wll o, weter or not t wll move, wt w t

velocty n n w t recton t wll moven wor, ts entre conuct,

ts rle n te unverse, te sum-tot l of ts functonsnotng of ll
ts s epenent on tself; everytng epens on gences extrnsc to
t, n on ts extrnsc tme- n-sp ce rel tons to tese gences; n
tese l tter n turn re n te s me conton s tself. Now s t
concev ble t t gences of ts n, of temselves bsolutely
nfferent to ny p rtcul r n of effect, sut ble or unsut ble,
regul r or rregul r, orerly or sorerly, coul ctu lly prouce n
m nt n te exstng orer of te unverse? If tey were temselves
_prouce by n All-Wse n All-Powerful Beng_, n _efntely
rr nge_ n sp t l rel tons to one noter, n _nt l mec nc l
moton n efnte rectons n veloctes_ mpresse on te fferent
p rts of te system, tere s no enyng t t Infnte Wsom n Power
coul, by Dvne concurrence even wt suc nfferent gences, re lze
n m nt n _cosmos_, or _orerly_ unverse. Suc _purely extrnsc
fn lty_ (106) coul, bsolutely spe ng, ccount for te exstence of
orer, unformty, regul rty, system; toug ll te evence furnse
by te unverse of our ctu l experence ponts to te exstence of
_ntrnsc fn lty_ lso s unerstoo by Arstotle n te scol stcs.
But te mec nst wll not llow even extrnsc fn lty; e wll not
recognze n te ctu l unverse of our experence ny evence of
Rulng Intellgence re lzng pl n or esgn for n ntellgent purpose;
e enes te necessty of te nference from te  t of um n experence
to te exstence of Gung Intellgence. An w t re s ltern tves?
He m y coose one or oter of two.
He m y rest te n te more scentfc n mposng termnology of moern
mec ncs te crue concepton of te ncent Gree tomsts: t t te
ctu l orer of te unverse s te bsolutely nevt ble n f t l
outcome of
cert n colloc ton of te movng m sses of te pysc l
unverse, colloc ton f vour ble to orer, colloc ton wc _just
 ppene to occur_ by some  ppy c nce from te essent lly mless,
purposeless, nfferent n _c otc_ motons of tose m ter l m sses
n p rtcles. We s y c otc, for _c os_ s te bsence of _cosmos_;
n _orer_ s te f ct t t  s got to be expl ne. In te concept of
_nfferent, nert_ toms of m tter movng troug sp ce tere s
emp tc lly no prncple of orer;(522) n ence te mec nst wo wll
not mt te necessty of nferrng n Intellgence to gve tese movng
m sses or toms te colloc ton _f vour ble to orer_ s force to
expl n ts suppose colloc ton by ttrbutng t to pure c ncete
_concursus fortutus tomorum_ of te ncent Gree s. Wen, owever, we
reflect t t te more numerous tese toms n te more v re n complex
ter motons, te sm ller s te c nce of
colloc ton f vour ble to
orer; t t te toms n motons re suppose ctu lly to surp ss ny
ssgn ble number; t t terefore te c nce of ny suc f vour ble
colloc ton occurrng s nefntely sm ller t n ny me sur ble
proporton,we c n r w our own conclusons bout te v lue of suc
specul ton s r ton l expl n ton of te exstng _cosmos_. An ts
p rt ltogeter from te conser ton t t te f ct to be expl ne s
not merely te _moment ry_ occurrence of n orerly colloc ton, but te
_m nten nce_ of n orerly system of cosmc penomen _trougout te
l pse of ll tme_. No orerly fnte system of mec nc l motons
rr nge by um n s ll c n preserve ts orerly motons nefntely
wtout ntellgent um n supervson: te neglecte m cne wll get out
of orer, run own, we r out, f left to tself; n we re s e to
beleve t t te wole unverse s one v st m cne wc not only goes on
wtout ntellgent supervson, but wc ctu lly m e tself by
c nce!(523)
N tur lly suc

n expl n ton of te unverse oes not commen tself to

ny m n of serous tougt, w tever s ffcultes m y be g nst te

rgument from te f ct of orer n te unverse to te exstence of n
Intellgent Desgner. A to ts te conser ton t t te mec nst
teory oes not even cl m to ccount for te frst orgn of te
unverse: t postul tes te exstence of m tter n moton. In reg r to
ts supreme problem of te _frst orgn_ of te unverse te tttue of
te mec nst s vowely _ gnostc_; n n vew of w t we  ve just
rem r e bout te c nce teory s n expl n ton of te _exstng
orer_ of te unverse, t s no m tter for surprse t t most mec nsts
reject ts teory n embr ce te gnostc tttue n reg r to ts
l tter problem lso. Weter te gnostc tttue tey ssume be neg tve
or postve, _.e._ weter tey re content to s y t t tey temselves
t le st f l to fn ny s tsf ctory r ton l expl n ton of te
_orgn_ n _n ture_ of te _cosmos_, or conten furter t t no r ton l
soluton of tese problems s wtn te re c of te um n mn, ter
te cng s refute n N tur l Teology, were te testc soluton of
tese problems s set fort n vnc te.
110. THE ORDER OF THE UNIVERSE; A FACT AND ITS IMPLICATIONS.Te
conser tons so f r submtte n ts c pter, s pontng to te
exstence n nfluence of fn l c uses n te unverse, wll be
strengtene n complete by bref n lyss of _orer_ n ts
mplc tons.
We  ve seen lre y (55) t t te ppreenson of orer n tngs mples
te recognton of _some unfyng prncple n w t s m nfol_. W t, n
gener l, s te n ture of ts prncple? It s te _pont of vew_, te
_st npont_ from wc te unfyng rr ngement or sposton of te
m nfol s c rre out; n oter wors t s te _en_, _object_, or
_purpose_, of te orerly rr ngement. Te rr ngement, n te orer
resultng from t, wll v ry ccorng to te en n vewweter, for
nst nce, t be n rr ngement of boo s n lbr ry, of pctures n
g llery, of m ter ls n n efce, of p rts n m cne. Hence St.
Tom ss efnton of orer s te ue  pt ton of me ns to ens:
_rect r to rerum  fnem_. Wen ts  pt ton s te wor of um n
ntellgence te orer re lze s _ rtfc l_, wen t s te wor of
n ture te orer re lze s _n tur l_. Art s n extrnsc prncple of
orer, n ture mples nee lso n ntellgent extrnsc prncple of
orer, but s tself n ntrnsc prncple of orer: te wor s of n ture
n tose of rt  ve ts fe ture n common, t t tey m nfest
 pt ton of me ns to ens.(524)
Te _suborn ton_ of me ns to ens re lzes n orer wc  s for ts
unfyng prncple te nfluence of n _en_,
_fn l c use_. Te group
of _yn mc_ rel tons tus reve le consttutes w t s c lle
_teleologc l_ orer, te orer of _purpose_ or _fn lty_. Te
re lz ton or executon of suc n orer mples te smult neous
exstence of _co-orn te_ p rts or members n system,
re lze wole
wt complex, co-orn te, orerly p rts, te prncple of unty n ts
system beng te _form_ of te wole. Ts re lze, spose, or
consttute orer, s c lle te _estetc_ orer (55), te orer of
co-orn ton, composton, consttuton. In ultm te n lyss, owever,
tese two orers, te _teleologc l_ n te _estetc_,  vng s
respectve unfyng prncples te _fn l_ c use n te _form l_ c use,
re not two re lly stnct orers, but r ter two spects of one n te
s me orer: we  ve seen t t n te tngs of n ture te ntrnsc en or
fn l c use of e c s entc l wt ts _form subst nt ls_ or form l
c use (108). But te fn l c use s n tur lly pror to te form l c use,
n consequently te teleologc l orer s more fun ment l t n te
estetc.

St. Augustnes efnton of orer s te rr ngement of

multplcty
of tngs, sml r n ssml r, ccorng ts proper pl ce to
e c,(525) reve ls te _m ter l_ c use of orer n te multplcty of
v re elements, te _form l_ c use of orer n te group of rel tons
resultng from te rr ngement or _sposto_, n te _effcent_ c use
of orer n te gent t t sposes or rr nges tem. Te _fn l_ c use,
toug not rectly mentone, s mple n te f ct t t te pl ce of
e c f ctor n te system s necess rly etermne by te functon t  s
to fulfl, te p rt t s sute by ts n ture to pl y, n contrbutng to
te re lz ton of te en or purpose of te rr ngement.
If, ten, orer s _te rgt rr ngement or sposton of tngs
ccorng to ter estn ton, or n te mutu l rel tons em ne by
ter ens_, t necess rly follows t t te very exstence of _n tur l_
orer n te unverse mples t t ts unverse s not wor of _c nce_
but _purposve_ wor , just s te exstence of _ rtfc l_ orer n
proucts of um n rt mples t t tese proucts re not te result of
c nce but of ctvty nfluence by fn l c uses.(526)
It s n f ct mpossble to conceve orer except s resultng from te
nfluence of fn l c uses. Rgt re son rejects s n utterly n equ te
expl n ton of te n tur l orer of te unverse te f nt stc n
f r-fetce supposton of c nce colloc ton of nfferent,
unetermne n mless pysc l gences.(527) If we fn n te ctu l
pysc l unverse ffcultes g nst te vew t t ts unverse reve ls
te nfluence of fn l c uses, suc ffcultes o not rse from te
f ct t t tere s orer n te unverse, but r ter from te f ct t t
wt ts orer tere seems to coexst some egree of sorer lso. In so
f r fort s tere s n tur l orer tere s _cogent_ evence of te
nfluence of fn l c uses. An so necess ry s ts nference t t even
one sngle utentc nst nce of n tur l orer n n oterwse c otc
unverse woul oblge us to nfer te exstence n nfluence of fn l
c use to ccount for t t solt ry nst nce. We me n by n utentc
nst nce one wc evences re l n sust ne unformty, regul rty,
mutu l co-orn ton n suborn ton of f ctors n te be vour of ny
group of n tur l gences; for we llow t t tr nsent moment ry
colloc tons n concurrences of _nfferent_ gences, ctng mlessly
n wtout purpose s m tter of f ct, mgt present to our mns,
ccustome to see for orerly n purposve penomen , te eceptve
ppe r nce of orer.
Orer, ten, we t e t, necess rly mples te exstence n nfluence
of fn l c uses. Ts n turn, s we  ve lre y observe, mples wt
equ l necessty te exstence of _Intellgent Purpose_. If, ten, tere s
n tur l orer n te unverse, tere must exst n _Intellgent Wll_ to
ccount for ts n tur l orer.
Le vng te evelopment of ts lne of rgument to ts proper pl ce n
N tur l Teology, tere rem ns te smple queston of f ct: Is te
pysc l unverse
_cosmos_? Does t reve l orer n tur l orer
stnct from te rtfc l orer re lze by te um n mn n te
mec nc l n fne rts, n orer, terefore, re lze not by te um n
mn but by some oter mn, by te Dvne Mn? Te evences of suc
orer super boun. We  ve lre y referre to some of tem (106), nor s
tere ny nee to l bour te m tter. Two ponts, owever, n connexon
wt ts unvers lly recognze f ct of orer n te unverse, c ll for
bref menton before we conclue. Tey re n te n ture of ffcultes
g nst te orn ry, re son ble vew of te m tter, te vew on wc te
testc rgument from orer s b se.

In ccor nce wt te K nt n teory of nowlege t s objecte t t te

orer wc we ppreen, or tn we ppreen, n te unverse, s not
_re lly n_ te unverse of our experence, but s s t were _projecte
nto_ ts unverse by our own mns n te very process of cognton
tself. It s terefore not re l but only pp rent, not noumen l but only
penomen l. It s smply
prouct of te c tegorzng, unfyng,
system tzng ctvty of our mns. It s fe ture of te penomenon or
ment l prouct, _.e._ of te noumen l _ tum_ s _nveste wt
c tegory of tougt_. But weter or not t s c r cterstc of te
re l unverse tself m ns specul tve re son s by ts very consttuton
essent lly nc p ble of ever scoverng. Te teory of nowlege on
wc ts ffculty s b se c n be sown to be unsoun n erroneous.
For
crtcsm of te teory we must refer te re er to scol stc wor s
on Epstemology. It m y be observe, owever, p rt from te merts or
emerts of te teory, t t te experence f ct of orer s by no me ns
emolse or expl ne w y by ny questons t t m y be r se bout te
ex ct _loc ton_ of te f ct, f we m y so express t. Orer s f ct, n
unen ble, experence f ct; n t looms just s l rge, n cres out
just s nsstently for expl n ton, wt wcever of te mposng
jectves noumen l or penomen l plosoper m y coose to qu lfy
t; nor o we mns ts re lty by c llng t penomen l one wt more
t n we ncre se t t re lty by c llng t noumen l.
Te oter ffculty rses from te exstence of _sorer_ n te
unverse. Pessmsts of te type of Scopen uer or Netzsce concentr te
ter ttenton so exclusvely on te evences of sorer, te f lures
of  pt ton of me ns to ens, te efects n excesses, te prog lty
n penury, te p n n sufferng, wc boun n pysc l n turenot to
spe of mor l evl,t t tey become bln to ll evences of orer, n
procl m ll belef n orer n lluson.
Te pcture of
N ture, re n toot
Wt r vne(528)

n cl w

s, owever, te prouct of morb n str ugt m gn ton r ter

t n s ne vew of te f cts. Te unen ble exstence of sorer, of
pysc l evls, efects, f lures, frustr tons of n tur l tenency n te
unverse, oes not obscure or conce l from te norm l, unb sse mn te
equ lly unen ble evences of
gre t n we n gener lly prev lng
orer. Nor oes t conce l from suc
mn te f ct t t te exstence of
orer n ny me sure or egree mples of necessty te exstence of pl n
or esgn, n terefore of ntellgent purpose lso. Inferrng from ts
f ct of orer te exstence of Supreme Intellgence, n nferrng by
oter lnes of re sonng from te  t of experence te epenence of te
unverse on ts Intellgence s Cre tor, Conserver n Ruler, te test
s confronte wt te re lty of mor l n pysc l evl (52), _.e._ of
_sorer_ n te unverse. But e oes not see n ts sorer nytng
essent lly ncomp tble wt s est blse concluson t t te unverse
s fnte cre ton of Infnte Wsom, n free m nfest ton of te
l tter to m n. If te ctu l unverse s mperfect, e nows t t Go
cre te t freely n mgt  ve cre te more perfect or
less perfect
one. Knowng t t Go s All-Powerful s He s All-Wse, e nows t t te
ctu l unverse, toug mperfect _ bsolutely_, s perfect _rel tvely_,
n t t t nf llbly reve ls te Dvne Wsom n Gooness ex ctly n
te me sure n wc Go  s wlle to reve l Hmself n Hs wor s.

Conscous on te one  n t t s fnte mn c nnot tr ce n et l ll

te purposes of Go n n ture, or ssgn to ll nvu l events ter
vnely pponte ens, e s confent on te oter  n t t te wole
unverse s ntellgble only s te wor ng out of
Dvne pl n, n not
oterwse. To s mn s test tese lnes re
cle rer expresson of
r ton lly groune optmsm t n tey were per ps even to te poet wo
penne tem:
I trust n n ture for te st ble l ws
Of be uty n utlty. Sprng s ll pl nt
An Autumn g rner to te en of tme.
I trust n Gote rgt s ll be te rgt
An oter t n te wrong, wle He enures;
I trust n my own soul, t t c n perceve
Te outw r n te nw r, N tures goo
An Gos.(529)
We  ve seen t t te gences wc consttute te unvers l orer  ve
e c ts own nner prncple of fn lty; t t tese gences re not
sol te but mutu lly rel te n suc w ys t t te ens of e c subserve
n extrnsc n remoter en wc s none oter t n ts unvers l orer
wereby we recognze te worl s _cosmos_. Te m nten nce of ts
orer s te _ntrnsc_ en of te unverse s wole: n en wc s
_mm nent_ n te unverse, n en wc s of course _ goo_. But ts
unvers l orer tself s _for n en_, n _extrnsc_, _tr nscenent_
en, stnct from tself; n ts en, too, must be _ goo_. Te
unverse, s ys St. Tom s,(530)  s te goo of orer n noter
stnct goo. Te unvers l orer, s ys Arstotle,  s tself n en,
_goo_, wc s _one_, n to wc ll else s or ne:
.(531) W t c n ts Supreme Goo be, ts bsolutely Ultm te
En, ts Tr nscenent Prncple of ll n ture, n of ll n tures
tenences n ctvtes? Wence comes ts unvers l tenency of ll
n ture, f not from te Beng wo s te One, Etern l, Immut ble Prme
Mover,(532) n wose movng nfluence s Love?(533) Suc s te profoun
tougt of Arstotle, tougt re-ecoe so sublmely by te mmort l
poet of Crst n plosopy n te closng lne of te _P r so_:
L mor ce muove l Sole e l ltre stelle.
Te mme te f ctors of te unvers l orer of n ture, temselves evo
of ntellgence, must terefore be te wor of Intellgent Wll. To
rr nge tese f ctors s p rts of one  rmonous wole, s members of one
orerly system, Supreme Wsom must  ve conceve te pl n n cosen te
me ns to re lze t. Te m nfest ton of Gos glory by te re lz ton
of ts pl n, suc s te ultm te tr nscenent en of te wole cre te
unverse. Te wole orer of te unverse, wrtes St. Tom s, evelopng
te tougt of Arstotle,(534) s for te Prme Mover tereof; ts orer
 s for ts purpose te wor ng out n n orerly unverse of te pl n
conceve n wlle by te Prme Mover. An ence te Prme Mover s te
prncple of ts unvers l orer.
Te truts so brefly outlne n ts closng c pter on te orer n
purpose of te unverse  ve nowere foun more pt n luc
plosopc l formul ton t n n te monument l wrtngs of te Angel of
te Crst n Scools; nor per ps  ve tey ever elsewere ppe re n
more felctous settng of poetc m gery t n n tese st nz s from te

mmort l epc of te Poet of te Crst n Scools:

... Le cose tutte qu nte
H nn orne tr lor ; e quest form
Ce lunverso Do f smgl nte.
Qu veggon l lte cre ture lorm
Delleterno V lore, l qu le fne
Al qu le f tt l tocc t norm .
Nell orne co co sono cclne
Tutte n ture per verse sort
P l Prncpo loro e men vcne;
One s muovono vers port
Per lo gr n m r ellessere, e c scun
Con nstnto le  to ce l port.
Quest ne port l fuoco nver l Lun :
Quest ne cuor mort l permotore;
Quest l terr n se strnge e un .
N pur le cre ture, ce son fuore
Dntellgenz , quest rco s ett
M quelle c  nno ntelletto e more.
L Provenz , ce cot nto ssett ,
Del suo lume f l cel sempre queto,
Nel qu l s volge quel c m ggor frett :
E or l, com
sto ecreto,
Cen port l vrt  quell cor ,
Ce c ce scocc rzzo n segno leto.(535)

INDEX.
Absolute, te, 47 _sq._;
n rel tve, 332 _sqq._
Accents, nvu
c uses of, 235-6;
vsons of, 237
exstence n rel
_n._,

ton of, 133 _sqq._;

_sqq._;
ton to subst nce, 232 _sqq._, 240 _sqq._, 243, 247
249, 313.

_Acto et p sso_, _v._ c us lty, c uses.

_Acto ntenton ls_, 378.
_Acto n st ns_, 395-6.
Acton, mm nent n tr nstve, 73, 369, 391-2.
Actu l n potent l, 52 _sqq._ n _p ssm_.

Actu lty, gooness

n perfecton, 173 _sqq._

_Actus Purus_, 54, 58.

AEGIDIUS, 108 _n._
_Aeveternt s_, _ evum_, 230.
Agnostcsm, 96, 97, 335, 383, 409, 414, 427.
ALBERTUS MAGNUS, 108 _n._, 201 _n._, 288.
ALEXANDER OF HALES, 110 _n._, 112 _n._
An logy, n logc l prec ton, 36 _sqq._, 122 _n._, 212, 240, 272, 330;
. nference, 386-7, 391.
ANDRONICUS OF RHODES, 17.
_Anm mun_, 284.
ANSELM, ST., 353 _n._
Antropology, 19.
Appette, 167 _sqq._
_Appettus n tur ls_, 409-10, 413-15.
ARISTOTLE, on plosopy, 5;
on estetcs, 13;
on teology, 15, 16;
on spec l scences, 16;
on n logy, 40;
on c nge, 51, 56, 68 _sqq._;
on essence, 75;
on nvu l, 120-1;
on te goo, 167 _sqq._;
on be uty, 200 _n._, 201 _n._;
on subst nce n ccent, 209, 249;
on frst n secon subst nces, 252-3;
on qu lty, 287, 290-2;
on  bts, 293-6;
on qu ntty, 311 _n._;
on pl ce, 318;
on tme, 342;
on rel ton, 337 _n._, 346-8;
on prncples, 358 _n._;
on c uses, 361 _sqq._, 367;
on fn l c uses, 406 _sqq._;
on n ture, 416 _sqq._, 422-4, 426;
on orer of te unverse, 433.
Art,

n n ture, 416-17.

Arts, fne n mec nc l, 13, 14, 430;

n scence, 194-5;
scope of, 204 _sqq._;
n mor ls, 205-6.

Atomsm, _v._ Mec nsm.

AUGUSTINE, ST., on b ss of possble essences, 89 _n._, 94;
on evl, 185 _n._;
on be uty, 198, 200 _n._, 202 _n._;
on tme, 322;
on orer, 429.
AUREOLUS, 110 _n._
AVERROSM, 284.
BALMES, 89 _n._, 90 _n._, 93.
BAEZ, D., 108 _n._, 350 _n._
BAUMGARTEN, 192 _n._
_Be ttuo_, 175 _n._, 411.
Be uty, te Be utful, 13, 14;
n lyss of, 192 _sqq._;
efntons of, 201 _sqq._
Beng, concept n lyse, 32 _sqq._;
re l beng n logc l beng, 10, 42 _sqq._, 85, 140.

n Ie l Beng, 45 _sqq._, 85.

fun ment l stncton n, 46 _sqq._

met pysc l gr es of, 123 _sqq._
potent l n

ctu l, 51 _sqq._

BERGSON, 30, 289 _n._, 303.

BERKELEY, 215, 221, 350 _n._, 400.
BIEL, G., 110 _n._
BILLOT, 266 _n._
Bloc ton, 322.
BOTIUS, 329.
BOIRAC, 343.
BONAVENTURE, ST., on stncton of soul
BOSSUET, 196, 360.
BROWNING, 432.
BRUNETIRE, 196.
BULLIAT, 130 _n._

n f cultes, 247-8.

CAJETAN, 24, 38 _n._, 108 _n._, 350 _n._

CAPREOLUS, 87 _n._, 108 _n._, 350 _n._
CARY, 434 _n._
C tegores, ultm te, n lyss of, 208 _sqq._;
not equ tely stnct s moes, 210-11, 350;
but ex ustve, 211-12.
_C us exempl rs_, 362.
_C us lt s_ _ntenton ls_, 413.
C us lty, c uses, noton n lyse, 357 _sqq._;
cl ssfc ton, 361 _sqq._;
prncple of C., 369 _sqq._, 384-5;
plur lty of c uses, 380;
c us lty n unformty, 377, 381, 382;
pysc l c use, 382, 419;
penomenst vew of, 382 _sqq._;
n nuctve scence, 359, 379, 381, 382 _n._;
n etermnsm, 377;
n cre ton, 391, 400-1.
C us lty, effcent, s nex of re l stncton, 148;
cl ssfc ton of effcent c uses, 372 _sqq._;
nstrument l, 373-6;
objectve v lty of concept, 382 _sqq._;
orgn of concept, 385 _sqq._;
n lyss of, 366 _sqq._, 388 _sqq._;
erroneous teores of, 392-6;
n occ son lsm, 396 _sqq._, 400 _sqq._
fn l (_v._ purpose), 361, 368;
ntrnsc n extrnsc fn lty, 404 _sqq._, 426;
ll-perv ng nfluence of, 409;
vsons of, 409 _sqq._;
n lyss of, 411_sqq._;
s mplyng ntellgence, 409, 414-15, 426.
form l, 361, 364-5.
m ter l, 361, 364-6.
C nce, 423 _sqq._
C nge, 61 _sqq._, 302-5;
n tme, 323;
n c us lty, 367, 389-96.
CICERO, 1.
CLARKE, 135.
_Cognto_ _vulg rs_, 2.
Composton, logc l n met pysc l, 34;
essent l n ntegr l, 311, 314-16;
s nex of fnteness, 248.

COMTE, 30, 334.

Conceptu lsm, 24, 125.
_Concursus Dvnus_,66, 329, 348, 375 _n._, 388 _sqq._;
necessty of, 389-91, 401-3.
Conton, n c use, 358-9, 419.
Conscousness, n person lty, 273, 277 _sqq._;
sublmn l, 282 sqq.
Consttutve or constructve f ctors n tougt, 45, 74, 340, 355-6.
Contngent n necess ry Beng, 47.
Co-oper ton, n plosopc l stues, 30.
Correl tves, 388.
_Corrupto et gener to_, 71, 186.
Cosmology, 16, 19, 285, 309, 364, 388, 393.
COUSIN, 301, 387.
_Cre to b eterno_, 89, 328.
Crterology, _v._ Knowlege, teory of.
DANTE, 434 n.
DAVID OF DINANT, 125 _n._
DE MUNNYNCK, 84 _n._, 89 _n._, 91 _n._, 94 _n._, 95 _n._
DE SAN, 241 _n._, 327 _n._, 331 _n._
DESCARTES, on b ss of essences, 96, 97;
on subst nce, 214, 226-8, 230, 241 _n._;
on ccents, 244;
on corpore l subst nce, 312-13, 315, 397.
Desgn, _v._ purpose n fn l c use.
DE WULF, 6 _n._, 27 _n._, 29 _n._, 156 _n._, 195 _n._, 284.
Dsposton, _v._  bt.
_Dspostones

 form m_, 295 n.

Dsorer, f ct of, 431-2.

Dstnctons, octrne of, 105 _sqq._, 139 _sqq._, 242-3, 249-51, 301-5.
DOMET DE VORGES, 387 _n._
Double l w n m n, 176.

Double person lty, 282-4.

DRISCOLL, 89 _n._
DUPASQUIER, 99 _n._
DURANDUS, 110 _n._
Dur ton, 322, 325 _n._, 328 _sqq._
Euc ton, n  bts, 298.
Effcency, concept of, _v._ c use (effcent).
Ego, _v._ person.
ELEATICS, 51, 125, 303.
En (_v._ purpose), 406.
Energes, equv lence of, 395.
_Ens se_, _ b lo_, 47;
n _ens n se_, 230-1, 334.
_Ens r tons_, _v._ Beng.
Entt tve  bt, 292 _n._
Epstemology, _v._ Knowlege, teory of.
_Esse_ _ntenton le_, 45, 46, 412.
Essence, n lyss of, 75 _sqq._;
n n ture n subst nce, 79, 258.
Estetcs, 13, 14, 192 sqq.
Eternty, 328 _sqq._;
of essences, 80 _sqq._
Eter, ypotess of, 317, 395.
Etcs, 11-12, 296-7, 428-9.
Euc rst, n subst nce n ccents, 223 _n._, 233, 243 _n._;
n qu ntty, 312-16; 319 _n._, 322, 345 _n._
EUCKEN, 28.
Evl, n lyss of, 182 _sqq._
Exempl rsm, 98, 100, 161-2.
Exstence, n essence, 101-13;
of ccents, 243-61;
n subsstence, 266, 269;
n cton, 301.
Extenson, _v._ qu ntty.

Extrnsc enomn tons, 238, 239.

F cultes, 298 _sqq._;
n subst nce, 300 _sqq._
F t

n re son, 5.

F t lsm, 424 _n._

Fgure, or form, s nc tve of n ture, 292-3.
_Fns_, fn lty, _v._ purpose n fn l c uses.
Fnte n Infnte, 47, 301-3.
FONSECA, 113 n.
_Form _

s essence or n ture, 78-9, 130.

_Form e subsstentes_, 129.

Form l unty, 156.
_Form lt tes_, 154.
Form tve prncples, smplcty of, 317-18;
plur lty n te nvu l, 365 (_n._ 4).
FRANCIS OF VITTORIA, 113 _n._
FRANZELIN, 110 _n._, 267 _n._
Free c uses, 376-7;
n occ son lsm, 398.
Freeom of tougt, 6.
_Gener to_, _v._ _corrupto_.
Genuenss, 98 _n._
_Genus_ n _fferent _
(_n._ 4).

s _m ter _

GEULINCX, 397.
GIOBERTI, 94.
Goo, n lyss of te, 167 _sqq._;
vsons of te, 175 _sqq._;
n beng, 177 _sqq._;
n be uty, 193.
GOUDIN, 108 _n._
Gr ceful, eleg nt, te, 199 _n._
GREGORY OF VALENTIA, 110 _n._

n _form _, 79 _n._, 365

H bt, n lyss of, 292 _sqq._

_H eccet s_, 125, 132.
HARPER, 99 _n._
HEGEL, Hegel nsm, 30, 33, 46, 49, 67-8, 97, 208, 335.
HENRY OF GHENT, 87 _n._, 113 _n._
HERACLITUS, 51, 303.
HICKEY, 89 _n._
HOBBES, 334.
HFFDING, 230 _n._
HUME, 213;
on subst nce, 215, 217, 221;
on c use, 370 _n._, 385.
HUNLEY, 219 _n._
_Hypost ss_, 265.
Hypost tc Unon, 267-71.
Ie lsm, 214, 334-6, 341, 343, 400.
Ientty, 135 _sqq._;
n c nge, 139, 226, 241, 278;
person l, 276, 277 _sqq._
Imm ter l, postvely

n neg tvely, 16.

Immensty, Dvne, 319.

Impenetr blty, 309, 322.
_Incommut bl ver _, 89 _n._
Inscernbles, entty of, 135.
Invu ton, 120, 123 _sqq._, 148, 261.
Infnte n Fnte, 47;
n c tegores, 212.
Infnte regress n c us ton, 373.
Inerence, _v._ ccent.
_Intento ments_, 10, 43, 144 _n._, 145, 211, 339.
_Intento n tur e_, 414 _n._, 416, 423.
Intenton l c us lty, 413.
JAMES, 30;

on person l entty, 283-4.

JOHN OF ST. THOMAS, 108 _n._, 350 _n._
JOSEPH, on me nngs of c use, 379-80.
JOUFFROY, 275.
KANT, 21, 30, 121, 145, 201, 208, 228, 334, 335, 343, 385, 393, 394, 430.
KAPPES, M., 75 _n._
KLEUTGEN, 38, 39, 40, 43, 87 _n._, 103 _n._, 142 _n._;
on ccents, 242, 247 _n._, 267 _n._, 330 _n._
KLIMKE, 67 _n._
Knowlege, rel tvty of, 335 _sqq._
scentfc, 2.
teory of, 11, 20, 23, 45, 46, 70, 108;
n octrne of stnctons, 143-6, 151-3;
n c tegores of beng, 207 _sqq._, 285, 289;
n c tegory of rel ton, 332 _sqq._, 385;
n c us lty, 393;
n orer, 430-1.
_L censs, Plosop _, 21.
LACORDAIRE, 89 _n._
LADD, 24, 27.
LAHOUSSE, 99 _n._
LAMINNE, 60 _n._, 371 _n._
L w, of n ture, 418 _sqq._
LEIBNIZ, 21, 98 _n._, 135, 182, 227, 298, 387, 406.
LEO XIII, 7, 26.
LIBERATORE, 99 _n._
LITTR, 213.
LOCKE, on subst nce, 214, 221;
on person lty, 277-84, 334.
Logc, 10.
MAHER, 223 _n._, 230 _n._, 273 _n._;
on conscousness of self, 274-6, 282 _n._;
on teores of self, 283-4, 289 _n._;
on percepton of tme, 324 _n._, 326-7;
on rel tvty of nowlege, 336 _n._;
on c use, 386 _n._

MALEBRANCHE, 397-400.
M ncesm, 182, 189-91.
MASTRIUS, 99 _n._
_M ter

prm _, Arstotle on, 71-2.

_M ter

sgn t _, 127, 129, 131, 135.

M tem tc l unty, 116, 119.

M tem tcs, plosopy of, 17, 25.
M tter, n evl, 190.
vsblty of (_v._ nvu ton), 317;
contnuty of, 317-18.
Me surement, rel tvty of, 325-7.
Mec nsm, mec nc l concepton of unverse, 69, 265, 289, 393-6, 404,
409, 413, 414, 424-9.
Memory, n person lty, 276-84.
MENDIVE, 99 _n._
MERCIER, on vson of met pyscs, 21;
on scol stcsm, 26-7;
on c r cterstcs of essences, 83, 93-4;
on n logc l concept of Go, 97;
on stncton, 107;
on penomensm, 213, 224 _n._, 269 _n._;
on f culty n subst nce, 305 _n._;
on nter cton, 391;
on effcent c use, 393 _n._;
on occ son lsm, 398 _n._;
on mec nsm, 426 _n._, 429 _n._
Met por, n

n logy, 39.

Met pyscs, vson of, 15 _sqq._;

etymology of, 17, 18;
scope of, 24, 25, 27;
n pyscs, _v._ pyscs.
MILL, 213, 220, 334, 343;
on c uses, 382.
Mo l stncton, 150, 245 _sqq._
Moes, ccent l n subst nt l, 150-1, 239, 245 _sqq._, 270, 325 _n._,
330-1.
MOLINA, 113 _n._
Mon ology, of Lebnz, 227.
Monsm, 46, 97, 103, 125, 230, 284, 350 _n._, 399. 409.

Monopystes, 268.

Monopsycsm, 284.
Mor l c use, 377-8.
Mor lty n

rt, 205-6.

Moton (_v._ c nge), n effcent c us lty, 392-6.

Multtue,

ctu lly nfnte, 321-2.

N ture n subst nce, 257 _sqq._;

n person, 261 _sqq._;
n lyss of noton of, 461 _sqq._
Necess ry

n Contngent Beng, 47.

Necessty of essences, 81 _sqq._

of pysc l l ws, 419-28.
NEWMAN, on scope of plosopy, 22, 31;
on c us lty, 377, 387.
NIETZSCHE, 431.
_Nsus n tur e_, 421.
Nomn lsm, 125.
_Not s nvu ntes_, 124, 131.
NYS, 309 _n._, 311 _n._, 321 _n._, 327 _n._, 328 _n._, 395 _n._
Occ son, n c use, 359.
Occ son lsm, 226, 387, 388;
ex mne, 396-403.
Ontology, 21, 23.
Ontologsm, 95, 350 _n._
Optmsm, 181-2, 432.
Oler, st tc n yn mc, 199, 428;
n be uty, 194, 199, 428;
n tur l n rtfc l, 428;
n rel ton, 342;
n fn l c use, 428;
n form l c use, 429;
n ntellgent purpose, 417, 429-30, 433.
P npsycsm, 250.
P ntesm, _v._ monsm.
PAULSEN, 213, 226-7.

Perfecton, n lyss of, 171 _sqq._;

n be uty, 201;
gr es of, 59, 172-3;
n subst nces, 134, 255;
n stncton, 142 _n._;
n  bt, 297;
n rel ton, 342.
Person, person lty, 262 _sqq._;
efnton of, 265, 270 _n._;
stncton from nvu l n ture, 266 _sqq._;
f lse teores of, 276 _sqq._;
subconscous, 283-4.
PESCH, 99 _n._
Pessmsm, 181-2, 431.
Penomensm, n subst nce, 213 _sqq._, 223;
subst nt lzes ccents, 215;
subst nt lzes conscousness, 281, 282-4;
n c us lty, 382 _sqq._, 398, 421.
Plosopy, noton of, 2 _sqq._;
vsons of, 7 _sqq._;
n spec l scences, 28-9.
Pl ce, n lyss of, 318 _sqq._
PLATO, 93, 94, 95, 167, 200 _n._, 201.
Ple sure, sensble n estetc, 196-7, 205-6.
POINCAR, 199 _n._
Postvsm, 214, 334, 383, 409, 421.
Possble, te, 52 _sqq._, 82 _sqq._;
n ntellgble, 97;
n p ssve potent lty, 109.
_Potent obe nt ls_, 372.
Potent l, _v._ ctu l.
Power, oper tve, 55;
n p ssve potent lty, 298 _sqq._;
s nex of perfecton, 202 _n._;
cl ssfc ton of, 305.
_Pr escso objectv

et form ls_, 34, 146-7.

Prme mover, necessty of, 65-7.

Prncple, noton of, 357-8.
_Prv to_, 62, 358.
Provence, n c nce, 424.

Psycology, 19, 296.

Purpose, n te goo, 169, 405 _sqq._;
n perfecton, 408;
n orer, 429.
PYTHAGORAS, 1.
QUALITY, n lyss of, 286 _sqq._;
vsons of, 288 _sqq._;
c r cterstcs of, 305 _sqq._;
gr es of ntensty n, 307.
Qu ntty, n nvu ton, 133;
n lyss of, 309 _sqq._;
n corpore l subst nce, 311 _sqq._;
ntern l n extern l, 309-10, 314.
R te, noton of, 325 _n._, 327 _n._
RADA, 99 _n._
Re lsm, moer te, 23, 125, 133, 242-3, 320.
extreme, 46, 156-7.
Re son, n c use, 359-60.
suffcent, 135, 182, 360.
REINSTADLER, 106 _n._
Rel ton, n lyss of, 336 _sqq._;
logc l, 338 _sqq._;
re l, 341 _sqq._;
tr nscenent l, 345;
prec ment l, 346 _sqq._ ;
re lty of te _esse _, 350-6.
Rel tve, te, 47 _sqq._, 332 _sqq._
RENOUVIER, 335.
Revel ton, 4 _sqq._, 12, 25, 189, 233, 247, 252, 263, 265, 267, 312-15,
328, 358 _n._
RICKABY, 276 _n._
ROSCOE, 83 _n._
ROYCE, 25.
SCHIFFINI, 99 _n._
Scol stcsm, 26, 30;
on subst nce, 218 _sqq._
SCHOPENHAUER, 431.

Scence, _v._ nowlege.

Scences, spec l, 16, 27;
t Louv n n M ynoot, 29 _n._
SCOTUS, 34, 39 _sqq._, 99, 113, 125, 132, 153 _sqq._, 247, 267 _n._
Self, conscousness of, 274 _sqq._ (_v._ person.)
SENECA, 424 _n._
_Sensbl propr et commun _, objectvty of, 70;
_per se et per ccens_, 218, 260.
Senssm, 334, 383 _n._, 394 _n._
Sml rty, n entty, 137, 306;
n stncton, 153.
Smplcty, n qu ntty, 307 _n._
_Stus_, c tegory of, 309, 319 _n._
SOCRATES, 167.
Solpssm, 86.
SONCINAS, 108 _n._
SOTO, D. DE, 113 _n._
Sp ce, n lyss of, 319 _sqq._;
problems on, 321-2.
Spec lsts, scentfc, n met pyscs, 27-28.
_Speces express _, 46;
_sensbls_, 313.
SPENCER, 30, 213, 228, 229, 335.
SPINOZA, on subst nce, 230-2, 334, 399.
Sprts, nvu ton of, 129, 131.
STORCHENAU, 98 _n._
SUAREZ, 41, 44, 110 _n._, 111 _n._, 267 _n._
Sublme, te, 199 _n._
_Subsstent _, 131, 261 _sqq._ (_v._ person), 271-3.
Subst nce, c tegory of, unen ble n tougt, 209, 215, 220, 281, 282-4;
re lty of, 213 _sqq._;
cognoscblty of, 213 _sqq._, 219 _sqq._;
plur lty of, 221;
stncton from ccents, 224 _sqq._, 301-5;
erroneous notons of, 225 _sqq._;
perm nence of, 229, 277;

vsons of, 252 _sqq._;

complete n ncomplete, 254 _sqq._;
corpore l n sprtu l, 253-4, 315-6;
rel ton to sp ce, 319.
Subst nt l c nge, 71.
SULLY-PRUDHOMME, 203 _n._
Supern tur l teology, 5, 12, 13.
en, 411.
_Suppostum, suppost lt s_, _v._ person, person lty.
TAINE, 213.
T ste, estetc, 197.
Teleology, _v._ purpose n fn l c use.
TENNYSON, 31, 431.
Teocy, 21.
Teology, n tur l, 15, 19, 182, 189, 285, 334, 438, 430.
THOMAS, ST., on vson of plosopy, 9, 18, 26;
on n logy, 36;
on bsolute beng, 49;
on cton, 60, 64;
on essences, 76, 79, 92;
on exstence n essences, 102 _n._, 110 _n._, 112 _n._;
on unty, 116 _n._, 117 _n._, 119 _n._, 120 _n._, 156 _n._, 250;
on nvu ton, 127 _n._;
on ontologc l trut, 162-3, n f lsty, 165 _n._;
on te goo, 169 _n._, 174 _n._, 176 _n._, 180 _n._;
on evl, 183 _n._, 184 _n._;
on te be utful, 193 _n._, 194 _n._, 200 _n._;
on Arstotles c tegores, 210, 211 _n._;
on subst nce n ccent, 209 _n._, 223 _n._, 231 _n._, 232 _n._, 234
_n._, 241 _n._, 243 _n._, 248;
on essence s n ture, 258-61;
on subsstence n person lty, 263 _n._, 266 _n._, 269;
on qu lty, 283, 290, 293;
on  bts, 294-6;
on power n subst nce, 300 _sqq._;
on gr es n qu lty, 307-8;
on qu ntty n corpore l subst nce, 311 _sqq._;
on boy n sprt, 314-6;
on tme, 323-4;
on _cre to b eterno_, 328;
on ur ton, 330 _n._;
on rel tons, 339-40, 341 _n._, 342 _n._, 344 _n._, 347, 348 _n._, 351
_n._, 353 _n._, 354 _n._, 355 _n._, 356 _n._;
on cl ssfc ton of c uses, 362 _n._;
on m ter l n form l c uses, 365 _n._;
on cton, 367-8;
on nstrument l c use, 375;
on cre te c uses, 388 _n._, 389 _n._;

on
on
on
on

occ son lsm, 400 _n._;

fn l c us lty, 408 _n._, 412 _n._, 415 _n._;
n ture n rt, 417, 428 _n._;
orer, 428, 432 _n._, 433.

Tougt n m gery, 392-6.

Tme, n lyss of, 322 _sqq._;
problems on, 328.
Tr ton, 31.
Tr nscenent l n generc notons, 35;
ttrbutes of beng, 114 _sqq._;
rel tons, 345.
Tr nsubst nt ton, 233.
Trut, ontologc l, 158 _sqq._
TURNER, 21 _n._
_Ub_, c tegory of, 309, 319.
Ubquty, Dvne, 319.
Unformty of N ture, 377;
n l w, 418;
n nuctve scence, 419;
egrees of, 422 _sqq._
Unon, subst nt l n person l, 268.
Unty, octrne of, 114 _sqq._, 242-3;
org nc n mec nc l, 249-51, 260-1, 278;
of lvng nvu l, 280-1, 301-5;
conceptu l, 337.
Unvers l n nvu l (_v._ nvu ton), 252-3.
Unvoc l, _v._ n logc l.
URRABURU, 35, 87 _n._, 88 _n._, 99 _n._, 124 _n._;
on moes, 245 _n._;
on n ture n person, 267-8, 270 _n._, 288 _n._, 345 _n._, 355 _n._;
on nstrument l c uses, 374 _n._;
on c use, 393 _n._
V cuum, n moton, 321.
VALLET, 201.
V rety, n be uty, 200.
VASQUEZ, 110 _n._
VEITCH, 334 _n._
Vt l c nge, 64-5.

 cts, 246 _n._

Volunt rsm, 96-7.
Welt nsc uung, Worl-vew, 4, 29, 30.
WILLIAM OF OCKAM, 95.
WINDELBAND, 7, 208 _n._
WOLFF, 21, 98.
WUNDT, 213, 226, 267 _n._
ZIGLIARA, 64 _n._, 107 _n._, 156 _n._, 301 _n._, 320 _n._, 398 _n._

FOOTNOTES
1 2 vols. Longm ns, 1912.
_

2 Insttutons Met pysc , qu s Rom , n Pontfc Unverst te

Gregor n tr er t_ P. JOANNES JOSEPHUS URRABURU, S.J. Volumen
Secunum: _Ontolog _ (Rome, 1891).
3 Frenc verson by SIERP, 4 vols. P rs, G ume, 1868.

4 Ontologe, ou Mt pysque Gnr le_, p r D. MERCIER. Louv n, 3me

t., 1902.
5
.ARISTOTLE, _Meaph._, I., 1. Sapie
ia [phisphia] es
sie
ia qae 
sidera primas e 
iversaes asas.ST. THOMAS,
_I
Meaph._, I., I. 2.

6 Cf._ DE WULF, _Shasiism Od a

d New_, pp. 59-61, 191-4;
_Hisr f Medieva Phisph_, pp. 311-13; as w aries i

he _Irish Eesiasia Rerd_ (Marh a

d Ma, 1906) 
_Thhs

Phisph a
d Reii
_, a
d a
arie i
he _Irish
Theia arer_ (Ober, 1910) 
_Phisph a
d
Searia
ism i
Befas U
iversi_, b he prese
 wrier.

7 Cf._ E
ia _Aeer
i Paris_, 
Phisphia Sdies, b Ppe
Le XIII., As 4,1880.
8 I
rdi
, 1.
9 As a brief e
era saeme
 f he maer his is sffiie

arae a
d wi
 be mis
dersd. Of rse he e
era
sa
dpi
 f imae ases a
d reas
s admis wihi
isef sme
varie f aspes. Ths Episem a
d Psh dea wih hma

hh, b 
der differe
 aspes; Psh a
d Ehis dea
wih hma
vii
, b 
der differe
 aspes, e.
10 Thereis sive speaivis i
ees, i
h prprie ab

peraiv sive prai disi

ir, qd speaivs habe pr
fi
e veriaem qam 
sidera, prais aem veriaem

sideraam rdi
a i
perai
em amqam i
fi
em; e ide
differ
 ab i
viem fi
e; fi
is speaivae es verias, fi
is
peraivae sive praiae ai.ST. THOMAS, _I
ib. Beii de
Tri
iae_.
11 Here is S. Thmas expsii
a
d jsifiai
f he dri
e i

he ex: Sapie

is es rdi
are. Cjs rai es, qia sapie
ia
es pissima perfei rai
is, js prprim es 
sere
rdi
em.... Ord aem qadrpiier ad rai
em mparaar. Es
e
im qidam rd qem rai

fai, sed sm 
sidera, si
es rd rerm
araim. Ais aem es rd, qem rai

sidera
d fai i
prpri a, pa m rdi
a 
eps ss
ad i
viem, e si
a 
epm, qae s
 ves si
ifiaivae.
Teris aem es qem rai 
sidera
d fai i
perai
ibs
v
ais. ars aem es rd qem rai 
sidera
d fai i

exeriribs rebs, qarm ipsa es asa, si i

ara e dm. E
qia 
siderai rai
is per habim perfiir, se
dm hs
diverss rdi
es qs prprie rai 
sidera, s
 diversae
sie
iae. Nam ad _phisphiam
araem_ peri
e 
siderare
rdi
em rerm qem rai hma
a 
sidera sed

fai; ia qd
sb
arai phisphia mprehe
dams _e meaphsiam_. Ord
aem qem rai 
sidera
d fai i
prpri a, peri
e ad
_rai
aem phisphiam_, js es 
siderare rdi
em parim
rai
is ad i
viem e rdi
em pri
ipirm ad i
viem e ad

si
es. Ord aem ai
m v
ariarm peri
e ad

siderai
em _mrais phisphiae_. Ord aem qem rai

sidera
d fai i
rebs exeriribs 
siis per rai
em
hma
am, peri
e ad _ares meha
ias_._I
X. Ehi. ad Nihm._,
i., e. 1.
_

12 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, i., I
rdi
, h. ii. a
d iii.
13 ARISTOTLE a
d he shasis disi
ished bewee
he dmai
f
he praia (, , _aere_, _aibiia_) a
d he
peraive r prdive (, , _faere_, _faibiia_).

14 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, i., 8.
15 dam iir s
 _speabiim_ q depe
de
 a maeria se
dm
esse, qia


isi i
maeria esse pss
, e h disi

r
qia depe
de
 qdam a maeria se
dm esse e i
eem, si
ia i
qrm defi
ii
e p
ir maeria se
sibiis: 
de si
e
maeria se
sibii i
eii

pss
;  i
defi
ii
e hmi
is
pre aipere ar
em e ssa: e de his es _phsia_ sive
sie
ia
arais. dam ver s
 q, qamvis depe
dea
 a
maeria se
sibii se
dm esse,

ame
se
dm i
eem,
qia i
erm defi
ii
ibs

p
ir maeria se
sibiis, 
i
ea e
mers: e de his es _mahemaia_. dam ver s

speabiia q

depe
de
 a maeria se
dm esse, qia si
e
maeria esse pss
: sive

qam si
 i
maeria, si Des e
a
es, sive i
qibsdam si
 i
maeria e i
qibsdam

, 
sbsa
ia, qaias, pe
ia e as, 
m e ma, e., de
qibs m
ibs es _heia_, id es sie
ia divi
a, qia
pripm 
irm i
ea es Des. Ai
mi
e diir
_meaphsia_, id es, ra
sphsia, qia ps phsiam die
da
rri
bis, qibs ex se
sibiibs mpei i
i
se
sibiia
deve
ire. Diir eiam _phisphia prima_, i
qa
m sie
iae
ai ab ea pri
ipia sa aipie
es eam seq
r.ST. THOMAS, _I

ib. Beii de Tri

iae_, q. 5, a. 1.
16
._Meaph._ III., I (ed. Ddo).
_

17 Meaph._ X., h. v., 5 a

d 6.

18 Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, ., 251-5.
19 Whe
he em
e
e 
u
ed
oaday

o
ad

o
o
phlo
ophy,  u
ually
g
fe
he k
oledge emboded 
ha
ae alled he
peal, o po
ve, o 
duve
e
e
a
k
oledge hh A
ole ould
o egad a

ly o fully

e
f.
20 A
ole
o
epo
of he lo
e elao
beee
_Phy

_ (o
he _Phlo
ophy_ of Naue) a
d ho
e a
aly
ude
hh e

oaday
de
be a
he phy
al
e

e
, bea

e

o he
lo
e alla
e hh he o
eved o ex
 beee

e

e ob
evao

o
he o
e ha
d a
d ao
al
peulao
o
he ohe. Th

a
e
ve of he o

uy of huma
k
oledge, a ve o hh he
Shoolme
of he Mddle Age
ee eve fahful, a

uppla
ed a
he da
of mode
phlo
ophy 
he
xee
h a
d
eve
ee
h
e
ue
by he oppo
e ve, hh led o a dvoe beee

phy

a
d meaphy

, a
d o a
ee
of m
u
de
a
d
g
hh

ll peval h equal deme
 o
e
e a
d phlo
ophy alke.

21 Cf._ DE WULF, _H
oy of Medeval Phlo
ophy_, pp. 28-9, 66;

MERCIER, _O
ologe_, I
od., p. v.,
.
22 Du meaphy
a [
e
a] d e
, a

phy
a, qua po

phy
am de
da ou
ob
, qubu
ex
e

blbu
ompe 



e

bla deve
e.ST. THOMAS, _I
Lb. Boe de T
ae_,
q. 5, a. 1.
23 Th

al
o he le of he
oal a
d eh
ologal
udy of he
vaou
ae
of me
, he pmve hab
, u
om
, 

uo

,
e.
24 No e
ely; fo 

a
e, ha 
pehap
he mo
 ompehe

ve
ou
e of phlo
ophy publ
hed 
ee
 me
, he _Phlo
opha
Lae


_ (11 vol
., Hede, 1888-1900) appae
ly follo
he
aa
geme
 of meaphy

oul
ed above. The fu
dame
al que
o


o
_k
o
g_ a
d _be
g_, hh u
ually o

ue d


depame

u
de he e
peve le
of _Ep
emology_ a
d
_O
ology_, ae hee eaed u
de he ompehe

ve le of
_I

uo
e
Logale
_ (3 vol
.). Hoeve, hey ae eally
meaphy
al poblem
, poblem
of
peulave phlo
ophy, heeve
hey be eaed; a
d he fa ha he que
o

u
ually eaed 

O
ology ae hee eaed 
a volume apa (vol. . of he
_I

uo
e
Logale
_: u
de he peula le of _Loga
Real
_), a
d
o 
he volume
a

g
ed o ge
eal meaphy

,

ho
he
ee

y a
d o
ve
e
e of he moe mode
aa
geme
.
Ge
eal meaphy

ae deal h 
2 vol
. of _I

uo
e

Phlo
ophae Naual
_ a
d 3 vol
. of _I

uo
e

P
yhologae_;
peal meaphy


he _I

uo
e

Theodae_ (1 vol.); eh

2 vol
. of _I

uo
e
Ju

Nauae_.

25 Cf._ TURNER, _H
oy of Phlo
ophy_, p. 525.

26 MERCIER, _Logque_, I

od., 9.
27 pp. 45, 51.
_

28 Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, ., 17.

29 Cf._ _bd._ ., I
od., h. .
30 CAJETAN, _I
2 Po
 A
al._, h. x.

31 Cf._ MERCIER, _O
ologe_, 6-13; LADD, _A Theoy of Realy_,
h. .

32 
fa_, h. v.; _Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, ., Pa I., h.
.-v.; Pa ., h. .
33 p. 18
hh o
ex ll be fou
d a ma
ely a
aly

a
d

m of ue
 pejude
a
d objeo

aga


y
ema
meaphy

.

34 bd._ pp. 19-20.

35 ROYCE, _The Co
epo
of God_, p. 207.
36 MERCIER, _Logque_, I
od., 14.
37 E
ylal, _Aee
 Pa
_, o
phlo
ophal
ude
.

38 Summa Theologa_, 1, q. 1, a. 8, ad. 2.

39 Cf._ MERCIER, _Og

e
de la p
yhologe o
empoa
e_, h.
v.; DE WULF, _Shola

m Old a
d Ne_ (_pa

m_).

40 Cf._ LADD, _op. ._, pp. 9, 10.

41 EUCKEN, _Ge
ammele Auf
aeze zu Phlo
ophe u
d Lebe

a

hauu
g_,
157 (Lepzg, 1903).

42 Cf._ a. _Phlo
ophy a

d he Se
e
a Louva
_, 
he _I
h
Ele
a
al Reod_, May, 1905, ep
ed a
Appe
dx 
DE
WULFS _Shola

m Old a
d Ne_.
43 He
e he
ee

y of equpp
g he
ude
 of phlo
ophy h a
k
oledge of he ma
o
lu
o

a
d heoe
of he
e
e
ha
have a
mmedae bea
g o
phlo
ophy: hem
y, phy

,
geology, a
o
omy, meha

, he axom
a
d po
ulae
of pue a
d
appled mahema
, ellula bology, embyology, he phy
ology of
he
evou

y
em, boa
y a
d zoology, polal eo
omy,
oology
a
d eh
ology. Nohee 
he
y
em of omb

g he
e
f
h he phlo
ophal fomao
of m
d moe hooughly aed ou
a he pe
e
 me ha

he uulum of he Phlo
ophal
I

ue a he U
ve
y of Louva
. I
he College of May
ooh

o o
ly 
he
udy of phlo
ophy ompleed by a fulle ou
e of
Ch
a
Theology,boh d
pl
e
hu
omb

g o gve he

ude
 all he e

e
al eleme

of a omplee _Phlo
ophy of
Lfe_ (.),bu  
peeded by a
eleme
ay a

g 
he
phy
al
e
e
a
d aompa
ed by ou
e
o
he h
oy of

e
f heoe

hem
y, phy

, phy
ology, a
d ge
eal
bology.

44 We may me
o
 
pa


g, e
Mee 
h
ge
eal

oduo
o phlo
ophy (_Logque_, 1, p. 6) a
h

feel
g of 
dvdual mpoe
e 
fae of he a
k o
fo

g he
phlo
ophe a he pe
e
 day, ha 

ped he fou
dao
of he
Phlo
ophal I

ue a he U
ve
y of Louva
. He had
pevou
ly oul
ed he poje 
h
_Rappo
u le
ude

phlo
ophque
_ a he Co
ge

of Mehl

1891. Hee ae a fe
bef exa
fom ha memoable doume
: S
e 
dvdual
effo feel

elf ell
gh poele


he pe
e
e of he feld
of ob
evao
hh goe
o
de

g day by day, a

oao
mu

make up fo he 

uffe
y of he 
olaed oke; me
of
a
aly

a
d me
of
y
he

mu
 ome ogehe a
d fom, by he
daly 
eou
e a
d u
ed ao
, a
amo
phee
ued o he
hamo
ou
developme
 of
e
e a
d phlo
ophy alke.... Ma
ha

mulpled h
poe of v
o
; he e
e
he old of he

f
ely
mall; he fxe
h

u
z
g gaze upo
ego

hee
ou mo
 poeful ele
ope
d
e

o lm
. Phy

a
d
Chem
y poge

h ga

de

he
udy of he popee

of mae a
d of he omb
ao

of 
eleme

. Geology a
d
A
o
omy eo

u he h
oy of he og
a
d fomao
of ou
pla
e. Bology a
d he
aual
e
e

udy he m
ue
uue
of lv
g oga

m
, he d
buo


pae a
d
ue

o


me; a
d Embyology exploe
he og
. The ahologal,
phlologal a
d
oal
e
e
eo

u he pa
 age
of ou
h
oy a
d vlzao

. Wha a

exhau
ble m
e 
hee o
explo, ha ego

o exploe a
d maeal
o a
aly
e a
d

epe; f
ally ha po
ee
e mu
 e
gage 
he ok f e
ae o have a
hae 
ga
e
g ho
e ea
ue
!
_

45 Gamma of A

e
_, p. 229.
46 Lue
a pedbu
me
vebum uum, e lume

em
me
.P
.
xv., 105.
47 TENNYSON, _I
Memoam_.

48 Cf._ _Log_, ., 123.

49 Cf._ _Log_, ., pp. 204-6.

50 Cf._ SCOTUS, _Summa Theologa_, ed. by Mo

efo
o (Rome,
1900), ., p. 106, _Ad eum_.

51 Cf._ _Log_, ., pp. 119-20.

52 Cf._ SCOTUS, _op. ._, ., pp. 104, 129; al
o URRABURU,

_O
ologa_, D
p. III., Cap. II., A. III., p. 155.
53 He
e S. Thoma
all
he h
g
abou hh a ge
e o
pef
o
ep 
pedaed a
aloga
eu
dum e

e e
o

eu
dum

e
o
em (_I
1 Se
._, D
. xx., q. 5, a. 2, ad a am): e
b
g hem u
de he
ame
oo
o 
e
o (_e.g._ lv
g
be
g), bu he o
e
 of h

oo

ealzed 
he vaou

h
g
(_e.g._ 
Soae
, h
ho
e, ha o
e-ee, e.) 

vay
g a
d u
equal degee
of pefeo
. He
e, oo, h
u
voal
elao
of he ge
u
o 

ubod
ae
ubje


omeme

(mpopely) alled a
alogy of 
equaly.

54 Cf._ _
fa_, h. v.

55 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _Phlo
ophe de oze_, 599, 600.

56 Th
, of ou
e, 
he pope
o of a
alogal pedao
: he
pedao
ba
ed upo

mlay of popoo

o elao

.
Eymologally, a
alogy mea

equaly of popoo

(_Cf._
_Log_, ., p. 160). O
he hole
ubje he
ude
 may o

ul
h pof Cajea

_Opu
ulum de Nom
um A
aloga_, publ
hed a

a
appe
dx o vol. v. of S. Thoma
_Qu
o
e
D
pua_ 
De
Maa
edo
(1883).

57 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _op. ._, 40-42.

58 Cf._ SCOTUS, _op. ._, ., pp. 318-22, 125-131, 102-7 (e
peally
p. 128, _Ad eum_); p. 131, _Ad
exum_; p. 321, _Ad eum_.
59 KLEUTGEN, _op. ._, 599.

60 bd._, 600.
61 SUAREZ, _Meaph._, D
. xxv., 3; D
. xxx., 2.
62 SCOTUS, _op. ._, ., pp. 106-7, 128-9.

63 bd._, p. 107.

64 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _La phlo
ophe
ola
que_ (_De Phlo
ophe de

oze_). F. a

. by Sep (Pa
, 1868), vol. ., p. 66, 35.
65 The logal opula, hh expe

e
h
elao
a
d a

e
he
uh of he judgme
, expe

e
, of ou
e, a logal e
y, a

_e

ao

_. Tue judgme

may be
aed abou logal e
e

a
ell a
abou eale
. Bu

e he fome a
be o
eved
o
ly afe he ma

e of he lae, he appopae

e

of u

g
he veb hh expe

e
ex
e
e o ealy, a
he logal
opula, ll be a o
e appae
. _Cf._ _Log_, ., p. 249,
. 1.
66 SUAREZ, _Meaph._, D
. 54, ., 6.

67 Cf._ _Log_, ., pp. 28-9.

68 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _op. ._, 551-2.

69 Cf._ _Log_, ., pp. 70-1.

70 E

e aum quo
dam
om
a:
o
e
m du e

e alqud ex ho,
quod e
 
poe
a,
ed ex ho, quod e
 
au.ST. THOMAS,
_Co
a Ge
._ ., . xx., 4.
71 Cea
medeval phlo
ophe
had made he
ame m
ake. S. Thoma

po

ou he eo feque
ly. _Cf._ _Co
a Ge
e
_, ., .
xxv: Qua d, quod ommu
e e
, pe addo
em
pefau vel

dvduau,
maveu
, dv
um e

e, u
ulla f addo,
o

e

e alqud popum,
ed e

e ommu

e om
um:
o
o

dea
e
,
quod d, quod ommu
e e
, vel u
ve
ale,

e addo
e e

e
o

poe
,
ed

e addo
e o

deau. No
e
m a
mal poe
 e

e
ab
que ao
al vel ao
al dffee
a, quamv


e h

dffee

o

deeu; le e
m ogeu u
ve
ale ab
que
addo
e,
o
ame
ab
que eepblae addo

e
. Nam

a
mal
ulla dffee
a add po

e, ge
u

o
e

e; e
mle

e
 de om
bu
al

om
bu
. Dv
um auem e

e e
 ab
que
addo
e,
o

olum ogao
e,
ed eam 
eum
aua; e
o

olum ab
que addo

e,
ed ab
que eepblae addo

. U
de
ex ho p
o quod addo
em
o
ep,
e epee poe
, mag

o
lud poe
 quod Deu

o

 e

e ommu
e,
ed e

e popum.
Ee
m ex ho p
o
uum e

e ab om
bu
al
d

guu, qua

hl e add poe
.
_

72 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, QQ. DD. _De Poe

a_, q. . a. 1, ad. 18.
73 ARISTOTLE, _Meaph._, . v., v., _apud_ KLEUTGEN, _op. ._, .,
p. 60.

74 Co
a Ge
e
_, II., . v.

75 Cf._ LAMINNE, _Cau
e e Effe__Revue

eo-
ola
que_, Febuay,
1914, p. 38.
76 S. Thoma
u
e
ha 
fo hm
o
g la
guage he
he de
be


uh a ve a
dulou
: Rdulum e
 dee quod deo opu

o
aga, qua ade


o
a

 de
ubjeo 

ubjeum;
o

e
m ho modo du opu
aldum alefaee, quod dem
umeo
alo, qu e
 
alefae
e opoe, a

ea ad opu

alefaum;
ed qua vue alo
, qu e
 
alefae
e
opoe, alu
alo
umeo f au 
opoe alefao, qu po
ea 
eo 
poe
a. Age

e
m
auale
o
e
 adue


popam fomam 
aleum
ubjeum,
ed edue


ubjeum quod
pau de poe
a 
aum._Co
a Ge
e
_, L. III., . lxx.

77 Cf._ ZIGLIARA, _O
ologa_ (8), x., _Qu
um_. _Cf._ al
o
ARISTOTLE, _Meaph._ v., ST. THOMAS, _I
Meaph._, v., 14, a
d
_Co
a Ge
e
_, ., . xv., hee he empha
ze
he uh ha
poe
al be
g pe
uppo
e
aual be
g: Quamv
d quod qua
doque
e
 
poe
a, qua
doque 
au, pu

 empoe 
poe
a
quam 
au, ame

mple au
e
 po poe
a; qua
poe
a
o
edu
e 
aum,
ed oppoe quod eduau 
aum
pe alqud quod
 
au. Om
e gu quod e
 alquo modo 

poe
a, habe alqud pu

e.
78 KLIMKE, _De Mo

mu
u
d
e
e phlo
oph
he
Gu
dlage
_, p. 185.
_Cf._ _I
h Theologal Quaely_, vol. v. (Apl, 1912), p. 157
_
qq._, a. _Refleo

o
Some Fom
of Mo

m_.
79 Fo elao

of _poe
a_ a
d _au
_, _f._ MERCIER, _O
ologe_,
214.

80 Cf._ _Phy

_, v., 1; _De A

ma_, ., 3.
81 , , , ,
._Meaph._ vi., . iii.
82 Deepi a
iqs phisphs ha
 rai
em i
de
es, i
ra
ia
frmae sbsa
iais. N
e
im adh a
m prfeera
 
i
ees erm se eevare ad aiqid qd es spra se
sibiia:
e ide ias frmas a
m 
sideraver
, q s
 se
sibiia
prpria ve mm
ia. Hjsmdi aem ma
ifesm es esse
aide
ia,  abm e
irm, ma
m e parvm, e hjsmdi.
Frma aem sbsa
iais

es se
sibiis
isi per aide
s, e
ide ad ejs 
ii
em

berve
er
,  sire
 ipsam maeriam
disi
ere._I
Meaph._ vii., 2.

83 Esse am qemdam

mi
a:

e
im diir esse aiqid, ex h
qd es i
pe
ia, sed ex h qd es i
a.ST. THOMAS,
_C
ra Ge
es_, i., h. xxii., 4.
84 The em f Arises desripi
f he esse
e as
s not e sy to expl n. Te expresson supposes
 tve unerstoo, _e.g._ , te beng proper to m n.
To te queston ; w t s te beng or
essence proper to m n? te nswer s: t t wc gves te
efnton of m n, t t wc expl ns w t e s . Is he
imperfe, , a
arhai frm fr he prese
, ; or s t
elber te suggeston of te profoun octrne t t te essence s
e l, or possble, s nteror to ts ctu l, pysc l re lz ton?
Comment tors re not gree. _Cf._ MATTHIAS KAPPES,
Arstoteles-Lexcon, p. 25 (P erborn, 1894); MERCIER, _Ontologe_,
p. 30 n.
85 Essent est llu per quo res consttutur n propro genere vel
spece, et quo sgnfc mus per efntonem nc ntem qu est
res._De Ente et Essent _, c. .
86 ARISTOTLE, _Met p._, v., 4; ST. THOMAS, _De Potent
rt. 1.

De_, q. x.,

87 Sometmes, owever, te expresson met pysc l essence s use to

sgnfy tose objectve concepts, n tose only, _wtout wc te
tng c nnot be conceve_, (or sometmes, even te one wc s
consere most fun ment l mong tese), n terefore s not
explctly nvolvng te concepts of propertes wc follow
necess rly from te former; wle te pysc l essence s
unerstoo to sgnfy ll tose re l elements _wtout wc te
tng c nnot ctu lly exst_, nclung, terefore, ll suc
necess ry propertes. T en n ts sense te pysc l essence of
m n woul nclue not merely soul n boy, but lso suc propertes
s te c p cty of speec, of l ugter, of usng tools, of coo ng
foo, etc.
88 Et ex oc p tet r to, wrtes St. Tom s, qu re genus et speces et
fferent se  be nt proporton lter  m ter m, form m et
compostum n n tur , qu mvs non snt em cum lls; qu neque
genus est m ter , se sumtur m ter ut sgnfc ns totum; nec
fferent est form , se sumtur form ut sgnfc ns totum.
Une cmus omnem esse _ nm l r ton le_, et non _ex nm l et
r ton l_; scut cmus eum esse ex corpore et nm . Ex corpore
enm et nm ctur esse omo, scut ex u bus rebus qu m tert
res consttut , qu neutr ll rum est: omo enm nec est nm
neque corpus; se s omo lquo moo ex nm l et r ton l
c tur esse, non ert scut res tert ex u bus rebus se scut
ntellectus [conceptus] tertus ex uobus ntellectbus. Intellectus
enm _ nm ls_ est sne etermn tone form e spec ls n tur m
exprmens re, ex eo quo est m ter le respectu ultm e
perfectons. Intellectus utem ujus fferent e, _r ton ls_,
consstt n etermn tone form e spec ls: ex qubus uobus
ntellectbus consttutur ntellectus spece vel efntons. Et
eo scut res consttut ex lqubus non recpt prc tonem
e rum rerum ex qubus consttutur; t nec ntellectus recpt
prc tonem eorum ntellectuum ex qubus consttutur; non enm
cmus, quo efnto st genus vel fferent ._De Ente et
Essent _, c p. .

89 Cf._ MERCIER, _Psycologe_, vol. ., 169 (6t et., 1903, pp.
24-5).

90 Cf._ ARISTOTLE, _Met p._, L. v., 10; ST. THOMAS, _In_ v.,

_Met p._, Lect. ., p r. .

91 Cf._ MERCIER, _Ontologe_, pp. 42-3. How o we now t t not only
w ter (H2O) s possble essence but lso yrogen -oxe (H2O2)?
Bec use te l tter subst nce  s been _ ctu lly forme_ by cemsts
(_Cf._ ROSCOE, _Element ry Cemstry_, Lesson VI.). Is yrogen
tr-oxye (H2O3)
possble subst nce? We m y s cemsts, n tey
m y not be ble to tell us wt ny cert nty weter t s or not.
92 Te ctu l exstence of
tn ng mn s of course necess ry
conton, n te ctu l orer, for te ppreenson of objects n
ts bstr ct w y. But suc exstence s no p rt of te ppreene
object. T t te um n mn, wc s tself fnte, contngent,
lle wt m tter, n epenent on te ctvty of corpore l sense
org ns for te objects of ts nowlege, soul neverteless  ve
te power to ppreen contngent re ltes p rt from ter
contngent ctu l exstence n tme n sp ce,s f ct of te
gre test sgnfc nce s reg rs te n ture of te mn tself. But
f we try to prove te exstence of Go from conser ton of te
n ture n powers of te um n mn, our rgument procees from te
ctu l, n s stnct from ny rgument b se exclusvely on te
n ture n propertes of possble essences s suc. St. Augustnes
rgument ssumes s f ct t t te um n mn represents to tself
possble essences s  vng re lty nepenently bot of ts own
tougt n of ny ctu l exstence of suc essences (_Cf._ DE
MUNNYNCK, _Pr electones e De Exstent _, p. 23). But _s_ ts
f ct? Ts s te re lly eb t ble pont.
93 Among oters Henry of GHENT ( 1293; _Cf._ DE WULF, _Hstory of
Meev l Plosopy_, pp. 364-6; KLEUTGEN, _Plosope er
Vorzet_, Dssert, v., c p. ., 2 581-5), C preolus
(1380-1444), cert n Scotsts, n cert n teosopsts of te
trteent n fourteent centures, re crete wt ts pecul r
vew. For numerous references, _Cf._ URRABURU, _Ontolog _, Dsp.
., c p. ., rt. v. pp. 650-63.

94 Cf._ URRABURU, _op. ct._, pp. 652-3, for references; mong oters,
to ST. THOMAS, _De Potent _, q. 3, rt. 1,  2um; rt. 7,  10um;
rt. 5, rgum. 2o; _b._,  2um. _Summ Teol._, ., q. 14, rt.
9; q. 45, rt. 1; _b._ , rt. 2,  2um; q. 61, rt. 2, corp.
95 Among oters, BALMES (_Fun ment l Plosopy_, b . v., c. xxv.),
LEPIDI (_Ontolog _, quote by DE MUNYNCK, _Pr electones e De
Exstent _, Louv n, 1904, p. 19); DE MUNYNCK (_b._, pp. 19-23,
46-7, 75); HICKEY (_Teolog N tur ls_, pp. 31-4); DRISCOLL
(_Go_, pp. 72 sqq.); LACORDAIRE (_Go_, p. 21); KLEUTGEN,
_Plosope er Vorzet_, Dssert. v., 476.
96 Trut s not te wor of ny um n ntellgence, s ys St. Augustne,
nor c n ny one rrog te to mself te rgt to s y _my_ trut,
or _ty_ trut, but ll must s y smply _te_ trut:
Qu propter, nullo moo neg vers esse ncommut blem vert tem,
 ec omn , qu e ncommut blter ver sunt, contnentem, qu m non
posss cere vel tu m vel me m, vel cujuscumque omns, se
omnbus ncommut bl ver cernentbus, t mqu m mrs mos

secretum et publcum lumen, pr esto esse c se pr ebere communter:

omne utem quo communter omnbus r tocn ntbus tque
ntellgentbus pr esto est,  ullus eorum propre n tur m
pertnere qus xert?_De Lbero Arbtro_, lb. ., c. x.
_Cf._ s str ng expresson of te s me tougt n s Comment ry,
_Super Genesm  Ltter m_, lb. ., c p. v.: We m y conceve
te e vens n te e rt, t t were cre te n sx  ys, ce sng to
exst; but c n we conceve te number sx ce sng to be te sum of
sx unts?: F clus coelum et terr tr nsre possunt, qu e
secunum numerum sen rum f brc t sunt, qu m effc posst ut
sen rus numerus sus p rtbus non comple tur (_ pu_ MERCIER,
_Ontologe_, pp. 35-6).
_

97 Cf._ BALMES (_Fun ment l Plosopy_, b . v., c. xxv.), wo,

n lysng te trut of te proposton Two crcles of equ l
 meters re equ l, s n ex mple of te necess ry, etern l,
mmut ble c r cterstcs of possble essences, goes so f r s to
wrte (t lcs ours): W t woul  ppen, f, wtr wng ll
boes, ll sensble represent tons, _ n even ll ntellgences_,
we soul m gne bsolute n unvers l notng? We see te trut
of te proposton even on ts supposton: for t s mpossble
for us to ol t to be f lse. On every supposton, our
unerst nng sees connecton wc t c nnot estroy: te
conton once est blse, te result wll nf llbly follow.
An bsolutely necess ry connecton, foune neter on us, nor on
te extern l worl, wc exsts before nytng we c n m gne, n
subssts fter we  ve nnl te ll by n effort of our
unerst nng, must be b se upon sometng, t c nnot  ve notng
for ts orgn: to s y ts woul be to ssert necess ry f ct
wtout suffcent re son.
It s true t t n te proposton now before us notng re l s
ffrme, but f we reflect c refully we fn even ere te gre test
ffculty for tose wo eny re l foun ton to pure possblty.
W t s rem r ble n ts penomenon, s precsely ts, t t our
unerst nng feels tself force to gve ts ssent to
proposton wc ffrms n bsolutely necess ry connecton
_wtout ny rel ton to n exstng object_. It s concev ble t t
n ntellgence ffecte by oter bengs m y now ter n ture n
rel tons; but t s not so e sy of compreenson ow t c n
scover ter n ture n rel tons n n bsolutely necess ry
m nner, wen t bstr cts ll exstence, wen te groun upon wc
te eyes of te unerst nng re fxe, s te byss of notng.
We eceve ourselves wen we m gne t possble to bstr ct ll
exstence. Even wen we suppose our mn to  ve lost sgt of every
tng, very e sy supposton, gr ntng t t we fn n our
conscousness te contngency of our beng, te unerst nng stll
perceves possble orer, n m gnes t to be ll occupe wt
pure possblty, _nepenent of
beng upon wc t s b se_.
We repe t, t t ts s n lluson, wc s ppe rs so soon s we
reflect upon t. In pure notng, notng s possble; tere re no
rel tons, no connectons of ny n; n notng tere re no
combn tons, t s groun upon wc notng c n be pcture.
Te objectvty of our e s n te percepton of necess ry
rel tons n possble orer, reve l _ communc ton of our
unerst nng wt
beng on wc s foune ll possblty_.
Ts possblty c n be expl ne on no supposton except t t

wc m es te communc ton consst n _te cton of Go gvng

to our mn f cultes_ perceptve of te necess ry rel ton of
cert n e s, b se upon necess ry beng, n represent tve of Hs
nfnte essence.
B lmes, terefore, oes not me n t t we coul contnue to see
essences s possble were we to m gne wtr wn not merely fnte
mns but even te Dvne Mn. In suc n bsur ypotess,
notng woul ppe r true or f lse, possble or mpossble. But e
contens t t even wen we _try_ to tn w y _ ll_ mns, even te
Dvne Mn, we stll see possble essences to be possble. An from
ts e rgues t t, snce we  ve successfully tougt w y fnte
mns n te ctu lty of essences, wle te possblty of tese
l tter stll perssts, tese must be groune n te Mn of Go,
te Actu l, Etern l, Necess ry Beng, were tey  ve etern l e l
beng.
_Cf._ DE MUNNYNCK (_op. ct._, pp. 22-3): Pon mus munum non esse,
nec suppon mus De exstent m. In nlo llo, omne ens ctu le
excluens, rem net nt ct oc certssme scmus ex objectvo v lore
ntellectus nostrre lt s etern , mmut bls, orns e ls.
[Ill re lt s essent rum, e s (_b._, n. 2), nepenens b
omn ctu l exstent , tque b omn ctu ntellectus, est
fun mentum met pyscum re lsm pl tonc.H bet pr etere mrum
oc system , ut omnes scunt, fun mentum crterologcum.]
Essent e _sunt_, nec t men exstunt. Ill re lt s, pr eter munum
totum, pr eter ent r tons, nestructbls persever t, nec
t men ctu ls est. H ec quomoo ntellg posst nescmus, ns
pon tur ll m fun r n plentune etern , nfnt , bsolut
E

 ab
u. Hc n
um 
, mna ucd

ma

abn ncu;  D m um nn 

umu
, 
c


a

m
, nn ada
uba, admnda
un 

na
um ab an a

n acua x
na; a u nd ud
nn-ndvdua 
 a n
, ud amn cnc nn 
 n

bjcv n mn.
_

98 C._ ST. AUGUSTINE, _D Lb Ab_, b. ., c. v.

99 C._ 
cay MERCIER, _On_, . 40-49.

100 I 
,  xam, ju
 a
nc

ay and mmuaby u  any
acuay x
n man a  cann b a 
am m x
n
and n x
n a
 
a a man cann b an ana anma.
101 Und, am
 ncu
umanu
nn 

, aduc 
dcnu
va n dn ad ncum dvnum. Sd
 u u ncu
,
ud 
 m

b, nu au, nu md a
va
man.ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . ., a. .

_ 102 Pd_, 100, C. .

103 MERCIER, _On_, . 45-7.
_ 104 C_. DE MUNNYNCK, _. c._, . 24-5.
_ 105 C._ DE MUNNYNCK, _. c._, . 24-5.
_ 106 bd._, . 22, 24.
107 Qu bjca nn dvna 

, uc cau
aa. Aamn a

ndand, _mdum u n
cnd u 
nanu a mn

umana_, a u a
unnd vam bjcvum ncu
,
cncudmu
x d
ad aa
a
u n E

 dvn
undanu ... an um [bjcum _
c._ daum n
aum]
cmu
,  acn, a 
v ana  mmuaba,
u a
 n Da undanu, a u
un 
 Du
uanu

mab
._bd._, . 24-5. _C._ xac ud abv, . 91 n.
108 Nn d vu Du
mundum ca n m, ua vd mu


c , uam
 ca

 ab n; _nc vu 
anu

anu ua


 dubu
c
, ua cnv a  nn


_. Sd cna, ua vu ca mundum n m, d
c
mu

, uam
 cau
u

 ab n, _ ua vu 

anu
anu nc

a ua


 dubu
c
, dcc jam
vum 
,  a  nn 
_, a u a d
 u
.DESCARTES, n _R
. ad Sx. Objcn
_, ad 6um

cuuum.
109 MERCIER, _. c._, . 58-60.
110 URRABURU (_. c._ D
. ., ca. ., ., . 671) mnn

W, Lbnz, Gnun

and Scnau a
dn 
vw.
111 Amn 
, Lba, Lau

, P
c, Ha. _C._ URRABURU,
_. c._, _bd._
112 Dua
u, Ma
u
and Rada, _aud_ URRABURU, _. c._, _bd._,
. 679-81.
113 Uabuu, Scn, Mndv. _C._ URRABURU, _. c._, _bd._,
. 671.
114 1 C. x. 12.
115 Ex c 
 ud udda 

 abuu, nn
um 

,
d

a udda
ca dcu: ua an uam 

 aba, n 
,
n
  n ncu can
, ub nn 
 caua,
d
cax 

na.ST. THOMAS, _D Pna_, . ., a. v., ad
2 um.
116 I
um 

 cm m an
cundum am nauam: 


nm D 
 ju

ub
ana, u 
n
um 
 (_C. G._, Lb. ., c.
22). Qud aum cm acu
cundum nauam
uam, nn cnvn
a
n
  mdum acan
,
cu ca a
cbu

ab n [_.._ a
cau
d  ducd n m. _C._ Kun, _.
c._, D

., ., c. ., 61]. I
um u 

 cm
a
mnbu
a m an  acanm uamdam. Qud aum
acu cm  acanm, nn 

ub
ana ju
.
Im

b 
 u ud
ub
ana au
n
a an

mum
 
um 

. Hnc 
 ud Exd. ., um nmn D
nu 

 _ u 
_, ua ju

u
um 
, ud
ua

ub
ana nn
 aud uam
uum 

.ST. THOMAS, _Cna
Gn
_, L. ., ca. 52, n. 7.
Qud n
 acu ab an,  

 acum ju
; an
nm

 ac a ud acu. O
n
um 
 aum
ua, ud mn
aa

ub
an abn 

 a m an,   c 

ub
an
ca
un, ud 

 ab a abn. I
um u 

 n


ub
an
ca
u udam acu
aum. Id aum, cu acu

n
, na 
: nam acu
n uanum uju
md ad nam

u. In uab u
ub
ana caa 
 na 

acu
._bd._, ca. 53, n. 2.
Omn ud c a ud ab a, 
 n na 
cu u
:
 c ud cum 
 n , 
 acu
ju
;  , ud

a ma v udda
, u 
 nna [_.._ a u

],
 n na 
cu 

, ud a D c,  ud


 cum 
  mdum acu
,  a nvnu acu

na n nn
[_.._ u

], nn amn ma 
maa n
 a uvc._D En  E

na_, ca. v. _C._ a

_Summa T._, P. ., . ., a. 4; . x., a. 11; . xxv.,
a. 5, ad 4 um. _Qudba_, ., a. 3; x., a. 6. _D
Pna_, . v., a. 2. _In Ma._, ., D
. v., . 2,
a. 2. _Cna Gn
_, L. ., ca. 54, 68. S. Tma

u
uay
nd a
acn a  d
ncn bwn 

nc and
x
nc n cad n

a a d
ncn. Bu  a

m w av bn unab  cnvnc m
v
a  Anc
Dc a
mad 
mnd ny ca n 
ubjc. Kun,
 n
anc, w
(_. c._, D

. v., c. ., 574, n.
2): In  xac
ud abv S. Tma
cay
a
a 
d
ncn mad by u u 
ba
d n  nau  cad
n
, bu n a 
d
ncn 
a wc x

bwn
dn a
, dndn n n an, ac avn 
wn
 bn  ay.
_ 117 C._ URRABURU, _. c._, 249, 5.
_ 118 C._ REINSTADLER, _Ona_, b. ., ca. ., a. ., 2.
119 Zaa (_Ona_ (14), . v.) v
 vua d
ncn
a
a
ub-ca

  a d
ncn; addn, wv (accdn
 Gudn, _Ma._, D
. ., . . a. ., ) a 

vua d
ncn 
n
 muc a [a] d
ncn a
 ba


 a [mna] d
ncn.
_ 120 . c._, . 110.
121 T
 may b
n n abundanc n  w
 any  
ca
c
w
, mdva  mdn, w d
cu

 u
n. _C._, _.._
URRABURU, _. c._, 251-4.
122 B
d
S. Tma
(_c._ _
ua_, . 102, n. 2), Abu
Manu

(1193-1280), Adu
Rmanu
( _cca_ 1300), Cau

(1380-1444), Sncna
( 1494), Cajan (1468-1534), Syv

Fan

(1474-1528), Dmncu
Baz (1528-1604), Jn  S.
Tma
(1589-1644), Gudn (1639-95), a amn  m
 nd

ca
c
 d 
vw. I 

ud by  mmb
 
Dmncan Od nay; and by n a w J
u
amn cn

ca
c w
; a
 by MERCIER, _. c._, 48-51.
_ 123 C._ KLEUTGEN, _. c._, 575.
_ 124 bd._, 577.
_ 125 C._ URRABURU, _. c._, D
. v., ca. ., a. 2, . 730-31.
126 E

  uamv

 aud ab ju


na, nn amn 

nndum, ud
 a ud
uaddum, ad mdum accdn
,

d ua
 cn
uu  nca 

na. E d c nmn,
ud mnu ab 

 (n
)
nca dm cum nmn ud

mnu ab 
a 

na.ST. THOMAS, _In Ma._, L. v., . 2.
127 Amn  advca
 
vw a Axand  Ha
( 1245),
Auu
( 1322), Duandu
( 1332), Gab B ( 1495), Suaz
(1548-1617), Tu
(1532-1596), Va
uz (1551-1604), Gy 
Vana ( _cca_ 1600), and  J
u
nay:
m w
adn  d
ncn a
_uy_ ca, _.._ Fanzn
(_aud_ MERCIER, _. c._, 47, . 110, n. 2). F da
and
aumn
n b
d
, _c._ URRABURU, _. c._, D
. v., ca.
., a. 2.
128 Cm
um x 

  

na dcu d an n
ca

cundum undamnum, ud n 
 n ca ab; c aum
undamnum nn 
 aud n
 ua caua nn ab x
 acu
x
,
d anum 
 n
na, ud ab a 
 


aca: nam nc , u 

na caua cncau a nb

u na ud, 

 v u mdu

u acu
, u a


na
n
n acu cn
uu.SUAREZ, _Ma._, D
. xxx., 13.
129 Wn w
a  an 

nc a
_cvn_ x
nc, w d n
nc

ay my a a d
ncn bwn cv and cvd:
Nn 
 manandum ud una 

, ua aca
cu


na,  aa ua acau
cu 

,
d ua una 
adm 

 aa
md aca   vm au

cu
 vm an
: ac nm aa
d
 nn 
 n

ub md


b; ud aum
  vca 

 acu
, c ab  vm
an
.ALEXANDER OF HALES, _In Ma._, L. v., x 22. Nn
mn accum, w
S. Tma
, 
 cum n a u
ubjc;
a un nn 

 dc ud a
ub
ana  caa

acca a D, cum u

ub
ana nn
 a ud
ubjcum
cvum_Summa T._, I., . xxv., a. ., ad. 3um.
_ 130 C._ MERCIER, _. c._, 49. Sm  
 dcn
w
a
xamn a, by way  u
an, n cnnxn w  _Uny_
 bn.
_ 131 C._ URRABURU, _bd._, a. ., Obj. 9, R
.
132 T
vw 
advcad by, amn 
, Dun
Scu
(1266-1308),
Hny  Gn ( 1293), Fanc
d Va (1480-1566), Dmncu

d S (1496-1560), Mna (1535-1600), Fn
ca (1548-97), and
Sc

nay.
133 ARISTOTLE, _Ma._, b. 5, x ., ca. 6; ST. THOMAS, _n
c._  ab.
134 S ... mdu
n
accau ...
cundum dv
nm unu
ab
a, ... c xm c nmn _a ud_, dcu nm a ud
ua
 _aud ud_. Und
cu n
dcu _unum_ n uanum 

_ndv
um n
_, a dcu _a ud_ n uanum 
 _ab a

dv
um_.ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . 1, a. 1.
135 Nam mn n

 au
mx, au cm
um. Qud aum 


mx, 
 ndv
um  acu  na. Qud aum 

cm
um, nn ab 

, uamdu a
ju

n dv
a,
d

 uam cn
uun  cmnun 
um cm
um. Und man
um

 ud 

 cuju
b  cn

 n ndv
n;  nd 
,
ud unum ud u
cu cu
d
uum 

, a cu
d
uam
unam.ST. THOMAS, _Summa T._, ., . x., a. 1.

136 Unum v ud 
 ncum num, add
ua
ub
anam

_anm mn
ua_, ua 
 a a

 uana
,  m
nvnu n una. E dcu  vanm v nanm
dv
n
, ua 

cundum uanam cnnuam. _Nam numu
x
dv
n cnnu cau
au._ST. THOMAS, _In Ma._, b. 4,
c. 2, a. _b_.
137 T
 w ad  d
ncn bwn  

nc and 
x
nc  an acuay x
n
ub
anc a
a cn
d 
a a
an _n
unum 
_. T x
nc  a a d
ncn
bwn  

na cn
uv ac
 a cm

ub
anc

unv
ay add by
ca
c
a
cmab w 

na
unyuna
_
_n  a. Suc ac
a ay
d
nc, and
aab  dv
b, bu acuay undvdd. S
a
,  unn  an ndvdua nau and 

ub

nc (73)
m
a _unum 
_ (unum _cm
n
_) n  vw  

w ac a a d
ncn bwn 
 ac
.
138 O cu
 

na uny  cm
n 
a
 naua. _C._
KLEUTGEN, _. c._, 631-8.
139 Unum ud cnvu cum n n udm 
um n
,
d n

uadd, n
 nanm dv
n
. Muud aum 
c
ndn
add
ua 
, u dcunu mu, ud una u u
aum
 una,  ud una aum nn
 aa.... E
c, cum unum
adda
ua n
unam nanm,
cundum ud a ud 
 ndv
um
n
, muud add dua
nan
, u
cc a ud 

n
 ndv
um,  u 
 ab a dv
um,  unum um nn


 aum.ST. THOMAS, _D Pn._, . 9, a. 7.
140 Sc  m n
_dv
_,  

_muud_ u x
Ma._, b. 10,

ncu n
 cad _n
_,  dnd

c _unum_ ud dv
nm va,  um
unabu
cn
uu.ST. THOMAS, _In
c. 4, a. _c_.

141 Omn
uaa
cn
 uu a uam dv
nm. E
 aum dux
dv
: una maa
u 
cundum dv
nm cnnu, 
anc
 uu numu
, u 

c
uana
. Und a

numu
, nn 
 n
 n bu
maabu
abnbu
uanam.
Aa 
 dv
 ma
, u   
a
v dv
a

ma
:  anc dv
nm
 uu muud u nn 
 n a u
n,
d 
 d an
cndnbu
,
cundum ud n
dvdu 
unum  mua. E am muudnm
am cnn 

 n bu

mmaabu
.ST. THOMAS, _Summa T._, ., . xxx., a. 3.
142 W may cnn u ann  
ub
anc
, a

umn  

n a accdn
a ndvduad by  ndvdua
ub
anc

n wc y n. W may n u a  
ny ca
ndvdua
a a dcy wn u xnc. W can, 
cu
, n m  a  acua x
nc  ndvdua

ua a

ub

n aa m ma, _vz._ uman
u

a da, and a
  

by  uy
ua ndvdua
bn

uc a
an
. Bu wn w cncv 
 a
ndvdua
w
mu
 cncv m a  anay  ndvdua
n  dman 
ca ay:  
ny u cnc
dvd m 

dman, and ndn  __ acan wn , a w
can av any nwd 
ua
n
b 
ua a
,
_vz._ by ayn 
 cnc
_anacay_   a.
143 T _ma-acua_ d
ncn, wc Sc

advca bwn


 ad
 bn, w
a xamn a.

_ 144 C._ URRABURU, _. c._, . 280: Pncum ... nn
cum v
ma 
 a ud n
um , nn
u ad nn
cam 
umam ndvdu cn
unm,  undan
maam am,
ua _ndvda_ dcu. Scu nm maa 
 n mn, v..
ncum  undamnum  ud 
, ac adcau
_maa
_,  ma unda n dm adcaum _ana
_,
a u naua cm
a, _umana
_, adcaum _mn
_; a
uamu
ud
 ud mum ncum, und x
 n uv

ndvdu
ua cua
ac a ndvdua.
145 In ancn Gc  Eac
aud aan
  

by 
a uay
mwa n 
w
: I  w ay dn
bn
any w  m wud d m ac  ny by
m
d ay, and 
aan m ac   m by a u
and a  ay, and
 n _ad nnum_: wc wud nvv
 ab
ud
 nn numb and nn 

. A
ma
aumn wa
u
d by  mdva an
, Davd  Dnan, 
dny Gd w  maa nc  ca ay: Gd
and may ma x
 and d n d;  y a
dnca:   y dd y
ud d by
mn
d
nc m , and 
aan
ud d m b by

mn d
nc m a , and
 n _ad nnum_: wc

ab
ud. Suc

m
a
 m accn  uy ab
ac
vw  ay a
ad ua. W av
n aady, n dan w
 ab
ac nn  bn, a m 
n  vw  mu

b cnzd and admd a  ay wby n
d
(_vz._ bn) 
a
  ay wn y a (_vz._ bn,
a
). T aadx 

ad bw n ad  ndvduan.
146 Maa ... duc accu,
cc, u
naa  nn

naa. E dcu
naa,
cundum ud cn
dau cum
dmnan dmn
num aum
cc v aum; nn
naa
aum, u
n dmnan dmn
num cn
dau. Scundum
c u 

cndum, ud maa
naa 
 ndvduan

ncum.ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . ., a. 6, ad. 7am.
_ 147 C._ URRABURU, _. c._, D
. ., ca. 2, ., . 271-3.
148 T
 w a
y b und n any   u
ca
c
a

. _C._ URRABURU, _. c._, D
. ., ca. 2, a. 4.
_P
a Lacnc
, Lca_, 1282 _
._; MERCIER,
_On_, 36-42; KLEUTGEN, _P
 Sca
 u_, 610
_
._; BULLIAT, _T
auu
P
a Tm
ca_ (Nan
,
1899), . 171 _
._a u
u b  nc   acn 
S. Tma
.
149 A ndd vw  

 vw a
ub

nc
(_
ub

na_, _
u
aa
_)  
nay
(_
naa
_) 
 nc  ndvduan. W
a

a n wa
ub

nc  
nay 

u
d  cn

.
H  

ucn  b
v a  ndvdua nau a

uc
a
n nc

ay
ub

nc  
nay; nc  cann b
ndvduad by 
a.
150 T cn

n aud   Tm
  wud, wv, aa
 b a dna a
uc a n wud b nn
cay 

b.
151 Huju
md a nn 
 cn

 n
 n udam dn, um

a adnvn acuju
ad

um
cundum a ua
ju
dua

cn
dan
.ST. THOMAS, _Summa T._, ., . xxv., a. 3,
ad. 2am.
_ 152 C._ _Scnc  Lc_, v. ., 59.
153 I 
ny  cnc and ndvdua a a

uc can x

acuay;  ab
ac and unv
a a

uc cann x
 acuay:
ab
acn

and unv
ay a mna md
_na
an
_annxd by  mnd   a cnn  
cnc
:
cn
dd a
u-bjc
y a m
v
n a n
:
y d n ac ay a
vn  u
n u xnc. Bu
a
cncn

and ndvduay a a
 m mna md
,
acn ay n a
vn  u
n u xnc bu ny a


ubjcd   c

 ncua cncn,  a a
 a


ubjcd   c


n
 cn? T
wud aa 
b a   na Kanan y  nwd: a w can
and ay a
cnc and ndvdua ny bcau

ac and
m, wc caacz  cnc and ndvdua md  bn,
a mna md
wc mu
 b ad  ay a
a  u

cndn  ndn  a caab  an
n n u
xnc. T
cnnn 
xamnd n an cnx. _C._
_na_, . 145, 147, 151.
154 Tu
 cnn  a vua d
ncn n a bn 
a
n
  _av cn_   a:  bn nvv
n


  uny cn

w d

d and

aa. T bn 
 a  d an   nc


 cn
n  w ay d
nc m n an. Bu
 vua d
ncn a

m
 my a _av
mcn_ wn  
und n cau
, na
muc a
 
u-bjc

 d
nu
d a away
nc
 a
uay  ay d
nc accdna cn
: and a
uay n a bn 


c an uny._C._ KLEUTGEN,
_. c._, 633.
155 Omn
cn 
 a na  bjc,
v a cn
cn 
cn. Ra a  
, ua mn
cn
am caa 

x

  ma a u ma va
bjc. In uanum u

 va
, cd a cn
cn; mca nm cn
cnm
vv  a ud, ud ab 
 nn 
,
d u ud c ab
a m a

v
 abnd; n uanum v cn 
 x

,
ma  ma bjc, cd ab bjcSILVESTER MAURUS,
_Qua
. P
._, . 2. T

 cmmn
ca
c d
ncn:
cnn a
a duc 
nav  x

v  ay 
a
duc dmnd by  nunc  ay (a
acv) n 
mnd (a
a

v); cnn a
a va c


acv, a
acn  mnd   nunc  ay. I may b ma d,
wv, a  cnv c

, a
va, a
away
a 
v
m. Ou cnv c


a ay a a
 c



ab
acn, cman, an, unv
azn: c


wc
duc _nnn
ca
_  _na an
_,
uc a

_nn unv
aa
_  an 
ubjc  dca,
and  ca an
and ca d
ncn
: and nc
a

 dcuy, wn w cm  c n u cnv
xnc,  d
cmnan bwn 
 ca n
and
 ay wc w n by man
 m:  d
cmnan,
n  wd
, bwn ca and a d
ncn
.
156 I 
n nc

ay  cu
 a 
mc mbdmn  a

 
, by any n  m, b
n  b _muua_. I 

ucn,  n
anc, a   cnc
_a_, _b_, _c_ and
_d_, _a_ b
n mcy  nvv _b_, _b_  nvv _c_,
c., u n _vc v
a_. Hwv,  mu
 b ma d a n
 xc
  _u_ un 
_ab
ac_ bjc
w 

mn wann  u ncua n
 a
n a

an
w and a n _cca_. In 
cnc

ab
ac uany w axma   da  
ab
n
cca an
uu  w
y
m   cnc

anay
d. Bu ab
ac u d
n v u
an ad ua
an
n   a:  
n
ay ny und 
_
ac_ a
c, and a
_ab
ac_, _.._ aa m 
ndvduazn cndn
 m and
ac wc ac 

_cnc, acua x
nc_ a
vad n
n
 xnc. W
w  nc  a, and cn
d my wa ab
ac u
v
u
, w
ud ad a
_ay n_ wa 
_n 
u_. Bu wa 
n  u 
_ unv
a_; and 
ca 

u  dn  unv
a a

uc  b a 
mn
m.
O aan,  u  ma n an way, n
 a a
nc


 bjc
 
vau
ab
ac cnc
 nvv n
an nc

ay,  a
n a
na
n a
 n

vdc 
n
 xnc n  a mandn

 acuay
x
n bn ab
an m abun a _a uny_  
w
y
m  ab
ac u-bjc
wc  cnma
a

ccay and nc

ay nad. On  cnay, 

ud nunc a wav uay can b und by 
daccay nc

ay an
d
cvd by u, 
_ay
n_, and mu
 b add a
_n ay_: wc, aan, 

mn
m. Bu a 
y wc u
n

n
 xnc mu
 b
n-
dd and m
adn.
_ 157 C._ URRABURU, _. c._, D
. ., ca. ., a. 5 (. 319).
_ 158 C._ _na_, 83.
_ 159 C._ URRABURU, _. c._, _bd._ . 322.
160 ST. THOMAS, _D En  E

na_, ca. v.: Id,
 uaau
uum 
a naua 

 dc una v u
, nuum cncdndum

: ua uum u 
 xa ncum [cncum] umana
, 
uum u 

b accd. S nm uaa


 d an
ju
, nun uam 

 

 una: cum amn una

cundum ud 

n S. Sm
 una


 d ncu  an ju
,
unc 

 una  adm naua S
 Pan
, nc 

 n
ubu
uca. _C._ ZIGLIARA, _Summa P
._, _Ona_
(1), v., v.; (3) v.
161 Lc nm (naua) nun uam

n a u 
um, nn amn 

d
 a ud 
um, a am n um naua
cundum am
nam ab vum 

 xa anmam a: 
cundum am
nam ab unam
b nabm, ua 
 ndn

ad
nuaam, a ud nn, una  una d
, ud
cum uacum u una
nuaa
nau.SCOTUS, _In L.
Sn._, 2, d
. ., . 7._C._ DE WULF, _H
y  Mdva
P
y_, . 372.
_ 162 C._ _Scnc  Lc_, ., 248. _Ma_ u  vacy
cnmy  anua w u
ad n Ec
.
_ 163 C._ MERCIER, _On_, P. ., 4, .

_ 164 C._ _Scnc  Lc_, ., 252-4.

165 S mn
ncu
( ud 
 m

b) nu au,
nu md a va
man.ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, .
., a 1, 2 n n.
_ 166 C._ ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . ., and _a

m_.
167 ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . ., a. 2.
168 ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . ., a. 4; _Summa T._, ., . 16,
a. 6.
169 S ncu
umanu
nn 

, aduc 
dcnu v n
dn ad ncum dvnum. Sd
 u u ncu
, ud 

m

b, nu au, nu md a va

man.ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . ., a. 2.
170 S  accau va
__
cundum dnm ad ncum
dvnum, unc udm muau va
 muab
n aam
vam, nn n a
am.ST. THOMAS, _bd._ . ., a. 6.
_ 171 C._ ARISTOTLE, _D Anma_, .; ST. THOMAS, _D Va_, . .,
a. 1.
172 R

 nn aun,
d  accdn
. Dan nm cca
nm
a
a
;  ud
mudnm um un uum nn abn
x
nam.... R
nam
u ac n anma  a ua d 
a
xu
aan ...  d uand n a ua  aan

n
b
uaa
dmn
an
nauam ua 
nn
ub
,
dcu 
a 

 a
a.... Nc amn 

 c md cau
a
a
a
n anma, ud nc

a a
am cau
a.ST. THOMAS,
_Summa T._, ., . 17, a. 1, ad. 2; _D Va_, . ., a.
10, c.
173 , .ARISTOTLE, _Et._, .
_ 174 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 217.
175 Bonum utem, cum  be t notonem ppetbls, mport t  btunem
c us fn ls.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 5, rt. 2, . 1.
176 Prm utem non possunt notfc r per lqu pror , se
notfc ntur per posteror , scut c us per propros effectus. Cum
utem bonum propre st motvum ppettus, escrbtur bonum per
motum ppettus, scut solet m nfest r vs motv per motum. Et
eo ct (Arstoteles) quo plosop bene enunc verunt bonum
esse  quo omn
ppetunt.ST. THOMAS, _Comment. n Et. Nc._,
., lect. 1 .
177 Te en, wc s l st n te orer of ctu l tt nment, s frst
s te e l term of te m or tenency of te n ture: _fns est
ultmus n executone, se prmus n ntentone_: t s t t for te
s e of wc, n wt
vew to wc, te wole process of
ctu lz ton or perfectng goes on. _Cf._ _nfr _, 108.
178 Lcet bonum et ens snt em secunum rem; qu t men fferunt
secunum r tonem, non eoem moo ctur lqu ens smplcter et
bonum smplcter. N m, cum ens c t lqu esse n ctu, ctus

utem propre ornem  be t  potent m, secunum oc smplcter

lqu ctur esse ens secunum quo prmo secerntur b eo quo
est n potent t ntum; oc utem est esse subst nt le re
unuscujusque. Une per suum esse subst nt le ctur unumquoque
ens smplcter; per ctus utem super tos ctur lqu esse
secunum qu.... Sc ergo secunum prmum esse, quo est
subst nt le, ctur lqu ens smplcter et bonum secunum
qu,  est, nqu ntum est ens; secunum vero ultmum ctum ctur
lqu ens secunum qu, et bonum smplcter.ST. THOMAS, _Summ
Teol._, ., q. 5, rt. 1, . 1.
179 Respectus ... qu mport tur nomne bon est _ btuo perfectv_
secunum quo lqu n tum est perfcere non solum secunum r tonem
spece [_.e._ te bstr ct essence], se secunum esse quo  bet
n rebus; oc enm moo fns perfct e qu e sunt  fnem.ST.
THOMAS, _De Vert te_, q. 26, rt. 6.
_ 180 Cf._ te f ml r etc l stncton between objectve, n form l
or subjectve  ppness, _be ttuo objectv _ n _be ttuo
form ls seu subjectv _.
181 In motu ppettus,  quo est ppetble termn ns motum ppettus
secunum qu, ut meum per quo tentur n lu, voc tur
_utle_. I utem quo ppettur ut ultmum termn ns tot lter
motum ppettus scut qu e m res n qu m per se ppettus tent,
voc tur _onestum_; qu onestum ctur quo per se eser tur.
I utem quo termn t motum ppettus, ut ques n se eser t ,
est _elect ble_.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 5, rt. 3.
182 Excellent omns m xme conser tur secunum vrtutem, qu e est
s posto perfect  optmum, ut ctur n 6 Pysc. Et eo,
onestum, _propre loqueno_, n em refertur cum vrtute._b._,
2 2 e, q. 145, rt. I, c.
183 Eorum qu e propter se ppreenuntur, qu e m ppreenuntur solum
propter se, et nunqu m propter lu, scut felct s, qu e est
ultmus fns; qu e m vero ppreenuntur et propter se, n qu ntum
 bent n sepss lqu m r tonem bont ts, et ms nl lu
bon per e nobs cceret, et t men sunt ppetbl propter
lu, n qu ntum sclcet perucunt nos n lquo bonum
perfectus: et oc moo vrtutes sunt propter se
ppreenen e._b._,  I.
_ 184 Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._, p. 236.
185 Omn ... qu e j m  bent esse, llu esse suum n tur lter m nt,
et ps m tot vrtute conserv nt.... Ipsum gtur esse  bet
r tonem bon. Une scut mpossble est quo st lquo ens quo
non  be t esse, t necesse est quo omne ens st bonum ex oc pso
quo  bet esse.ST. THOMAS, _De Vert te_, q. 21, rt. 2, c.
186 Non-esse secunum se non est ppetble, se per ccens,
nqu ntum sclcet bl to lcujus m l est ppetbls; quo m lum
quem ufertur per non-esse; bl to vero m l non est ppetbls,
ns nqu ntum per m lum prv tur quo m esse. Illu gtur, quo
per se est ppetble, est esse; non-esse vero, per ccens t ntum,
nqu ntum sclcet quo m esse ppettur, quo omo non sustnet
prv r; et sc et m per ccens non-esse ctur bonum.ST.
THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 5, rt. 2, . 3.

187 M lum est efectus bon quo n tum est et ebet  ber.ST.
THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 49, rt. 1, c.
_ 188 b._
189 C us m form lem m lum non  bet, se est m gs prv to
form e.St. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 49, rt. 1, c.
190 Nec c us m fn lem  bet m lum, se m gs est prv to orns
ebtum fnem._b._

191 Non est c us effcens se _efcens_ m l, qu m lum non est
effecto se _efecto_._De Cv. De_, x., 7.
192 O, lttuo vt rum s pent e, et scent e De! Qu m
ncompreensbl sunt juc ejus, et nvestg bles v e
ejus!Rom. x., 33.
193 Connecte wt te tr nscenent l noton of unty s noter
concept, t t of _orer_, wc wll be more fully ex mne wen we
come to tre t of c uses.
194 BAUMGARTEN, Germ n plosoper of te egteent century, w s te
frst to use te term _Aestetc _ n ts sense.
195 Dcenum est quo pulcrum est em bono sol r tone fferens.
Cum enm bonum st quo omn
ppetunt, e r tone bon est, quo n
eo quetetur ppettus; se  r tonem pulcr ttnet quo _n
ejus spectu seu cogntone_ quetetur ppettus; une et ll
sensus prcpue respcunt pulcrum, qu m xme cognosctv sunt,
sclcet vsus et utus r ton eserventes; cmus enm pulcr
vsbl et pulcros sonos; n sensblbus utem lorum sensuum
non utmur nomne pulcrtuns; non enm cmus pulcros s pores,
ut oores.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._,  . ., q. 27, rt. 1,
. 3.
196 A r tonem pulcr pertnet, quo n ejus spectu seu _cogntone_
quetetur ppettus ... t quo pulcrum c tur , cujus ps
_ ppreenso_ pl cet.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._,  . ., q. 27,
rt. 1, . 3. An te Angelc Doctor justfes te extene use of
te term _vson_: De lquo nomne uplcter convent loqu, uno
moo secunum ejus prm m mpostonem, lo moo secunum usum
nomns, scut p tet n nomne _vsons_, quo prmo mpostum est
 sgnfc num ctum sensus vsus; se propter gnt tem et
certtunem ujus sensus extensum est oc nomen, secunum usum
loquentum,  omnem _cogntonem lorum_ sensuum; cmus enm:
Ve quomoo s pt, vel quomoo reolet, vel quomoo est c lum; et
ulterus et m  _cogntonem ntellectus_, secunum llu M tt. v.
8: Be t mun core quon m ps Deum vebunt.., q. 67, rt. 1,
c.
197 Pulcrum et bonum n subjecto quem sunt em, qu super e nem
rem fun ntur, sclcet super form m, et propter oc bonum l u tur
ut pulcrum: se r tone fferunt: n m bonum propre respct
ppettum: ... et eo  bet r tonem fns.... Pulcrum utem
respct vm cognosctv m: pulcr enm cuntur qu vs
pl cent.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 5, rt. 4, . 1.
_ 198 Cf._ DE WULF, _L
28-9.

V leur esttque e l

mor lt  ns l rt_, pp.

_ 199 LArt et l

Mor le_, p. 29.

_ 200 De l conn ss nce e Deu et e so-mme_, c. ., 8.

_ 201 De Ver Relgone_, c. 32.
_ 202 Cf._ POINCAR, _Confrence sur les r pports e l n lyse et e l
pysque m tem tque_._ pu_ MERCIER, _Ontologe_, 274, pp.
546-7 n.
203 Wen te object so excels n gre tness or gr neur s to excee more
or less our c p cty to re lze t we spe of t s _sublme_. Te
sublme c lls fort emotons of self- b sement, reverence, n even
fe r. If n object possessng te oter requstes of be uty s
w ntng n ue m gntue, we escrbe t s _pretty_ or _eleg nt_.
Te terms _gr ce_, _gr ceful_, pply espec lly to g t, gesture,
movement.
204 On ts pont ll te gre t plosopers re un nmous. For Pl to,
be uty weter of soul or of boy, weter of nm te or of
n nm te tngs, results not from c nce, but from orer,
recttue, rt:
, (Pa, _Gr._
506D). Arise paes bea i
ra
der a
d rder:
(_Petic
_, ch. viii., n. 8).
(_Meaph._, xii.,
h. iii.,
. 11). Nihi, wries S. Asi
e, es rdi
am qd


si phrm. Phra, sas S. Thmas, di
r qae visa
pae
; 
de phrm i
debia prpri
e 
sisi (_Smma
The._, i., q. 5, ar. 4, ad. 1).
205 Ad phridi
em ria reqir
r; prim qidem i
erias sive
perfei; qae e
im dimi
a s
, h ips rpia s
; e debia
prpri sive 
s
a
ia; e ierm arias._Smma The._, i.,
q. 39, ar. 8, . Esewhere he mis i
eri, sppsi
 i impied
i
rder: ad rai
em phri sive deri 
rri e arias e
debia prpri. A
d esewhere aai
he mis ari, his bei

a
eessar effe f rder: phrm i
debia prpri
e

sisi.
206 B
ara perfei
is mea
 he perfei
whih a
are
aqires b he reaizai
f is e
d (5):
(Arise).
207 This defi
ii
i
ides wih ha f
d i
a medieva shasi
reaise _De Phr e B
_, aribed  S. Thmas r Abers
Ma
as: Rai phri i

iversai 
sisi i
respe
de
ia
frmae sper pares maeriae prpri
aas, ve sper diversas
vires ve ai
es. _Cf._ MERCIER, _O
ie_, p. 554.
_ 208 LIde d bea da
s a phisphie de S. Thmas dAqi
_, p. 2.
_ 209 D rai, d Bea e d Bie
_, viie e
.
_ 210 Kriik der Urheiskraf_, Th. i., Absh
. 1, B. 1, passim.
211 Om
is rprea reara ... b
m es i
fimm, _e i
e
ere s
phrm_ q
iam frma e speie 
i
er.ST. AUGUSTINE, _De
era Rei._, . 20.

212 A he same ime i ms be br

e i
mi
d ha ma
 f he jdme
s
b whih hi
s are pr

ed  r mm
pae are
err
es. This is par bease he are based 
firs a
d
sperfiia se
se impressi
s: bea ms be apprehe
ded a
d jded
b he _i
ee_, a
d b he i
ee i
frmed wih e
i
e
k
wede;  he ee f e
ihe
ed i
eie
e here are beaies
f srre a
d ra
izai
i
he beee r he adpe as we
as i
he peak r he spa
ie. I is par, , bease we


sis r semi-
sis app sa
dards f hma
bea 
bei
s ha are mere a
ima: T k
w rea wheher here are
 m
kes we shd have  
s a m
ke; fr he bea we


sis k fr, a
d erai
 d
 fi
d, i
he m
ke, is
he bea f he hma
frm; a
d whe
we deare he m
ke 
wha we rea mea
is ha i wd be  if i were a hma

bei
; whih is 
de
iabe.SULLY-PRUDHOMME, _LExpressi
da
s es
beax ars_, p. 104.
213 Prverbs, xxxi. 30.
214 ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._, ia, iiae, q. 57, ar. 3, .
_ 215 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, i., 70 _sqq._
_ 216 Cf._ WINDELBAND, _Hisr f Phisph_ (r. Tfs),
_I
rdi
_.
_ 217 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, ii. P. iv., h. v.
_ 218 Meaph._, vi., 1.
_ 219 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._, i., q. 90, ar. 2: Id prprie
diir esse qd ipsm habe esse qasi i
s esse sbsise
s.
U
de _s sbsa
i prprie e vere di
r e
ia_; aide
s ver


habe esse sed e aiqid es, e ha rai
e e
s diir ...
aide
s diir _mais e
is qam e
s_.
_ 220 I
Meaph._, L. v., e. 9; f. _I
Phsi._, L. iii., e. 5.
_ 221 Sie
e f Li_, i., 71, 73-76.
_ 222 ibid._, 74, 76.
_ 223 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 268 (p. 668); MERCIER, _Liqe_, 33
(4h edi., p. 99).
_ 224 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _I
Meaph._, L. xi., e. 9: Sed sie
dm es
qd prdiame
a diversifia
r se
dm diverss mds
prdia
di. U
de idem, se
dm qd diversimde de diversis
prdiar, ad diversa prdiame
a peri
e.... Simiier ms
se
dm qd prdiar de sbje i
q es, 
sii
prdiame
m passi
is. Se
dm aem qd prdiar de e a q
es, 
sii prdiame
m ai
is.
_ 225 O
ie_, 138 (3rd edi., p. 263).
_ 226 Cf._ _Essa 
er
i
 Hma
U
dersa
di
_, bk iv., h. vi.,
11: Had we sh ideas f sbsa
es, as  k
w wha rea

sii
s prde hse se
sibe qaiies we fi
d i
hem, a
d
hw hese qaiies fwed frm he
e, we d, b he speifi

ideas f heir rea esse

es i
r w
mi
ds, mre erai
 fi
d
 heir prperies, a
d disver wha prperies he had r had

, ha
we a

w b r se
ses: a
d  k
w he prperies f
d, i wd be
 mre
eessar ha d shd exis, ha
i
is
eessar fr he k
wi
 he prperies f a ria
e, ha he
ria
e shd exis i
a
 maer; he idea i
r mi
ds wd
serve fr he 
e as we as he her.
227 Se
sai

vi
es s ha here are sid, exe
ded sbsa
es;
a
d refei
, ha here are hi
ki
 
es: experie
e assres s
f he exise
e f sh bei
s._ibid._, bk ii., h. xxiii.,
29. Lke presed repeaed aai
s he hare ha he de
ied he
exise
e f sbsa
es.
228 The
i

e has f pre sbsa
e is 
 a sppsii
f he
k
ws
 wha sppr f sh qaiies, whih are apabe f
prdi
 simpe ideas i
s; whih qaiies are mm
 aed
aide
s.... The idea he
we have,  whih we ive he e
era

ame sbsa
e, bei

hi
 b he sppsed, b 
k
w
sppr
f hse qaiies we fi
d exisi
, whih we imai
e a


sbsis, si
e re sbsa
e, wih smehi
  sppr hem, we
a ha sppr _sbsa
ia_.bk ii., h. xxiii., 2. I
he
fwi
 passae we ma dee he ideaisi i
si
ai
ha
k
wede reahes 
  ideas r me
a saes,
  he
exrame
a reai, he sere, absra
are f sbsa
e:
Whaever herefre be he sere absra
are f sbsa
e i

e
era, a he ideas we have f pariar disi
 srs f
sbsa
es, are
hi
 b severa mbi
ai
s f simpe ideas,
-exisi
 i
sh, hh 
k
w
, ase f heir 
i
, as makes
he whe sbsis f isef. I be
s, f rse,  he Ther
f K
wede,
  he Ther f Bei
,  shw hw r
dess he
ideaisi assmpi
is.
229 I
qiri
 i
 he ases f r impressi
s a
d ideas, he
admis he exise
e f bdies whih ase hem a
d mi
ds whih
experie
e hem: We ma we ask, _Wha ases i
de s  beieve
i
he exise
e f bd_? b is vai
 ask, _Wheher here be
bd r
_? Tha is a pi
, whih we ms ake fr ra
ed i
a
r reas
i
s._A Treaise 
Hma
Nare_, Par iv., ii.
230 Of he defi
ii
f a sbsa
e as _smehi
 whih ma exis b
isef_, he sas: his defi
ii
arees  everhi
 ha a

pssib be 
eivd; a
d wi
ever serve  disi
ish sbsa
e
frm aide
, r he s frm is perepi
s.... Si
e a r
perepi
s are differe
 frm eah her, a
d frm everhi
 ese
i
he 
iverse, he are as disi
 a
d separabe, a
d ma be

siderd as separae exise
, a
d ma exis separae, a
d
have

eed f a
hi
 ese  sppr heir exise
e. The are,
herefre, sbsa
es, as far as his defi
ii
expai
s a
sbsa
e._ibid._, v. We have
 perfe idea f sbsa
e, b
... aki
 i fr _smehi
 ha a
exis b isef_, is evide

ever perepi
is a sbsa
e, a
d ever disi
 par f a
perepi
a disi
 sbsa
e._ibid._
_ 231 Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._, 142 (p. 272).
_ 232 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, Disser. vi., h. iii., i, 592.
233 Assmi
 fr he mme
 ha we a
k
w sbsa
e  be
 _
e_
b _ma
ifd_: ha experie
e reveas  s a prai f


meria r _rea_, a
d eve
speifia a
d e
eria,
disi
 sbsa
es. _Cf._ _i
fra_, p. 221.
_ 234 Cf._ HUXLEY, _Hme_, bk. ii., h. ii. TAINE, _De LI
eie
e_,
. i., Prefae, a
d _passim_.
_ 235 Cf._ 65, _i
fra_.
236 Sh erms as rrpibe, desribe, e., imp erai

aribes _f a hi

_ whih a
be rrped, desred.
C
eivi
 his aribe i
he absra we frm he erms
rrpibii, desribii, e. S, , he erm
pssibii frmed frm he adjeive pssibe, simp impies
i
he absra wha he aer impies i
he 
reea
aive r
passive pwer _f a hi
_  ase r  beme smehi
; r ese
he mi
ds 
epi
f he

-rep
a
e f his smehi
. T
sbsa
iaize a pssibii, herefre, is sffiie
 absrd; b
 speak f a pssibii as rea a
d a he same ime  de
 he
reai f a
 sbje i
whih i wd have is reai, is

ess s.
237 exep i
he Bessed Eharis: here we k
w frm Divi
e Reveai

ha he aide

s f bread a
d wi
e exis apar frm heir


ara sbsa
e. We a

, b he ih f reas

, prve
_psiive_ he pssibii f sh separae exise
e f
aide
s; a he ms, me
f he spreme e
is f a
Arise
ma have sr
 sspeed sh pssibii, a
d ma have 
vi
ed
hemseves f he fii f a aemps  prve i
a
 wa he
impssibii f sh a 
dii
f hi
s. Nr a
we, eve
wih
he ih f Reveai
, d a
 mre ha
shw he fii f sh
aemps, hs _
eaive_ defe
di
 he pssibii f wha we
k
w frm Reveai
 be a fa.
_ 238 Cf._
. 1.
_ 239 Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_, h. xxii., fr a f a
asis a
d
refai
f phe
me
is heries ha wd de
 he
sbsa
iai f he hma
pers
.
240 Sbsa
ia es res, js
arae deber esse

i
ai;
aide
s ver es res, js
arae deber esse i

ai._dib._, ix., a. 5, ad. 2.

_ 241 Cf._ DESCARTES, _Oevres_, edi. Csi
, me ix., p. 166_apd_
MERCIER, _O
ie_, p. 280.
242 PAULSEN, _Ei
ei
 i
die Phisphie_, Beri
, 1896, S.
135_apd_ MERCIER, _. i._
243 a
d as _appeiive_; as i
me
a ife appeii
is a
ara

seqe
 f perepi
. I is i
arda
e wih his aer idea
ha W
d 
eives a reai as bei
 i
is imae
are
appeiive aivi: he _E_ is a vii
a 
i a
d he

iverse a ei
f vii
a 
is._Cf._ WUNDT, _Ssem
der Phisphie_, Leipzi, 1889, S. 415-421.
_ 244 Pri
ipes f Psh_, P. ii., h. i., 59.
245 B frm Desares dri
e f w passive sbsa
es s
a
iheia ppsed  eah her he ra
sii
 Spi
zism was

eas a
d bvis. If mi
d a
d maer are s abse ppsed as
hh a
d exe
si
, hw a
he 
ie  frm 
e hma

i
divida i
ma
? If bh are pre passive, a
d if Gd a
e ps
i
 hem heir 
sis saes a
d heir meha
ia mveme
s
respeive, wha remai
s prper  eah b a pre passivi ha
wd rea be mm
 bh? Wd i
 be mre 
sise
 he

 refer his hh-esse

e r reepivi f 
sis
aiviies, a
d his exe
si
-esse
e r reepivi f meha
ia
mveme
s,  Gd as heir prper sre,  reard hem as w
aribes f His 
iqe a
d sef-exise
 sbsa
e, a
d hs 
reard Gd as sbsa
ia imma
e
 i
a phe
me
a, a
d hese as

 differe
 expressi
s f His a-pervadi
 esse
e? This is
wha Spi
za did; a
d his m
ism i

e frm r her is he as
wrd f ma
 
emprar phisphers 
he
are f he 
iverse
whih 
sies he ai f hma
experie
e._Cf._ HFFDING,
_Oi
es f Psh_, h. ii., a
d riiism f same _apd_
MAHER, _Psh_, h. xxiii.
246 Esse sbsa
i

depe
de ab esse aeris si ei i
hre
s,
ie m
ia depe
dea
 a De si a asa prima.ST. THOMAS, _De
Casa Maeri_, ap. viii.
_ 247 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._ 594.
_ 248 Ibid._, 597-600.
249 Id prprie diir esse, qd ipsm habe esse, qasi i
s
esse sbsise
s. U
de s sbsa
i prprie e vere di
r
e
ia; aide
s ver

habe esse, sed e aiqid es, e ha
rai
e e
s diir: si abed diir e
s qia ea aiqid es
abm. E prper h diir i
_Meaph._, . 7 [a. 6], . i.
[Aris.], qd aide
s diir mais e
is qam e
s.ST. THOMAS,
_Smma The._, i. q. 90, ar. 2. Id i adve
i aide
s, es
e
s i
se mpem 
sise
s i
s esse, qd qidem esse

araier predi aide

s, qd sperve
i: e ide aide
s
sperve
ie
s, ex 
j
i
e si m e, i sperve
i,

asa
id esse i
q res sbsisi per qd res es e
s per se: sed
asa qddam esse se
dm, si
e q res sbsise
s i
eii
pes esse, si primm pes i
eii si
e se
d, ve
prdiam si
e sbje. U
de ex aide
e e sbje

fi 
m
per se, sed 
m per aide
s, e ide ex erm 
j
i
e


resa esse
ia qdam, si ex 
j
i
e frm m maeria:
prper qd aide
s
eqe rai
em mpe esse
i habe,
eqe
pars mpe esse
i es, sed si es e
s se
dm qid, ia e
esse
iam se
dm qid habe._De E
e e Esse
ia_, h. vii.
250 N
es defi
ii sbsa
i, e
s per se si
e sbje,
e
defi
ii aide
is, e
s i
sbje; sed qiddiai se esse
i
sbsa
i _mpei_ habere _esse_

i
sbje; qiddiai
aem sive esse
i aide
is _mpei_ habere _esse_ i

sbje.ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._, iii., q. 77, ar. 1, ad. 2.

_ 251 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 595-596.
_ 252 ibid._, 619.
_ 253 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 320-325.
254 KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 618, 624.

255 This ia sae is appied eqa  aribes f a ia

sbje whih is
 isef a sbsa
e b a
aide
; i r
s
se 
he pi
 wheher he 
ep f he ia prediae f
a jdme
 is r is
 

eed b a
abse ia 

exi
,
a 

exi
f hh, wih he 
ep f he ia sbje.
_ 256 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _aes. Disp._, _De Spir. Crea._, ar. 11, ad.
7.
_ 257 Cf._, hwever, 68, p. 246,
. 2, _i
fra_.
258 S. Thmas, whse a
ae is sa s mderae, hs expresses
his view f he dri
e aferwards prp
ded b Desares whe
he
aer deared he esse
e f he s  be hh: idqid
diar de pe
iis a
imae, ame

s 
qam pi
ar,
isi
i
sa
s, qd habis e as a
imae si
 ipsa ejs
esse
ia._aes. Disp., De Spir. Crea._, ar. 11, ad 1. Fr a
ver 
vi
i
 reame
 f his qesi
, _f._ KLEUTGEN, _p.
i._, 625-626.
259 DE SAN, _Csmia_, 323, _apd_ MERCIER, _p. i._, 158.
_ 260 p. i._, 625.
261 ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._, iii., q. 17, ar. 2, .
262 He
e S. Thmas sas, i
reard  he Bessed Eharis, ha he
aide
s f bread a
d wi
e had
 a
exise
e f heir w
as

 as he sbsa
e f bread a
d wi
e was here; ha his is re
f aide
s e
era; ha i is
 he ha exis, b raher
heir sbjes; ha heir f
i
is  deermi
e hese sbjes
 exis as haraerized i
a erai
wa, as whie
ess ives s
w
a whie exise
e: Die
dm qd aide
ia pa
is e vi
i, ma
e
e
sbsa
ia pa
is e vi
i

habeba
 ipsa _esse_ si
e aia
aide
ia, sed sbjea erm habeba
 hjsmdi _esse_ per ea,
si
ix es aba per abedi
em._Smma The._, iii., q. 77, ar.
1, ad. 4.
263 Fr he arme
s 
bh sides _f._ MERCIER, _O
ie_, 156
(pp. 308 _sqq._). The i
dire arme
 whih he ahr derives
frm he fa ha he Divi
e _C
rss_ is
eessar fr he
aivi f reares, whie fferi
 a
i
eiibe expa
ai
f
his
eessi 
Thmisi pri
ipes, des
 h he
prbabii f her expa
ai
s.
_ 264 Cf._ URRABURUS defi
ii
: e
ias ve reaias a sbje
reaier disi
a, js m esse 
sisi i
ima
deermi
ai
e rei ad aiqd m
s be
dm, ve ad aiqam reaem
de
mi
ai
em a habe
dam, si
e qa, saem i
i
divid smpa,
res eadem pes exisere abse._p. i._, 120 (p. 380).
_ 265 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 291 (p. 854, _qara pi
i_), p. 854.
266 Wheher imma
e
 via asespeia f he spiria faies i

ma
: hhs, vii
s, e.are mere mdes, r wheher he are
abse aide
s, havi
 heir w
prper a
d psiive reai
whih perfes heir sbje b affei
 i, is a disped
qesi
. Habis, aqired b repeii
f sh as, _e.._
k
wede a
d vire, be
i
 as he d  he aer f
qai, are mre ha
mere mdaiies f he hma
sbje: he

have a
abse, psiive e
i, whereb he add  he a
perfei
f he aer.
_ 267 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 121 (pp. 386 _sqq._).
268 The fa ha Arise [_Meaph._, ib. vii. (a. vi.), h. iii.]
seems  have paed a _rea disi
i
_ bewee
exe
si
a
d
rprea sbsa
e, whie he d
 have sspeed he abse
_separabii_ f he frmer frm he aer, wd   shw ha
he did
 reard separabii as he 
 es f a rea
disi
i
. _Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, _ibid._
269 Obvis we are
 
er
ed herewih _a_ he aribes whih
b a
eessi f hh we asribe  a
esse
e, _e.._ he
_rrpibii_ f a rprea sbsa
e, r he _immrai_ f a
spiria sbsa
e. These are
 e
iies rea disi
 frm he
sbsa
e, b 
 aspes whih we re
ize  be
eessar
raries f is
are. We are 
er
ed 
 wih prperies
whih are rea pwers, faies, fres, apides f hi
s._Cf._
KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 627.
_ 270 p. i._, 628.
271 Terii s
, qi di
, qd pe
iae a
imae
e ade s
 idem
ipsi a
imae, si s
 ejs pri
ipia i
ri
sia e esse
iaia,

e ade diversae,  eda

 i
aid e
s, si aide
ia; sed
i
e
ere sbsa
iae s
 per redi
em ... e ide qasi medim
e
e
es i
er ramqe pi
i
em di
, qasdam a
imae pe
ias
si differre ad i
viem, 
 md dii pssi
 
a pe
ia:


ame

ed
, eas simpiier diversifiari se
dm
esse
iam, ia  dia
r diversae esse
iae, sed differre
esse
iaier i
e
ere pe
iae, ia  dia
r diversa
i
srme
a ejsdem sbsa
iae._I
ib._ ii., dis. xxiv., p. 1,
ar. 2, q. 1.
I
he same 
ex he expai
s wha we are  
dersa
d b
referri
 a
hi
  a erai
aer _per redi
em_: S

e
im qaedam, qae s
 i
e
ere _per se_, aiqa _per redi
em_
ad idem e
s. Ia per se s
 i
e
ere, qae pariipa

esse
iam mpeam e
eris,  speies e i
divida; ia ver per
redi
em, qae
a
di
 mpeam esse
iam.... aedam
red
r si pri
ipia ... a esse
iaia, si s
 maeria
e frma i
e
ere sbsa
iae; a i
era
ia, si pares
sbsa
iae.... aedam red
r si _viae_ ... a si _viae
ad res_, e si ms e mai
es,  e
erai, red
r ad
sbsa
iam; a si _viae a rebs_, e si habe
 redi
pe
iae ad e
s sbsa
iae. Prima e
im ae
di pe
ia, qae
eressm diir habere ab ipsa sbsa
ia, ad idem e
s redir,
qae

ade e
ar ab ipsa sbsa
ia,  dia aiam esse
iam
mpeam._ibid._, ad. 8.
272 
iam pe
ia rearae araa es,

pi reara habere
psse perfem,
isi esse i
ea pe
iarm mid, ex qarm
ei
e sive ad
ai
e, 
a sppe
e defem aeris,
resare 
m psse mpem, si ma
ifese a
imadveri pes
i
ra
is hma
i rpris, qrm 
mqdqe i
die a vire
aeris adjvari._I
ib._ ii., dis. xxiv., p. 1, ar. 2, q. 8.
273 The sde
 wi fi
d i
MAHERS _Psh_ (h. iii.) a ear a
d
we-reas
ed expsii
f he i

sise
 a
d r
dess
ess f

sh aaks 
he dri
e f faies.
_ 274 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 636-637.
275 Cm rps hmi
is a jsibe aeris a
imais si qddam
m
arae, dii 
m ex e qd 
am frmam habea qa
perfiir

sm se
dm areai
em a mpsii
em, 
aidi i
dm e i
aiis hjsmdi. U
de ppre qd qaeibe
pars hmi
is e a
imais reipia esse [_i.e._ sibi prprim] e
speiem ab a
ima si a prpria frma. U
de Phisphs dii (.
ii. de a
ima, ex. 9), qd reede
e a
ima
eqe s
eqe ar

eqe aiqa pars ma

e
isi aeqive.ST. THOMAS, _aes. Disp.
de a
ima_, ar. 10_apd_ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 632.
276 The ms perfe rea 
i is f rse ha whih i
des a
perfei
i
he simpii f is aa esse
e, wih a

dispersi
r prai f is bei
, wih a
 admixre f
aide
 r pe
iai. Sh is he 
i f he I
fi
ie Bei

a
e. N fi
ie bei
 pssesses is aai _a sim_. A
d he
reare fas shr f perfe 
i i
prpri
as i aai
s 
his aai 
 b a mipii f rea ha
es, b a varie
f rea disi
 pri
ipes a
d pwers, esse
ia a
d aide
a,
i
is 
ree mde f bei
. I
prpri
as reaed hi
s are
hiher r wer i
he sae f bei
 (47), he reaize a hiher r
a wer rade f 
i i
heir mde f i
divida exise
e.
277 We are 
er
ed here 
 wih fi
ie, reaed sbsa
es, as
disi
 frm he Divi
e U
reaed Sbsa
e 
whm hese depe
d
(64).
278 ARISTOTLE, _Cae._ h. iii., _passim_; _Meaph._, . v. (a. vi.),
h. viii.; ST. THOMAS, _I
Meaph._, . v. e. 10; KLEUTGEN, _p.
i._, 589-591.
_ 279 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 587, 602-603.
_ 280 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 277, 279.
_ 281 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, ii., 217 (pp. 66 _sqq._).
282 Sie
dm es qd
me

arae si
ifia qdibe pri
ipim
i
ri
sim ms; se
dm qd Phisphs dii qd _
ara es
pri
ipim ms i
e i
q es per se, e

se
dm
aide
s_.ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._, iii., q. 2, ar. 1 i
.
283 A
d here we are remi
ded f he view f ma
 medieva shasis f
hih ahri, ha he same maeria e
i a
have a he same
ime a prai f frmaive pri
ipes r _sbsa
ia frms_ f
differe
 rades f perfei
.
_ 284 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 282 (p. 825).
285 Fr wa
 f a mre apprpriae re
deri
 we ra
sae he Lai
erm
_sppsim_ (Gr. ) b he phrase sbsisi
 hi
;
hh he assia erms are rea e
eri: _sppsim_ bei
 a
e
s f whih here are w speies, _sppsim irrai
ae_
(_hi
_ r sbsisi
 _hi
_) a
d _sppsim rai
ae_
(_pers
_)._Cf._ _i
fra_, pp. 265-6.
286 Cmpee i
ever wa: i
_sbsa
ia_ a
d i
_speifi_

perfei
s. The separaed s, hh i is a
exisi
 i
divida
sbsa
e, reai
s is esse
ia mm
iabii  is 

ara
maeria pri
ipe, he bd. He
e i has
 sbsise
e, i is

 a pers
._Cf._ _i
fra_, p. 264.
287 Per se aere _
ve
i per se exise
i_. Sed per se exise
s
qa
dqe pes dii aiqid, si

si i
hre
s  aide
s, ve
 frma maeriais, eiamsi si pars. Sed prprie e per se
sbsise
s diir qd
eqe es praedi md i
hre
s
eqe es
pars. Se
dm qem mdm s a ma
s

pes dii per se
sbsise
s, e per 
seqe
s
e per se pera
s. U
de e
perai
es parim arib
r i per pares. Diims e
im qd
hm vide per m e papa per ma
m.ST. THOMAS, _Smma
The._, i., q. 75, ar. 2, ad. 2.
_ 288 Cf._ preedi

e. S. Thmas 
i
es: Pes iir dii qd
a
ima i
eii, si s vide, sed mais prprie diir qd
hm i
eia per a
imam (ibid.); a
d esewhere he wries:
Die
dm qd a
ima es pars hma
ae speiei [_i.e._
arae]. E
ide, ie si separaa, qia ame
rei
e
aram 
ibiiais,


pes dii sbsa
ia i
divida qae es hpsasis ve
sbsa
ia prima, si
e ma
s,
e qaemqe aia parim
hmi
is; e si

mpei ei
eqe defi
ii pers
ae,
eqe

me
._Smma The._, i., q. 29, ar. 1, ad. 5.
_ 289 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, i., 54-5.
290 A _reaed_ sbsisi
 hi
s a
d pers
s depe
d, f rse,
esse
ia 
he Neessar Bei
 fr heir exise
e a
d fr heir
aivi. This Neessar Bei
 we k
w frm Reveai
 be
_Tri
e_, Three i
Pers
s, O
e i
Nare. The sbsise
e f eah
Divi
e Pers
f he Bessed Tri
i exdes _a_ mdes f
depe
de
e.
291 H ... qd es per se aere, exee
iri md 
ve
i
sbsa
iis rai
ais
arae qam aiis. Nam sae sbsa
iae
rai
aes habe
 dmi
im si as, ia qd i
eis es aere e


aere; aiae ver sbsa
iae mais a
r qam a
. E ide

ve
ie
s fi  sbsa
ia i
divida _rai
ais_
arae
speiae
me
habere.ST. THOMAS, _aes. Disp. de Pe
ia_, q.
ix., ar. 1, ad. 3.
_ 292 Cf._ BILLOT, _De erb I
ar
a_, q. ii._apd_ MERCIER, _p.
i._, 151 (pp. 299-300).
_ 293 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 291, fr a
exhasive is f he
ahriies i
favr f eah f he varis views prp
ded i

his prese
 
ex.
294 Nara si
aris e i
era per se 
siir i
sa
i
depe
de
ia,

aiq psiiv addi ra iam e
iaem
psiivam, qa es hae
ara.SCOTUS, iii., Dis. i. q. 1,
. 9
a
d
. 11, ad. 3. _Cf._ SUAREZ, _Meaph._, Disp. xxxiv. 2;
KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 616; FRANZELIN, _De verb I
ar
a_, Th.
xxix.
_ 295 p. i._, 293 (p. 861).
296 Neiher is i a _
ara_ 
i
i
he se
se f bei
 _de_  he
hma

are; i is wh _
de_  he aer, a
d is i
his

se
se _sper
ara_.
_ 297 p. i._, 293 (p. 861).
_ 298 ibid._ Farher 
(p. 863) he sas i is erai
ha he Divi
e
Nare f he Wrd is _sbsa
ia_ 
ied wih hma
i i
a

i f pers
r sbsise
e: erm es eamdem [
aram divi
am]
sbsa
iaier 
iri m hma
iae i

iae sppsii; a
d fr
his he 
siders ha he hma

are ms be i
mpee i

rai
e pers
ae. B his prves
hi
; fr f rse he hma

are ms be wa
i
 i
pers
ai. B i is mpee _as a

are_. Nr des he aphrism he qesidqid sbsa

iae i

sa speie mpeae aedi, aide

s es,app  sbsise
e r
pers
ai sperve
i
 
a mpee sbsa
e.
299 Hma
ias ia [_si._ Chrisi], qamvis mpea i
_esse_

arae,

ame
habe imm mpeme
m i
e
ere sbsa
iae
m i
se

sbsisa._ibid._, 296 (p. 866).
300 This view, whih has ma
 spprers, is ear expai
ed a
d ab
defe
ded b MERCIER i
his _O
ie_, 151 (pp. 298-302), 52
(pp. 134-5), 49 (p. 127,
. 1).
_ 301 Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._, 49 (p. 127,
. 1).
302 He
e Urrabr ives his _rea_ defi
ii
f sbsise
e: _ims

arae ermi
s i
rdi
e sbsa
iai_ sive i
rai
e exise
is
per se: he imae erm (r deermi
ai
) f a
are i
he
rder f sbsa
iai r f exisi
 b isef_p. i._, 296
(p. 866).
303 Si e
im mds aide
ais firae ermi
a qa
iaem, e
mds biai
is 
sii rem hi e

aibi, ia mds
sbsa
iais pers
aiais ermi
a
s
aram reddi iam
i
mm
iabiem aie
 sppsi.URRABURU, _p. i._, 291 (p.
854).
304 The erms Sef, _E_, a
d Pers
we ake  be ide
ia i

refere
e  he hma
i
divida. The _mi
d_ is
 he _E_,
sef, r pers
, b 
 a par f i._Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_,
h. vi., p. 104.
_ 305 Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_, h. xvii.
_ 306 ibid._, p. 365.
_ 307 Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_, p. 363.
_ 308 Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_, p. 365 (iais i
as se
e
e rs).
_ 309 Cf._ RICKABY, _Firs Pri
ipes_, p. 370.
_ 310 Cf._ MAHER, _ibid._, pp. 487-92; MERCIER, _Pshie_, ii., pp.
197-224 (6h edi.); _O
ie_, 153 (p. 304).
311 There are e
 heia reas
s as aai
s he view ha

sis
ess 
sies pers
ai. Fr i
sa
e, he hma

are f r Divi

e Lrd has is w
prper 
sis
ess, whih,

everheess, des
 
sie his
are a pers
.

_ 312 Essa C
er
i
 Hma
U
dersa
di
_, bk. ii., h. xxvii.
313 Tha bei
 he

e pa
 whih has sh a
ra
izai
f pars
i

e here
 bd paraki
 f 
e mm
ife, i 
i
es 
be he same pa
 as 
 as i 
i
es  parake f he same
ife, hh ha ife be mm
iaed  differe
 paries f
maer via 
ied  he ivi
 pa
, i
a ike 
i
ed
ra
izai

frmabe  ha sr f pa
s....
The ase is
 s mh differe
 i
bres, b ha a

e ma
he
e see wha makes a
a
ima a
d 
i
es i he same....
This as shws wherei
he ide
i f he same ma

siss:
_viz._ i

hi
 b a pariipai
f he same 
i
ed ife, b

sa
 feei
 paries f maer, i
sessi
via

ied  he same ra
ized bd.... Fr if he ide
i f s
a
e makes he same ma
, a
d here be
hi
 i
he
are f
maer wh he same i
divida spiri ma be 
ied [_i.e._
sessive]  differe
 bdies, i wi be pssibe ha ... me

ivi
 i
disa
 aes, a
d f differe
 empers, ma have bee
he
same ma
...._Essa C
er
i
 Hma
U
dersa
di
_, bk. ii. h.
xxvii. 4-6. Ye hh ide
i f s des
 make he same
ma
, Lke es 
immediae  asser ha ide
i f
_
sis
ess_, whih is b a f
i
f he s, makes _he
same pers
_.
_ 314 Essa C
er
i
 Hma
U
dersa
di
_, bk. ii.,
Names d
 sa
d fr ideas r 
eps b fr
reaiies; a
d he qesi
here is: Wha is he
(i
he exisi
 hma
i
divida) fr whih he
sa
ds?

h. xxvii., 7.
_
eived_

eived reai
erm pers

_ 315 ibid._, 9.
_ 316 Essa C
er
i
 Hma
U
dersa
di
_, bk. ii., h. xxvii., 13,
14.
_ 317 Essa C
er
i
 Hma
U
dersa
di
_, bk. ii., h. xxvii., 13.
318 Fr a searhi
 riiism f sh heries f he E r hma

pers
, _f._ MAHER, _Psh_, h. xxii.
_ 319 ibid._, 19.
320 p. 276.
_ 321 Cf._ MAHERS riiism f Prfessr James her 
dbe
pers
ai (_p. i._, h. xxii., pp. 491-2): Prfessr James
deves mh spae  hese mai
s f he E, e verks
he fa ha he are peiar faa,
  his adversaries, b
 his w
her ha he prese
 hh is he 
 hi
ker,
a
d ha seemi
 ide
i is sffiie
 preserved b eah hh
apprpriai
 a
d i
herii
 he 
e
s f is predeessr.
The diffiies prese
ed  his press f i
heria
e b sh
fas as seep a
d sw
i
 have bee
aread dwe p
[_f._
_ibid._, p. 480 ()]; b here he are if pssibe i
reased. The
as 
sis hh f, sa, Feida 2 has  ra
smi is
ahered experie
e
  is _prximae_ 
sis sessr,
whih is Feida 1, b arss seve
m
hs f vam 
i 
he
exi
i
f Feida 1 he
ex 
sis hh whih 
sies

Feida 2 is br
i
 exise
e. If he si
e pers
ai is hard
fr Mr. James  expai
, dbe-pers
ai a eas dbes his
diffiies.
_ 322 Cf._ _i
fra_, 82.
323 , ._C teg._, c.
v. _Cf._ ST. THOMAS: H ec est r to form ls qu lt ts, per qu m
responemus nterrog nt qu ls res st.
324 Te oter ccents, _e.g._ _ cto_ n _p sso_, n so f r s tey
c nge te perfecton of te subst nce, o so only by proucng
qu ltes n t. Qu ntty, wc s te conn tur l ccent of ll
corpore l subst nce, s of tself no spec l complement or egree
of ccent l perfecton to te l tter, n te sense of sposng
(or nsposng) te l tter for te tt nment of te full n fn l
perfecton ue to ts specfc n ture; but only n te sense t t t
supposes more or less of t t n of subst nce to exst, or n te
sense n wc t s unerstoo to nclue te _qu ltes_ of wc
t m y be te _mme te_ subject._Cf._ URRABURU, _op. ct._,
326.
_ 325 In Pr ec ment _, c. .
_ 326 Cf._ MAHER, _Psycology_, c. x, x, xx, xxv. BERGSON
rgtly recognzes te rreucblty of qu lty to qu ntty (_Ess 
sur les onnes mme tes e l conscence, p ssm_). But e
wrongly nfers from ts fun ment l ntnomy, s e c lls t, te
exstence, n e c um n nvu l, of two-fol _Ego_,
eeper
self were ll s qu lty, n
superfc l self wc projects
conscous st tes, n st tc n numerc l sol ton from one
noter, nto omogeneous sp ce were ll s qu ntt tve,
m tem tc l. Te re son ble nference s merely t t te um n mn
recognzes n te  t of ts experence cert n rcness n
v rety of moes of re l beng.
_ 327 Met p._ V., c. xv., were te four groups re fn lly reuce to
two.
_ 328 Summ

Teol._,  ,  e, q. 49, rt. 2.

329 To be stnguse from te _p sso_ wc s correl tve of

_ cto_ n wc conssts n te ctu l unergong of te l tter,
te ctu l recepton of te ccent l form wc s te term of te
l tter.
330 Inter omnes qu lt tes, fgur e m xme sequuntur et emonstr nt
specem rerum. Quo m xme n pl nts et nm lbus p tet, n qubus
nullo certor nco verst s specerum juc r potest, qu m
verst te fgur e.ST. THOMAS, _In_ VII. _Pysc_, lect. 5.
331 Every n tur l  bt, s we  ve just seen,  s n essent l rel ton
to _ ctvty_. Every suc  bt neres mme tely n some
oper tve f culty, s scence n te ntellect, or justce n te
wll. All n tur l  bts re _oper tve_. Tere s, owever, s we
now from Dvne Revel ton, n entt tve  bt, _ btus
entt tvus_, wc ffects te subst nce tself of te um n soul,
ennoblng ts n tur l moe of beng n so perfectng t s to r se
t to ger or supern tur l pl ne of beng, to n orer of
exstence ltogeter unue to ts n ture: te _supern tur lly

nfuse_  bt of _s nctfyng gr ce_.

_ 332 Et. Eu._, ., 2.
333 Vres n tur les non gunt oper tones su s me ntbus lqubus
 btbus, qu secunum seps s sunt etermn t e  unum._Summ
Teol._,  , q. 49, rt. 4,  2.
334 Intellectus ... est subjectum  btus. Ill enm compett esse
subjectum  btus quo est n potent  mult ; et oc m xme
compett ntellectu....ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._,  , e, q.
50, rt. 4, . 1. Omns potent qu e versmoe potest orn r
 genum, nget  btu, quo bene spon tur  suum ctum.
Volunt s utem cum st potent r ton ls, versmoe potest 
genum orn r: et eo oportet n volunt te lquem  btum
ponere, quo bene spon tur  suum ctum ...,_b._ rt. 5, n
c.
335 H btu ls sposto requrtur ub subjectum est n potent

mult . Oper tones vero qu e sunt b nm per corpus, prncp lter
quem sunt psus nm e, secun ro vero psus corpors. H btus
utem proporton ntur oper tonbus; une ex smlbus ctbus
smles  btus c us ntur, ut ctur n 2 Etc., c p. 1 et 2; n
corpore vero possunt esse secun ro, nqu ntum sclcet corpus
spontur et  blt tur  prompte eservenum oper tonbus
nm e._Summ Teol._,  , q. 49, rt. 1, n c.
_ 336 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _b._, q. 50,
164.

rt. 1.MERCIER, _Ontologe_,

337 Accorng to te scol stc teory of m tter n form te m tter

must be prespose by cert n qu ltes for te recepton of
gven subst nt l form. Te cemc l elements wc form compoun
wll not o so n ny n every conton, but only wen efntely
spose n brougt togeter uner f vour ble contons. Tese
element ry qu ltes, consere n temselves, re not  bts or
spostons: Une qu lt tes smplces elementorum, qu e secunum
unum moum etermn tum n turs elementorum convenunt, non cmus
_spostones_ vel _ btus_, se _smplces qu lt tes_.ST.
THOMAS, _b._, q. 49, rt. 4, n C. Tey re n tur l qu ltes n
not spostons prouce by sposng c uses.
338 St. Tom s reg rs te stncton between _ bts_ n mere
spostons s stncton not of _egree_ but of _ n_:
Dsposto et  btus possunt stngu scut vers e speces
unus geners sub ltern, ut c ntur _spostones_ ll e
qu lt tes prm e spece qubus convent secunum propr m r tonem
ut e f cl mtt ntur, qu  bent c us s mut bles, ut egrtuo
et s nt s; _ btus_ vero c ntur ll e qu lt tes qu e secunum
su m r tonem  bent quo non e f cl tr nsmutentur qu  bent
c us s mmobles; scut scent et vrtutes; et secunum oc
sposto non ft  btus.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._,  , , q.
49, rt. 2, . 3.
339 Vres senstv e _uplcter_ possunt conser r:
secunum quo oper nter ex nstnctu n tur e; _ lo
quo oper ntur ex mpero r tons. Secunum gtur
ex nstnctu n tur e, sc orn ntur  unum, scut
eo scut n potents n tur lbus non sunt lqu
et m nec n potents senstvs, secunum quo ex

_uno moo_,
moo_, secunum
quo oper ntur
et n tur ; et
 btus, t
nstnctu

n tur e oper ntur. Secunum vero quo oper ntur ex mpero r tons,

sc  vers orn r possunt: et sc possunt esse n es lqu
 btus, qubus bene ut m le  lqu sponuntur.ST. THOMAS,
_b._, q. 50, rt. 3, n c. In ts context te ngelc octor,
followng Arstotle, pl ces te vrtues of temper nce n forttue
n te sense _ ppette_ s controlle by te r ton l wll. For te
s me re son e mts te possblty of  bts n te f cultes of
_ntern l_ sense percepton, toug not n te _extern l_ senses
(_b._, . 3).
340 Qu brut nm l
r tone omns per qu n m consuetunem
sponuntur  lqu oper num sc, vel lter, oc moo n bruts
nm lbus  btus quo mmoo pon possunt.... Defct t men r to
 btus qu ntum  usum volunt ts qu non  bent omnum uten
vel non uten, quo vetur  r tonem  btus pertnere; et eo,
propre loqueno, n es  btus esse non possunt._b._, . 2.
341 It must not be forgotten t t  bt s n _ ccent_, n ccent l
perfecton of te subst nce or n ture of n nvu l gent; t
mme tely ffects te oper tve power of te gent, wc
oper tve power s tself n ccent of ts gents n ture
(consttutng te secon sub-cl ss of te ccent, _Qu lty_).
H bt s tus t once n _ ctu lty_ or ctu lz ton of te
oper tve power n _potent lty_ of furter n more perfect
cts. It s nterme te between te oper tve power n te
complete ctu lz ton wc te power receves by te cts t t
sprng from te l tter s perfecte by te  bt. F culty n  bt
form one complete proxm te prncple of tose cts: prncple
wc s t once
p rt l ctu lz ton of te nvu l gents
n ture n potent lty of furter ctu lz ton of ts n ture.
342 S potent e nm e non sunt ps essent nm e, sequtur quo
snt ccent n lquo novem generum content . Sunt enm n
secun spece qu lt ts, qu ctur potent vel mpotent
n tur ls._Q. Dsp. e Spr. Cre t._, rt. 11, n c.
_ 343 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. 76, rt. 1, n c.Cum
potent et ctus v nt ens, et quolbet genus ents, opportet
quo  em genus refer tur potent et ctus; et eo s ctus non
est n genere subst nt e, potent , qu ctur  llum ctum, non
potest esse n genere subst nt e. Oper to utem nm e non est n
genere subst nt e, se n solo Deo, cujus oper to est ejus
subst nt ._Cf._ ZIGLIARA, _Ontolog _ (9), x.: Actus et
potent essent lter  llum ctum orn t sunt n eoem genere
supremo.
344 Nec n ngelo, nec n lqu cre tur , vrtus vel potent
oper tv est em quo su essent .... Actus  quem comp r tur
potent oper tv est oper to. In ngelo utem non est em
ntellgere et esse; nec lqu l oper to, ut n pso ut n
quocunque lo cre to, est em quo ejus esse. Une essent
ngel
non est ejus potent ntellectv , nec lcujus cre t essent est
ejus oper tv potent ._b._, q. 54, rt 3.
345 As we s ll see l ter, cton s suc oes not perfect or c nge te
_ gens_, unless wen, s n mm nent cton, te _ gens_ s
entc l wt te _p tens_. Acton form lly ctu lzes or perfects
te _p tens_: _ cto ft n p sso_. But te exercse of ny
ctvty by n gent unoubtely connotes or mples
perfecton of
ts gent. It s not, owever, t t te ctu l oper ton s suc

(unless t s mm nent) s new perfecton to te gent. R ter

te gents _power_ of ctng, reve le to us n ts exercse, s
for us me sure of te ctu l perfecton of te gent. But te
queston rem ns: Is ts power or perfecton, so f r s we now t,
_subst nt l_ perfecton? Is t _te very perfecton tself of te
gents subst nce or n ture_ s nown to us? Or s t n
_ ccent l_ perfecton wc s for us n nex of corresponng
egree of subst nt l perfecton? In gettng our nowlege of te
n ture of subst nce from conser ton of ts _sensble_
ccents, ts _penomen _, ts _oper tons_ ccorng to te rule,
_Oper r sequtur esse: qu ls est oper to t ls est n tur _c n we
use _sngle_ nference, from _ cton_ to _n ture_, or must we use
_ouble_ nference, from cton to power, n from power to
n ture? But even f we  ve to m e te ouble nference, ts _of
tself_ oes not prove ny more t n conceptu l stncton
between _power_ n _n ture_.
_ 346 Cf._. ST. THOMAS, _Q. Dsp. e spr. cre t._,
_Psycology_ c. .

rt. 11, n c.MAHER,

_ 347 Cf._ MERCIER, _Ontologe_, 168.

_ 348 Cf._ _b._, _op. ct._, 169; MAHER, _Psycology_, c. . (p.
29, n. 3.)
349 Of course ll ccents re forms n te sense of beng
_etermnng prncples_ of ter subjects, tese beng consere
s _etermn ble_ or _receptve_ prncples. Even qu ntty s form
n ts sense. But qu ntty tself oes not ppe r to be smple
prncple n te sense of beng nvsble: ts very functon s
to m e te corpore l subst nce vsble nto ntegr l p rts. W t
ten of ll tose qu ltes wc nere _mme tely_ n te
qu ntty of corpore l subst nces? Tey re etermn tons or
ffectons of composte, extene, vsble subject. Conceve n
te bstr ct tey  ve, of course, te ttrbutes of nvsblty,
mmut blty, etc., c r cterstc of ll _ bstr ct_ essences (14).
But n ter pysc l ctu lty n w t ntellgble sense c n tey
be s  to be smple, nvsble enttes?
_ 350 Summ Teol._,  ,  e, q. 52, rt. 2;  ,  e, q. 24, rt. 4,
5._Q. Dsp. e Vrtutbus n commun_, q. , rt. 11, n c.I. _In
Sentent._, _Dst._, 17, q. 2, rt. 2._Cf._ URRABURU, _op. ct._,
329-332, for rguments n utortes. Te utor mself efens
te former vew, ccorng to wc lter ton t es pl ce by re l
ton or substr cton of gr es of te s me qu lty.
351 I. _In Sentent._, _Dst._, 17, q. 2, rt. 2.
352  ,  e, q. 24, rt. 4, . 3.
_ 353 Q. Dsp. e Vrtut._, q. 1, rt. 11, n c.
354 Te scentfc concept of volume s entc l wt te common n
plosopc l concept of extern l, ctu l, loc l, or sp t l
extenson. Te functons scrbe by pyscs n mec ncs to te
m ss of
boy  ve no oter source, n te boy, t n w t
plosopers unerst n by te ntern l extenson or qu ntty of
te boy._Cf._ Nys, _Cosmologe_ (Louv n, 1903), 192-203.
355 Te terms _qu ntty_ n _extenson_ re commonly t en

synonymous; but _qu ntty_ s more properly pple to te ntern l

plur lty of ntegr l p rts of te subst nce tself, _extenson_ to
te sperson of tese p rts outse one noter n sp ce.
356 Hence Arstotles efnton n _Met p._, v.: Qu ntum ctur,
quo [est] n nst vsble, quorum utrumque ut sngul unum
qu et oc qu pt sunt esse: qu ntfe subst nce s one
wc s vsble nto p rts t t re re lly n t [_.e._ _p rtes
ntegr ntes_], p rts e c of wc s c p ble of becomng
stnct
subsstng nvu l tng._Cf._ NYS, _Cosmologe_, 154.
357 Longtuo, l ttuo et profunt s qu ntt tes qu e m, se non
subst nt e sunt. Qu ntt s enm non est subst nt , se m gs cu
 ec ps prmo nsunt llu est subst nt ._Met p._, L. v.,
c. .
_ 358 Pysc_, L. ., c. .
359 L. ., c. v.
_ 360 Cf._ 62 _supr _.
361 Propr ... tot lt s subst nt e contnetur nfferenter n p rv
vel m gn qu ntt te; scut ... tot n tur omns n m gno, vel
p rvo omne._Summ Teol._, ., q. 76, rt. 1, . 3.
362 No rgument n f vour of ts vew c n be b se on te use of te
term _speces_ (_m nentbus umt x t specebus p ns et vn_) by
te F ters of te Councl of Trent. For tem, s for ll C tolc
plosopers n teolog ns of te tme, te scol stc term
_speces_, use n suc
context, me nt smply te objectve,
perceptble ccents of te subst nce. _Cf._ NYS, _op. ct._,
175.
363 Hence te sgnfc nce of te lnes n ST. THOMAS ymn, _Aoro Te
evote_:
_Vsus, t ctus, gustus_ n te f lltur,
Se _ utu_ solo tuto cretur.
364 n neter oes Revel ton. Te Boy of our Blesse Lor exsts n
te Euc rst wtout ts conn tur l extern l extenson n
consequent mpenetr blty. But ccorng to te common te cng of
C tolc teolog ns t  s ts _ntern l qu ntty_, ts stnct
ntegr l p rts, org ns n membersre lly stnct from one noter,
toug nterpenetr tng n not sp t lly extern l to one noter.
Its moe of exstence n te sp ce occupe by te s cr ment l
speces s tus n logous to te moe n wc te soul s n te
boy, or pure sprt n sp ce.
365 We now from Revel ton t t te Boy of our Lor exsts n ts w y
n te Euc rst. We now, too, from Revel ton t t fter te
gener l resurrecton te glorfe boes of te just wll be _re l_
boes, re l _corpore l subst nces_, n neverteless t t tey wll
be enowe wt propertes very fferent from tose wc tey
possess n te present st te: t t tey wll be mmort l,
ncorruptble, mp ssble, sprtu l (_cf._ 1 Cor. xv.). Te
C tolc plosoper wo s tose sc ttere r ys of reve le lgt
to w t s own r ton l n lyss of experence tells m bout
m tter n sprt, wll unerst n te possblty of suc nsp

between te l tter s wll m e te f ct of ter unon n s own

n ture n person not per ps ny less wonerful, but t ny r te
lttle less surprsng n nscrut ble: n ts wtout commttng
mself to te objectve e lsm wereby Ber eley, wle
ene vourng to sow te utter unre lty of m tter, only succeee
n persu ng mself t t ts re lty w s not nepenent of ll
mn.
366 ,
._Phsi_, L. iv., h. iv. (6).
367 The aer _Sis_ is mm
 i
erpreed  si
if he _ma_
spaia reai
s r dispsii
s f he varis pars f a bd i

he pae aa pied b he aer.

368 A bd deprived f is 

ara exe
si
exiss i
spae i
a
ma

er a
as  ha i
whih he s is i
he bd. The Bd
f r Divi
e Lrd is i
he Eharis i
his
ma

er_sarame
aier_.
_ 369 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 624.
_ 370 Cf._ ZIGLIARA, _O
ia_ (35), iv.
_ 371 Cf._ NYS, _La Ni
dEspae_ (Lvai
, 1901), pp. 95 _sqq.__La
Ni
de Temps_ (Lvai
, 1898), pp. 123 _sqq._
372 id es er emps? Si
em ex me qaera, si; si qaere
i
expiare veim,
esi._C
fess_. L. xi., h. xiv.
373 Cm e
im i
eiims exrema diversa aijs medii, e a
ima
dia, ia esse d _

_, h _pris_, id _pseris_ qasi

mera
d _pris_ e _pseris_ i
m, 
 h diims esse
emps.ST. THOMAS, i
_Phs._, L. iv. e. 17a.
_ 374 Se
e
._, Dis. xix., q. ii., ar. 1._Cf._ Le. xxiii. i
iv.
_Phsi._
_ 375 Phsi._, iv., h. xi._Cf._ ST. THOMAS _i
_.
376 The 
epi
f variai

ied wih same
ess is
, hwever,
he whe 
ii
f ime. Fr his he mi
d ms be abe 
mbi
e i
hh w differe
 mveme
s r psai
s f

sis
ess, s as  represe
 a
i
erva bewee
hem. I ms
hd eher w _
ws_, 
eivi
 hem, i
sessi
, e

ii
 hem hrh ha i
eea s
hei aivi b whih
we _e
merae_ a ei
f bjesa press r a whih
arries 
mia
 he 
sis
ess f is w

i
s

i.MAHER, _Psh_, h. xvii.
377 Tha is, prvided we absra frm a mparis
f his i
er
a
ime drai
wih ha f a
 her rre
 f 
sis
experie
es i
he esimai
 mi
d. As a maer f fa we awas
a
d
eessari mpare he ime drai
f a
 pariar
experie
ed ha
e wih ha f he remai
i
 pri
f he whe
rre
 f sessive 
sis saes whih make p r me
a
ife. A
d hs we fee,
 ha he fr-mie wak had a 
er
ime drai
ha
he hree-mie wak, b raher ha i k
pae a a qiker _rae_, mre rapid, ha
he aer. B if a
mi
d whih had
 her 
sis
ess f ha
e whasever ha
,

_e.._ ha f he w waks experie

ed sessive,
 her
sa
dard ha
e wih whih  mpare eah f hem as i rredif
sh a mi
d experie
ed eah i
his wa, wd i pr

e he
fr-mie wak  have pied a 
er ime ha
he hree-mie
wak?_Cf._ _i
fra_, p. 327.
378 This is re 
he assmpi
ha he i
ri
si _ime-drai
_ f
a sessive, 
i
s ha
e, is divisibii i
 disi


ws reaed as befre a

d afer, is _rea ide
ia wih_
he 
i
s, sessive _saes 
sii
 he ha
e_ isef,
a
d is
 _a rea disi
 mde_ speradded  his ha
e, a

i
s series f _qa
dai
es_, disi
 frm he ha
e,
a
d ivi
 he aer is empra drai
. B ma
 phisphers
hd ha i
a reares _drai
_ is a mde f heir exise
e
rea disi
 frm he reares hemseves ha have his
drai
r 
i
ed exise
e._Cf._ _i
fra_, 86.
_ 379 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, ii., 246, pp. 201 _sqq._
_ 380 p. i._, . xvii.
_ 381 p. i._, . xvii.
_ 382 Cf._ NYS, _La Ni
de Temps_ (Lvai
, 1898), p. 104.
383 The fa ha we a
pereive a
d esimae empra drai


_exri
sia_, a
d i
imae a
asis b mparis
wih he
fw f r w

sis saes, a
d ha herefre we a
have

perepi
r 
epi
f he i
ri
si ime drai
f a

ha
e, seems  have bee
verked b DE SAN _(Csmia_, pp.
528-9) whe
he ares frm r perepi
f differe
 _raes_ f
mi
, i
favr f he view ha ime _drai
_ is
 rea
ide
ia wih mi
r ha
e, b a speradded mde, rea
disi
 frm he aer.
_ 384 Cf._ NYS, _La Ni
de Temps_, pp. 85 _sqq._
_ 385 Cf._ NYS, _p. i._, pp. 120 _sqq._, fr a defe
e f he view
ha a
aa i
fi
ie mide i
vves
 
radii
.
_ 386 ibid._, pp. 162-9.
_ 387 De C
sai
e_, L. v., _pr. ._
_ 388 Cf._ KLEUTGEN, _p. i._, 624.
389 Es er die
dm, qd, m aeer
ias si me
sra esse
perma
e
is se
dm qd aiqid reedi a perma
e
ia esse
di,
se
dm h reedi ab aeer
iae. aedam aem si reed
 a
perma
e
ia esse
di, qd esse erm es sbjem ra
smai
is,
ve i
ra
smaise 
sisi; e hjsmdi me
sra
r _empre_,
si m
is ms, e eiam esse m
im rrpibiim. aedam ver
reed
 mi
s a perma
e
ia esse
di, qia esse erm
e i

ra
smai
e 
sisi
e es sbjem ra
smai
is; ame

habe
 ra
smai
em adj
am ve i
a ve i
pe
ia ...
pae de a
eis, qd siie habe
 esse i
ra
smabie m
ra
smabiiae se
dm eei
em, qa
m ad erm
aram
peri
e, e m ra
smabiiae i
eie
iarm, e affei
m,
e rm s md. E ide hjsmdi me
sra
r _aev_, qd es
medim i
er aeer
iaem e emps. Esse aem qd me
sra

_aeer
ias_,
e es mabie
e mabiiai adj
m. Si er
emps habe pris e pseris, aevm

habe i
se pris e
pseris, sed ei 
j
i pss
; aeer
ias aem

habe pris

eqe pseris,
eqe ea mpair.ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._,
i., q. x., ar. 5, i
.
390 pp. 517-57.
_ 391 I
visibiia e
im ipsis a reara m
di, per ea qae faa s

i
eea, 
spii
r, sempier
a qqe ejs virs e
divi
ias, ia  [qi veriaem Dei i
i
jsiia dei
e
] si

i
exsabies._Rm. ii. 20 [18].
_ 392 Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_ (4h edi.), pp. 90-2.
393 Fr a ear a
d re
ha
 riiism f mder
reaivis heries,
_f._ EITCH, _K
wi
 a
d Bei
_, espeia h. iv., Reai
,
pp. 129 _sqq._
_ 394 Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._, 179-80.
_ 395 Pri
ipes f Psh_, P. ii., h. iii., 88.
_ 396 Cf._ MAHER, _Psh_, pp. 157-9.
397 We a

 f rse _pereive_ a
_
pereived_ wrd,
r a
we

eive a wrd he 
epi
f whih is
 i
he mi
d; b
here is
 
radii
r absrdi i
he prpsii
: A
maeria wrd f hree dime
si
s has exised fr a ime

pereived a
d 
hh f b a
 reaed bei
, a
d he
reveaed
isef  hma
mi
ds.MAHER, _Psh_, p. iii,
.
398 I d
 pree
d  dem
srae a
hi
,
r d I fee mh

er
, ab a
 
k
wabe _
me

_ whih
ever reveas isef
i
m 
sis
ess. If here be i
exise
e a
i
srabe
ra
se
de
a E, eer
a sree
ed frm m ke
b his
sef-asseri
 empiria E, I 
fess I fee ver ie
i
eres i
he
are r he wefare f he frmer. _The 
 s
ab whih I are is ha whih immediae prese
s isef i
is
as, whih hi
ks, wis, remembers, beieves, ves, repe
s, a
d
hpes._MAHER, _p. i._, p. 475. _Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._,
180, pp. 363.
399 , , ,
, ._Cae._ v. 1.
400 I _Se
e
._, Dis. xxvi., q. 2, ar. 1.
401 Si reais reai 
sisi i
rdi
e rei ad rem, ia reai
rai
is 
sisi i
rdi
e i
eem [rdi
ai
f 
eps];
qd qidem dpiier pes 
i
ere. U
 md se
dm qd
ise rd es adi
ve
s per i
eem, e aribs ei, qd
reaive diir; e hjsmdi s
 reai
es qae arib
r ab
i
ee rebs i
eeis, pr s
 i
eeae, si reai
e
eris e speiei; has e
im reai
es rai adi
ve
i 
sidera
d
rdi
em ejs, qd es i
i
ee ad res, qae s
 exra, ve
eiam rdi
em i
eem ad i
viem. Ai md se
dm qd
hjsmdi reai
es 
seq
r mdm i
eie
di, videie qd
i
ees i
eii aiqid i
rdi
e ad aid; ie im
rdi
em i
ees

adi
ve
ia, sed mais ex qadam
eessiae


seqar mdm i
eie
di. E hjsmdi reai
es i
ees


aribi ei, qd es i
i
ee, sed ei, qd es i
re. E
h qidem 
i
i se
dm qd aiqa

habe
ia se
dm se
rdi
em, rdi
ae i
ei
r; ie i
ees

i
eii ea
habere rdi
em, qia si esse fass. Ad h aem qd aiqa
habea
 rdi
em, pre qd rmqe si e
s, e rmqe
rdi
abie ad aid. a
dqe aem i
ees aipi aiqa d
 e
ia, qrm aerm a
m ve
erm es e
s; si m
aipi d fra, ve 
m praese
s e aid frm, e
i
eii 
m m rdi
e ad aid, dii aerm esse pris
aer; 
de isae reai
es s
 rai
is a
m, pe mdm
i
eie
di 
seqe
es. a
dqe ver aipi 
m  d, e
i
eii ea m qdam rdi
e; si m diir aiqid esse idem
sibi: e si ais reai es rai
is a
m. a
dqe ver
aipi aiqa d  rdi
abiia ad i
viem, i
er qae

es
rd medis, imm aerm ipsrm esse
iaier es rd; si m
dii reai
em aidere sbje; 
de ais reai reai
is ad
qdmqe aid es rai
is a
m. a
dqe ver aipi aiqid
m rdi
e ad aid, i
qa
m es ermi
s rdi
is aeris ad
ipsm, ie ipsm

rdi
er ad aid: si aipie
d sibie
 ermi
m rdi
is sie
iae ad ipsm._De Pe
ia_, q. vii.,
ar. 11; _f._ _ibid._ ar. 10.
Cm reai reqiri d exrema, ripiier se habe ad h qd
si res
arae a rai
is. a
dqe e
im ex raqe pare es
res rai
is a
m, qa
d siie rd ve habid

pes
esse i
er aiqa
isi se
dm apprehe
si
em i
ees a
m,
pe m diims idem eidem idem. Nam se
dm qd rai
apprehe
di bis aiqd 
m sai id  d; e si
apprehe
di qa
dam habidi
em ipsis ad seipsm. E simiier es
de m
ibs reai
ibs qae s
 i
er e
s e

e
s, qas frma
rai, i
qa
m apprehe
di

e
s  qddam exremm. E idem
es de m
ibs reai
ibs qae 
seq
r am rai
is, 
e
s, speies, e hjsmdi...._Smma The._, i., q. xiii., ar.
7.
_ 402 Smma The._,1. q. xiii. ar. 7. Esewhere he pi
s he
disi
i
i
hese erms: Respes ad aid aiqa
d es i

ipsa
ara rerm, pe qa
d aiqae res se
dm sam
aram
ad i
viem rdi
aae s
, e ad i
viem i
i
ai
em habe
; e
hjsmdi reai
es pre esse reaes.... Aiqa
d ver
respes si
ifias per ea, qae di
r _Ad aiqid_, es
a
m i
ipsa apprehe
si
e rai
is 
fere
is 
m aeri; e

 es reai rai
is a
m, si m mpara rai hmi
em
a
imai,  speiem ad e
s._ibid._, q. xxviii., ar. 1.
403 S. Thmas ives expressi
 i i
hese se
e
es: Perfei e
b
m qae s
 i
rebs exra a
imam,

sm ae
d
r
se
dm aiqid abse i
haere
s rebs, sed eiam se
dm
rdi
em 
is rei ad aiam; si eiam i
rdi
e parim exeris,
b
m exeris 
sisi: hi e
im rdi
i mpara Phisphs
[Aris., xii. (x.) _Meaph._, Cmme
. 52 _sqq._] rdi
em

iversi. Opre, er i
ipsis rebs rdi
em qemdam esse; hi
aem rd reai qaedam es.... Si er pre qd res
habe
es rdi
em ad aiqid, reaier refera
r ad ipsm, e qd
i
eis aiqa res si reai._. Disp. De Pe
ia_, q. vii.,
ar. 9.
_ 404 Kriik der rei
e
er

f_, bk. i., Haps. ii., Absh
. ii.,
26.

_ 405 Li_, bk. i., h. iii., 10.

_ 406 LIde d ph
m
e_, p. 181_apd_ MERCIER, _p. i._, 173.
407 aedam ver reai
es s
 qa
m ad rmqe exremm res

arae, qa
d siie es habid i
er aiqa d se
dm
aiqid reaier 
ve
ie
s riqe; si pae de m
ibs
reai
ibs qae 
seq
r qa
iaem,  ma
m e parvm,
dpm e dimidim, e hjsmdi;
am qa
ias es i
rqe
exremrm: e simie es de reai
ibs qae 
seq
r ai
em
e passi
em,  mivm e mbie, paer e fiis, e
simiia.ST. THOMAS, _Smma The._, i., q. xiii., ar. 7.
408 a
dqe ver reai i

 exremrm es res
arae, e i

aer es res rai

is a
m: e h 
i
i qa
d
qe d
exrema

s
 
is rdi
is; si se
ss e sie
ia refer
r
ad se
sibie e sibie; qae qidem, i
qa
m s
 res qaedam i

esse
arae exise
es, s
 exra rdi
em esse se
sibiis e
i
eiibiis. E ide i
sie
ia qidem e se
s es reai
reais, i
qa
m rdi
a
r ad sie
dm ve se
ie
dm res; sed res
ipsae i
se 
sideraae s
 exra rdi
em hjsmdi; 
de i
eis


es aiqa reai reaier ad sie
iam e se
sm, sed se
dm
rai
em a
m, i
qa
m i
ees apprehe
di ea  ermi
s
reai
m sie
iae e se
ss. U
de Phisphs dii i
5 Meaph.,
ex. 20, qd

di
r reaive, e qd ipsa refera
r ad
aia, sed qia aia refera
r ad ipsa._ibid._
409 Bei
 rea a
d adeqae ide
ia wih is f
dai
, whih is
he esse
e f is sbje, his reai
des

eessari
eed
he _aa_ exise
e f is erm. Ths aa k
wede r
sie
e, whih is a habi f he mi
d, has a ra
se
de
a reai

 is bje eve

hh his aer be
 aa b 
 a pre
pssibii. Simiar he aide
 f qa
i ssai
ed wih
is 

ara sbsa
e i
he Eharis, reai
s is
ra
se
de
a reai
 he aer._Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._,
335 (p. 997).
_ 410 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 336 (p. 990).
_ 411 Meaph._, L. v., h. xv. _Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _i
._, e. 17,
where, apprvi
 f his ripe divisi
, he wries: Cm e
im
reai qae es i
rebs, 
sisa i
rdi
e 
is rei ad aiam,
pre  mdis hjsmdi reai
es esse, q mdis 
i
i

am rem ad aiam rdi
ari. Ordi
ar aem 
a res ad aiam, ve
se
dm esse, pr esse 
is rei depe
de ab aia, e si es
eris mds. e se
dm virem aivam e passivam, se
dm
qd 
a res ab aia reipi, ve aeri 
fer aiqid; e si es
se
ds mds. e se
dm qd qa
ias 
is rei pes
me
srari per aiam; e si es prims mds.
_ 412 Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._, 175. Fr ra
se
de
a a
d
prediame
a 
i, _f._ _spra_, 26, 28.
_ 413 Cf._ _i
fra_, p. 355. Sme ahrs hd ha he reai
i

qesi
is prediame
a. _Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, p. 987. The

are r esse
e f a
 i
divida wd seem  imp i
is ver

ep a ra
se
de
a reai
f speifi ide
i wih a
her aa a
d pssibe i
divida embdime
s f his esse
e.
The pi
 is 
e f se
dar impra
e.

414 Eve
vira, hh
 frma. The reaive a is

frma ra
siive; i is vira s: a
d i
he reare i
r
ds he aers reai
f rea depe
de
e 
he Crear.
415 Cf. URRABURU, _p. i._, 336 (p. 989), 341 (p. 1011); ST.
THOMAS, iii. _Se
e
._, Dis., viii., q. i., ar. 5.
416 MERCIER, _p. i._, 175.
417 MERCIER, _ibid._
418 Cm iir Des si exra m rdi
em rearae, e m
es
rearae rdi
e
r ad ipsm e

e 
vers; ma
ifesm es qd
rearae reaier, refer
r ad ipsm Dem; sed i
De

es
aiqa reais reai ejs ad rearas, sed se
dm rai
em
a
m, i
qa
m rearae refera
r ad ipsm.ST. THOMAS, _Smma
The._, i., q. xiii., ar. 7.
419 Am
 hers Cajea
, Ferriarie
sis, Capres, Baez, Ja

es a S.
Thma. _Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 338 (p. 994); MERCIER, _p.
i._, 174. I wd be i
eresi
  k
w hw preise hse
ahrs 
eived his reaive e
i, his _esse ad_ as a
reai i
depe
de
 f heir w
hh-aivi. _Cf._ ar. b he
prese
 wrier i
he _Irish Theia arer_ (v. vii.,
Apri, 1912: Refei
s 
sme Frms f M
ism, pp. 167-8): The
whe 
iverse f dire experie
e dispas a 
i f rder r
desi
whih pervades i hrh a
d hrh; i is a reveai
f
i
eie
 prpse. Nw a _Csms_, a
rder 
iversewhih is
i
eiibe 
 as he expressi
f i
eie
 prpse, a
d

herwiseis a ssem f _i
erreaed_ fars. B _reai
_ is

i
eiibe exep as a
expressi
f he aivi f mi
d r
spiri, ha is, f smehi
 a eas a
as  r me
a
aivi f mpari
 a
d jdi
. Shasi phisphers, as we
k
w, disss he qesi
wheher r hw far he exa bje f
r reai

ep is rea; ha is, wheher his bje is, i

isef a
d apar frm he erms reaed [a
d he f
dai
], a mere
_e
s rai
is_, a prd f r hh, r wheher i is i
isef
smehi
 mre ha
his; a
d sme f hem hd ha here are
reai
s whih, i
hemseves a
d frma as reai
s, _are_
smehi
 mre ha
mere prds f r hh. Nw if here be
sh reai
s, si
e he are
 prds f _r_ hh, we ma
fair ask: Ms he be he prd f _sme_ hh? A
d frm r
a
asis f r ver
i
f wha a reai
is, i wd seem
ha he ms be i
sme sr r her a prd r expressi
f
sme hh-aivi: eve
reai
s bewee
_maeria_ hi
s. I
is i
deermi
i
 hw preise his is, r a
be, ha he heis
a
d he m
is differ. The heis reards a maeria hi
s, wih
heir rea reai
sa
d a r fi
ie hma
mi
ds, whih apprehe
d
he maeria wrd a
d is reai
s a
d hemseves a
d 
e
a
heras bei
 i
deed i
a re se
se erms r bjes f he
Thh f Gd;
, hwever, as herefre ide
ia r

sbsa
ia wih he Divi
e Spiri, b as disi
 frm I
hh depe
de
 
I: i
asmh as he hds he Divi
e Thh 
be reaive, a
d reards a hese hi
s as is _reaed_ erms.
The ki
ship he dees bewee
maer a
d spiri ies preise i

his, ha maer is fr him a reaed erm f he Divi

e Thh.
Fr him , herefre, maer a
have
 exise
e exep as a
erm f hhhe reaive Thh f Gd. N ha he
i
eiibe reai
s apprehe
ded b s i
maer are ... ide
ia

i
reai wih he hh-aivi f he Divi
e Mi
d, as
O
iss have ah [_f._ _spra_, 14, 18, 19];
r ha we a

dire i
fer he exise
e f a Spreme Spiri frm he exise
e
f maer, as Berkee ried  d b err
es reardi
 he
aer mere as a
esse
ia mi
d-depe
de
 phe
me

; bease
fr he rhdx heis maer is i
is w
prper
are

spiria, me
a, pshia;
 a
hi
 afer he ma

er f a
hh-press, r e
dwed wih he spiri-mde f bei
. If
prediame
a reai
s, sh as _qai_ r _simiari_ f
maeria hi
s, are, as hse medieva shasis 
e
ded, rea
e
iies, reaive i
heir
are, a
d rea disi
 frm heir
exremes a
d f
dai
s, did hse shasis 
eive sh
reaive e
iies as esse
ia mi
d-depe
de
 e
iies? If he
did he wd prbab have 
eived hem i
he se
se f
Berkee, as reaed erms f he Divi
e Thh, raher ha
i
he
O
is se
se whih wd ide
if hem wih he Divi
e Thh
isef. B i is
 ike ha he 
eived sh reaive
e
iies as esse
ia hh-depe
de
, a
 mre ha
he
abse maeria reaiies reaed  
e a
her b mea
s f hese
reaive e
iies. O
he her ha
d i is
 eas  see hw sh
reaive e
iies a
be a
hi
 mre ha
mere prds f sme
hh-aivi r her.
420 The re espeia 
his ex frm he _De Pe
ia_ (q. vii.,
ar. 9): Reai es debiiris esse i
er m
ia praediame
a;
ide paver
 qidam eam esse ex se
dis i
eeibs. Se
dm
er ha
 psii
em seqerer qd reai

si i
rebs exra
a
imam sed i
s i
ee, si i
e
i e
eris e speiei, e
se
darm sbsa
iarm. H aem esse

pes. I

 e
im
praediame
 p
ir aiqid
isi res praeer a
imam exise
s. Nam
e
s rai
is dividir 
ra e
s divism per deem
praediame
a.... Si aem reai

es i
rebs exra a
imam


p
erer _ad aiqid_ 
m e
s praediame
i.
_ 421 Cf._ ST. ANSELM, _M
._, h. xxvi.
422 Reai habe qd si res
arae ex sa asa per qam 
a res

araem rdi
em habe ad aeram._d._ 1, ar. 2.
423 I
h differ _Ad Aiqid_ [_i.e._ Reai
] ab aiis e
eribs;
qd aia e
era ex prpria si rai
e habe
, qd aiqid si
,
si qa
ias ex h ips qd es qa
ias, aiqid p
i: e
simiier es de aiis. Sed _Ad Aiqid_ ex prpria si e
eris
rai
e

habe, qd p
a aiqid, sed ad aiqid.... Habe
aem reai qd si aiqid reae ex e, qd reai
em
asa._d._ 9, ar. 4. _Cf._ _De Pe
ia_, q. ii., ar. 5.
424 Reai es aiqid i
haere
s _ie

ex h ips qd es
reai_.... E ide
ihi prhibe, _qd esse desi
a hjsmdi
aide
s si
e mai
e ejs i
q es_._De Pe
ia_, q. vii.,
ar. 9, ad. 7.
425 E rqe md 
i
i i
reaibs reai
ibs desri
reai
em: ve per desri
em qa
iais [r her f
dai
],

de ad ha
 mai
em qa
iais seqir per aide
s mai
reai
is: ve eiam se
dm qd essa respes ad aerm,
_rem i ad qd referebar_; e 
 _reai essa,
a
mai
e faa i
ipsa_. U
de i
iis i
qibs

es reai

isi se
dm h
 respem, _ve
i
 e reed
 reai
es si
e
aiqa mai
e ejs, qd referr_.I
i. _Se
._, Dis. xxvi.,

q. ii., ar. 1, ad. 3.

426 Reai
es differ
 i
h ab m
ibs aiis rerm e
eribs, qia
ea qae s
 airm e
erm, ex ipsa rai
e si e
eris habe
,
qd si
 res
arae, si qa
iaes ex rai
e qa
iais, e
qaiaes ex rai
e qaiais. Sed reai
es

habe
 qd
si
 res
arae ex rai
e respes ad aerm.... Sed reai
habe qd si res
arae ex sa asa, per qam 
a res
araem
rdi
em habe ad aeram, qi qidem rd
arais e reais es
ipsis ipsa reai._d._, 1, ar. 2.
_ 427 Cf._ _spra_, p. 351,
. 1; i
whih 
ex we ma reas
ab
sppse him  be ari
 ha reai
_
sidered adeqae_ is

 a _mere ia e
i_, ex se
dis i
eeibs, i
asmh
as, havi
 _a rea f
dai
_ i
hi
s side he mi
d, i is i

his respe rea, i

depe
de
 f r hh.
_ 428 Cf._ URRABURU, _p. i._, 341 (p. 1008).
_ 429 ibid._, p. 1007; _f._ _spra_, p. 347.
430 I
i. _Se
e
._, Dis. iv., q. 1, ar. 1, ad. 3.
_ 431 Cf._ URRABURU, _ibid._, pp. 1006-7: Dei
de _
am reai
em esse
sbsa
iam_ sripsi [S. Thmas] ve qia permqe rai f
da
di


es sbsa
ia ... ve pis qia semper reai, eiam m i

sbsa
ia f
dar, aiqid addi spra sbsa
iam jsibe
exremi reai si
iaim smpi, qia

ide
ifiar m
f
dame
 pr se e
e ex pare sis sbjei, ve sis
ermi
i, sed pr se e
e ea pare risqe. are reai ...
semper exprimi de
mi
ai
em 
i
e
em e aide
aier
sperve
ie
em sbje, pe qae adesse ve abesse pes, pr
adsi ve defiia ermi
s.
432 Ii e
im [he refere
e is  erai
medieva ideaiss] qamvis
a
sere
 d aba exise
ia
eaba
 dari a i
rebs frmaem
simiariaem [_i.e._ eve
afer he mparaive aivi f
hh], sed frmaem simiidi
em, e aiam qamvis reai
em,
rep
eba
 i
a i
ees 
m m ai mpara
is;
s ver
a
e am i
ees a
sims i
rebs, qidqid sffii ad

sie
dam reai
em simiidi
is, diversiais, paer
iais,
e., ia  hjsmdi de
mi
ai
es

verifie
r de a
i
ees 
m m ai mpara
is, sed pe
am habea
 i
rebs
ipsis verifiai
em.URRABURU, _p. i._, p. 1010.
433 I
wha se
se exrame
a?_Cf._ _spra_, p. 350,
. 1 (e
d).
_ 434 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, ii., 218. Fr he 
eps f ase
a
d asai i
he i
dive sie
es, as we as fr mh ha
a

 be repeaed here, he sde

 ma 
s wih adva
ae v.
ii., p. iv., h. iii., iv. a
d vi. f he wrk referred .
435 Id a q aiqid predi q
qe md.ST. THOMAS, _Smma
The._, i., q. xxxiii., ar. 1.
436 He
e Arises defi
ii
f pri
ipe, i
di
 bh ia
a
d rea pri
ipes:
._Met p._ IV., c. .
437 A _c use_ must be pror _n n ture_ to ts effect, but not

necess rly pror _n tme_. In f ct te _ cton_ of te c use n

te _proucton_ of te effect must be smult neous. _Cf._ _Scence
of Logc_, ., 220. Consere form lly s correl tves tey re
_smul n tur _. A _prncple_ must l ewse be n some sense _pror_
to w t procees from t, not necess rly, owever, by prorty of
tme, nor by prorty of n ture nvolvng re l epenence. Te
Crst n Revel ton reg rng te Blesse Trnty nvolves t t te
Frst Dvne Person s te prncple from wc te Secon
procees, n te Frst n te Secon te prncple from wc
te Tr procees; yet ere tere s no epenence or nequ lty,
or ny prorty except te rel ton of orgn be c lle prorty.
_ 438 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 216.
_ 439 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 16; ., 214, 224 (p. 113).
_ 440 Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._, 252.
_ 441 Cf._ _Pysc._, Lb. ., c p. 3; _Met p._, Lb. ., c p. 3; v.,
c p. 2.
_ 442 .e._ from te effect consere _form lly_ s term of te
ctvty; n te c se of _mm nent_ ctvty, s, _e.g._ tougt or
volton, were te effect rem ns wtn te gent ( s _verbum
ment le_ or oter ment l term), untng wt te concrete re lty of
te l tter, te effect s not equ tely stnct from te gent s
ffecte by ts term or prouct.
_ 443 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _In Pysc._, ., lect. 10: Necesse est qu tuor
esse c us s: qu cum c us st,  qu m sequtur esse lterus,
esse ejus quo  bet c us m potest conser r uplcter: uno moo
bsolute, et sc c us essen est form per qu m lqu est ens n
ctu; lo moo secunum quo e potent ente ft ctu ens: et qu
omne quo est n potent , reuctur  ctum per  quo est ctu
ens, ex oc necesse est esse u s l s c us s, sclcet m ter m,
et gentem quo reuct m ter m e potent n ctum. Acto utem
gents  lquo etermn tum tent, scut b lquo etermn to
prncpo procet; n m omne gens gt quo est sb convenens. I
utem  quo ntent cto gents ctur c us fn ls. Sc
gtur necesse est esse c us s qu tuor.
_ 444 Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._, 247-8.
445 Cert n meev l scol stcs, espec lly of te Fr ncsc n Scool,
reg re sprtu l subst nces s  vng n ter consttuton
cert n potent l, etermn ble prncple, wc tey c lle
_m ter _. St. Tom s, wtout objectng to te esgn ton,
nsste t t suc potent l prncple c nnot be te s me s te
_m ter prm _ of corpore l subst nces (_cf._ _De Subst nts
Sep r ts_, c. v.).
_ 446 Cf._ ST. THOMAS: Acto est ctus ctv _et p sso est ctus
p ssv_ (. _Pysc._, l. 5); _M ter _ non ft _c us n ctu_
ns _secunum quo lter tur et mut tur_ (. _Contr Gentes_,
xv.); M ter est c us form e, nqu ntum form non est ns n
m ter (_De Prncp. N tur e_).
_ 447 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _De Prncp. N tur e_, _b._: ... et smlter
form est c us m ter e, nqu ntum m ter non  bet esse n ctu
ns per form m; m ter enm et form cuntur rel tve  nvcem;

cuntur et m rel tve

 compostum, scut p rs  totum.

448 M ter cum st nfnt rum form rum etermn tur per form m, et
per e m consequtur lqu m specem.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._,
., q. v., rt. 1.
449 To Spec l Met pyscs lso belongs te controverte queston
weter or not plur lty of re lly stnct subst nt l forms c n
enter nto te consttuton of n nvu l corpore l subst nce.
Wen we cl ssfy corpore l tngs nto _gener _ n _speces_
ccorng to ter _n tur l ns_ (_cf._ _Scence of Logc_, .,
67), tese l tter re etermne by te _form e subst nt les_ of
te tngs cl ssfe, n re c lle _nfm speces_. Numerc lly
stnct nvu ls wc  ve (conceptu lly) te s me _form
subst nt ls_, f ll nto te s me _nfm speces_; wle f suc
nvu ls  ve (conceptu lly n numerc lly) stnct _form e
subst n ls_ tey f ll nto stnct _nfm e speces_ of some
ger common genus. Te wer te generc concept te l rger te
group of nvu ls wc t unfes: t s prncple of
conceptu l unty, _.e._ of unvers lty. Te objects of our
_generc_, _fferent l_, n _specfc_ concepts, trougout ts
process of cl ssfc ton, re only vrtu lly stnct met pysc l
gr es of beng n te nvu ls. Now f te _form subst nt ls_
wc yels te unfyng concept of te _speces nfm _ for te
nvu ls, n te m ter l prncple wc s te groun of te
numerc l stncton between tese l tter, were l ewse reg re
by te scol stcs s beng merely vrtu lly stnct met pysc l
gr es of beng, n e c nvu l, ten te queston of
plur lty of re lly stnct forms n one n te s me nvu l
woul  ve no me nng: ll forms n te l tter woul be only
vrtu lly stnct from one noter n from te m ter l prncple.
But te scol stcs  not conceve t t te re l groun for
groupng nvu ls nto _speces nfm e_ w s te s me s t t for
groupng tese l tter nto wer gener . Tey reg re te rel ton
between te _form subst nt ls_ n te _m ter prm _ n te
nvu l s qute fferent from t t between te generc n
specfc gr es of beng n te nvu l (_cf._ _supr _, 38;
_Scence of Logc_, ., 44; JOSEPH, _Introucton to Logc_, pp.
93-6). Wle tey consere te l tter
rel ton of vrtu l
stncton tey el te former to be one of re l stncton. An
wle tey recognze te concept of te _speces nfm _ to be
prncple of conceptu l unty n groupng te nvu ls togeter
ment lly, St. Tom s emp sze espec lly te rle of te _form
subst nt ls_ (on wc t t concept w s foune) s prncple of
_re l unty_ n te nvu l: Ab eo m  bet res _esse_ et
_unt tem_. M nfestum est utem quo res  bet esse per form m.
Une et per form m res  bet unt tem (_Quolb._ ., rt. 6). If
we ccept ts octrne of St. Tom s te rguments wc e b ses
on t g nst te possblty of plur lty of stnct subst nt l
forms n te s me corpore l nvu l re un nswer ble (_Cf._
MERCIER, _Ontologe_, 215).
450 Iem ctus secunum rem est uorum secunum vers m r tonem:
gents quem, secunum quo est b eo, p tents utem, secunum
quo est n pso.... Ex eo quo cto et p sso sunt unus motus non
sequtur quo cto et p sso, vel octo et octrn , snt em;
se quo motus cu nest utrumque eorum, st em. Qu quem motus
secunum un m r tonem est cto, et secunum l m r tonem est
p sso; lterum enm est secunum r tonem esse ctus ujus, ut _n
oc_, et esse ctus ujus, ut _ b oc_; motus utem ctur cto

secunum quo est ctus

secunum quo est ctus
motus st em movents
utr que r tone: t men
vers s r tones n su
Pys._, . 1. 5.

gents ut b oc; ctur utem p sso

p tents ut n oc. Et sc p tet quo lcet
et mot, propter oc quo bstr t b
cto et p sso fferunt propter oc quo
sgnfc tone  bent.ST. THOMAS, _In

451 Solet ubum esse pu quos m, utrum motus st n movente, ut n

mobl.... Se m nfestum est quo ctus cujuslbet est n eo cujus
est ctus; ctus utem motus est n mobl, cum st ctus mobls,
c us tus t men n eo
movente ... cum motus st ctus exstents n
potent , sequtur quo motus non st ctus lcujus nqu ntum est
movens, se nqu ntum est moble._b._, 1. 4.
452 Some l ngu ges m r te stncton between tese two ns of
cton: Dffert utem _f cere_ et _ gere_: qu _f cto_ est cto
tr nsens n exterorem m ter m, scut efc re, sec re et
ujusmo; _ gere_ utem est cto perm nensln pso gente scut
vere, velle et ujusmo.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._  e  , q.
lxv., rt. 4, c.
453 Hume went even f rter, t le st n l ngu ge; for e llege
(weter e re lly beleve s noter queston) t t e coul
overcome te suppose merely psycologc l ffculty, t t e coul
e sly n, presum bly, wtout ong volence to s r ton l
n tureconceve non-exstent tng s comng nto exstence
wtout c use! He procl me t t e coul ceve te fe t of
tn ng w t te unvers l voce of m n n  s ecl re to be
untn ble: _ n bsolute begnnng of beng from notngness_. Te
nowlege of ts rel ton (c us lty) s not, e wrtes, n ny
nst nce tt ne by re sonngs _ pror_; but rses entrely from
experence, wen we fn t t ny p rtcul r objects re _const ntly
conjone_ wt e c oter (_Wor s_, e. Green n Grose, v., 24).
All stnct e s re sep r ble from e c oter, n, s te e s
of c use n effect re evently stnct, twll be e sy for us
(!) to conceve ny object s nonexstent ts moment, n exstent
te next, wtout conjonng to t te stnct e of c use or
proucng prncple (_Tre tse on Hum n N ture_, p. 381). On ts
rgument (?) even suc n rent mrer of te p n-penomenst s
Huxley w s, s force to rem r t t t s of te crcul r sort,
for te m jor premse, t t ll stnct e s re sep r ble n
tougt, ssumes te queston t ssue (HUXLEYS _Hume_, p. 122).
454 Tus, for nst nce, m n, elev te by s nctfyng gr ce, c n perform
cts wc mert te supern tur l rew r of te Be tfc Vson.
_ 455 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 231.
_ 456 Cf._ ARISTOTLE, _Met p._, ., c p. 2.
_ 457 Cf._ URRABURU, _op. ct._, 392 (p. 1123): Une  equ t vrtus
nstrument ls vetur confl r ex n tur l nstrument vrtute vel
effc ct te et ex vrtute c us e prncp ls sb tr nseunter
t , ocente S. Tom : _Instrumentum vrtutem nstrument lem
cqurt uplcter sclcet qu no ccpt form m nstrument et
qu no movetur prncp l gente  effectum_ (_Summ Teol._,
., q. xx., rt. 3, . 2).
458 A lquem effectum lqu oper tur uplcter. Uno moo scut per
se gens; et ctur per se gere quo gt per lqu m form m sb

n erentem per moum n tur e complet e, sve  be t ll m form m

se, sve b lo.... Alo moo lqu oper tur  effectum lquem
nstrument lter, quo quem non oper tur  effectum per form m
sb n erentem, se solum nqu ntum est motum
per se gente.
H ec est r to nstrument, nqu ntum est nstrumentum, ut move t
motum; une scut se  bet form complet  per se gentem, t se
 bet motus, quo movetur prncp le gente,  nstrumentum, scut
serr oper tur  sc mnum. Qu mvs enm serr  be t lqu m
ctonem qu e sb compett secunum propr m form m, ut vere;
t men lquem effectum  bet qu sb non compett, ns nqu ntum
est mot b rtfce, sclcet f cere rect m ncsonem, et
convenentem form e rts: et sc nstrumentum  bet u s
oper tones; un m qu e compett e secun m r tonem propr m; l m
qu e compett e secun m quo est motum per se gente, qu e
tr nscent vrtutem propr e form e._De Vert te_, q. xxv.,
rt. 4. It s not cle r, owever, t t St. Tom s reg re tese two
_oper tones_ of te nstrument l c use s re lly stnct, for e
s ys t t t cts s n nstrument (_.e._ mofes te effcency
of te prncp l c use) only by exercsng ts own proper functon:
Omne gens nstrument le exsequtur ctonem prncp ls gents
per lqu m oper tonem propr m, et conn tur lem sb, scut c lor
n tur ls gener t c rnem ssolveno et gereno, et serr oper tur
 f ctonem sc mn sec no (_Contr Gentes_, ., c. xx.): from
wc e goes on to rgue t t no cre ture c n ct even s n
nstrument l c use _n cre tng_._Cf._ v. _Sent._, Dst. ., q.
., rt. 4, sol. 2._De Potent _, q. ., rt. 7._Summ Teol._,
., q. lx., rt. 1, . 2.
459 St. Tom s, provng te necessty of te Dvne _concursus_ for ll
cre te c uses, llustr tes te gener l stncton between
_prncp l_ n n _nstrument l_ c use: Vrtus n tur ls qu e est
rebus n tur lbus n su nsttutone coll t , nest es _ut qu eem
form  bens esse r tum et frmum n n tur _. Se  quo
Deo ft
n re n tur l, quo ctu lter g t, est ut ntento sol ,  bens
esse quo m ncompletum, per moum quo ... vrtus rts [est] n
nstrumento rtfcs. Scut ergo secur per rtem  r potut
cumen, ut esset form n e perm nens, non utem  r e potut
quo _vs rts_ esset n e qu s qu e m form perm nens, _ns
 beret ntellectum_; t re n tur l potut conferr vrtus
propr , ut form n ps perm nens, non utem _vs qu gt 
esse_ ut nstrumentum prm e c us e, _ns  retur e quo esset
unvers le essen prncpum_; nec terum vrtut n tur l conferr
potut ut moveret seps m, nec ut conserv ret se n esse: une scut
p tet quo nstrumento rtfcs conferr non oportut quo
oper retur bsque motu rts; t re n tur l conferr non potut
quo oper retur bsque oper tone vn ._QQ. DD. De. Pot._, q.
., rt. 7.
_ 460 Cf._ MAHER, _Psycology_, c. xx.MERCIER, _Psycologe_, ., c.
. 2.
461 For fuller tre tment of ts wole subject, _cf._ _Scence of
Logc_, ., P rt v., cs. ., v.; P rt v., c. .MAHER,
_Psycology_, c. xx., pp. 423-4.
_ 462 Cf._ NEWMAN, _Gr mm r of Assent_, P rt ., c. v., 1 (5), (6);
2, rem r 1.
_ 463 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 216, 218, 219.

_ 464 b._, 216.

_ 465 b._, 220.
_ 466 Introucton to Logc_, pp. 64-5.
_ 467 Cf._ w t w s s  bove (32) bout te c us l or extrnsc,
stnct from te ntrnsc, prncple of nvu ton.

468 Wenever scence tres to fn te c use not of

p rtcul r event,
suc s te Frenc Revoluton (wose c use must be s unque s t t
event tself s), but of n event of n, suc s consumpton, or
commerc l crses, t loo s n te l st resort for _commensur te_
c use. W t s t t ex ct st te or conton of te boy, gven
wc t must n wtout wc t c nnot be n consumpton? W t
re tose contons n commerc l communty, gven wc tere
must n wtout wc tere c nnot be commerc l crss?JOSEPH,
_op. ct._, p. 65. _Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 221.
_ 469 System of Logc_, ., v., 2.
470 For nst nce: (_ _) Te ontologc l or true c use, wc
ctu lly prouces te effect, nee not necess rly be te
ultm te c use of te l tter. (_b_) A pysc l f ct c n be te
c use of noter n te sense of beng te nv r ble nteceent (or
_pysc l_ c use) of te l tter, but not n t t sense lone; t
m y lso be n _effcent_ c use of te l tter by exertng n ctve
nfluence on te  ppenng of ts l tter. (_c_) Weter or not
effcency s mysterous n most powerful te, t ny r te t
oes exst between pysc l f cts n te unverse. (__) Its
n lyss reve ls not
suppose necessty of scenng ... to ...
te true c use, ... wc ... prouces te effect, s f te
proxm te c uses  not lso truly prouce te l tter; but re l
necessty of scenng to
Frst C use s te source n support
n complement of te re l effcency of tese proxm te c uses.
(_e_) A merely _logc l_ teory of Inucton oes not nee em n
ny nqury eter nto te effcency of n tur l gences, or nto
te n ture n grouns of te nv r blty or necessty or
l w wereby tese re connecte wt ter effects. But
_plosopc l_ teory of Inucton oes mply suc nqures. An
ere penomenst wrters l e Mll  ve l  temselves open to two
ccus tons. For wle professng merely to bstr ct from te
problem of _effcency_ tey  ve tre equv lently to eny ts
exstence by procl mng t superfluous n nsoluble, beses
conscously or unconscously msrepresentng t. An sml rly, n
e lng wt te _nv r blty_ of c us l sequences n te
unverse, wt te _necess ry_ c r cter of ts pysc l l ws, tey
 ve msconceve ts necessty s beng mec nc l, f t l,
bsolutely nvol ble; n  ve wrongly procl me ts ultm te
grouns to be un now ble (Agnostcsm). Cf. _nfr _, 104; _Scence
of Logc_, ., P rt IV., cs. ., v., n v.; P rt V., c. .
Tus, wle escewng te genune Met pyscs, wc see s te re l
n ture n c uses of te worl of our experence, s superfluous n
futle, tey  ve substtute for t m s e n spurous
met pyscs wc tey  ve wrongly f tere on Pysc l Scence:
m ss of more or less superfc l specul tons wc  ve not even
te mert of consstency. No plosoper, st rtng wt ter vews
on te n ture of te um n mn, c n consstently cl m for te
l tter ny re lly v l or rel ble nowlege of _l ws_, ny more
t n of c uses. For te nowlege of _l w_, even s

_gener lze_ f ct, s nowlege t t cl ms to p ss beyon te

lmts of te nvu ls present n remembere experences. But
tere c n be no r ton l justfc ton, weter psycologc l or
ontologc l, for te cert n rel blty of suc
step, n te
plosopy wc logc lly reuces ll cert n nowlege to te mere
w reness of flow of successve sens tons suppose to consttute
te tot l content of te nvu l conscousness n te tot l
re lty of um n experence.
_ 471 Cf._ MAHER, _Psycology_, c. xv., pp. 368-70.MERCIER, _op.
ct._, 229.
472 Wen n _effort_ of ttenton combnes two e s, wen one bll r
b ll moves noter, wen
ste m  mmer fl ttens out lump of sol
ron, wen blow on te e  noc s m n own, n ll tese c ses
tere s sometng more t n, n essent lly fferent from, te
mere _sequence_ of two penomen : tere s _effectve force__c us l
cton_ of n gent enowe wt _re l energy_.MAHER, _op. ct._,
_b._, p. 370.
_ 473 Gr mm r of Assent_, p. 66.
_ 474 Cf._ DOMET DE VORGES, _C use effcente et c use fn le_, p. 39.
Volton l ctvty s no oubt te most promnent type of effcent
c us lty n our ment l lfe. But t s not te only type; we  ve
rect conscous experence of ntellectu l effort, of te wor of
te m gn ton, of te exercse of org nc n muscul r energy.
Tere s no w rr nt terefore for concevng ll effcent power or
energy, fter te moel of wll-power, s Newm n mong oters
ppe rs to  ve one wen e wrote n tese terms: St rtng, ten,
from experence, I conser
c use to be n effectve wll: n by
te octrne of c us ton, I me n te noton, or frst prncple,
t t ll tngs come of effectve wll (_b._, p. 68). No oubt,
ll tngs o come ultm tely from te effectve wll of Go. Ts,
owever, s not frst prncple, but remote plosopc l
concluson.
_ 475 b._, p. 66.
476 ST. THOMAS, _QQ. Dsp. De Potent _, q. .,

rt. 7, n c.

477 Null res per seps m movet vel gt, ns st movens non motum....

Et qu n tur nferor gens non gt ns mot ... et oc non
cess t quousque perven tur  Deum, sequtur e necesst te quo
Deus st c us ctons cujuslbet re n tur ls, ut movens et
pplc ns vrtutem  genum.ST. THOMAS, _De Potent De_, q.
., rt. 7.
478 Ts s te prncple repe tely expresse by ST. THOMAS: Une
qu rto moo unum est c us lterus, scut prncp le gens est
c us ctons nstrument: et oc moo et m oportet cere, quo
Deus est c us omns ctons re n tur ls. Qu nto enm lqu
c us est ltor, t nto est communor et effc cor, t nto
profunus ngretur n effectum, et e remotor potent psum
reuct n ctum. In qu lbet utem re n tur l nvenmus _quo est
ens_ et quo est res n tur ls, et quo est t ls vel t ls n tur e.
Quorum prmum est commune omnbus entbus; secunum omnbus rebus
n tur lbus; tertum n un spece; et qu rtum, s  mus
ccent , est proprum uc nvuo. Hoc ergo nvuum geno
non potest consttuere lu n sml spece, ns prout est

nstrumentum llus c us e _qu e respct tot m specem_ et ulterus

_totum esse_ n tur e nferors. Et propter oc nl gt n
specem n sts nferorbus ... nec lqu gt _  esse_ ns
per vrtutem De. _Ipsum enm esse est communssmus effectus,
prmus et ntmor omnbus ls effectbus; et eo sol Deo
compett secunum vrtutem propr m t ls effectus_: une et m, ut
ctur n _Lb. e C uss_ (prop. 9), ntellgent non  t esse,
ns prout est n e vrtus vn . Sc ergo Deus est c us omns
ctons prout quolbet gens est nstrumentum vn e vrtuts
oper nts.ST. THOMAS, _De Potent De_, q. . rt 7._Cf._
_supr _, 99 (_c_), p. 375, n. 2.
479 Wy, ten, s fnte c use not c p ble of ctng unnterruptely?
wy re ts powers, forces, energes, f tgue, lessene, ex uste
by exercse? Smply bec use ts cton s proporton te to ts
powers, n tese to ts _fnte_ n ture.
480 Cre to non est mut to ns secunum moum ntellgen t ntum.
N m e r tone mut tons est quo lqu em se  be t lter
nunc et prus.... Se n cre tone, per qu m prouctur tot
subst nt re, non potest ccp lqu em lter se  bens nunc
et prus, ns secunum ntellectum t ntum; scut s ntellg tur
lqu res prus non fusse tot lter, et poste esse. Se cum cto
et p sso conven nt n un subst nt motus, et ffer nt solum
secunum  btunes ver s ... oportet quo subtr cto motu, non
rem ne nt ns vers e  btunes n cre nte et cre to. Se qu
mous sgnfc n sequtur moum ntellgen ... cre to
sgnfc tur per moum mut tons; et propter oc ctur quo
cre re est ex nlo lqu f cere; qu mvs f cere et fer m gs
n oc conven nt qu m mut re et mut r; qu f cere et fer
mport nt  btunem c us e  effectum et effectus  c us m, se
mut tonem ex consequent.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q. xlv.,
rt. 2, . 2.
481 Remoto motu, cto nl lu mport t qu m ornem orgns
[effectus] secunum quo [effectus] c us lqu procet._op.
ct._, . q. xl., rt. 1,  2.
482 Te ct of te wll s, of course, vrtu lly tr nstve wen t
wlls or etermnes boly movements._Cf._ MAHER, _Psycology_,
cs. x., xx. (pp. 517-24).
483 At te s me tme t must be note t t org nc vt l ctvty s
tr nstve n te sense t t no p rt or member of te org nsm cts
upon tself, but only on oter p rts, n te proucton of te
loc l, qu ntt tve n qu lt tve c nges nvolve n nutrton.
It s subject to te nuctvely est blse l w wc seems to
regul te ll _corpore l_ cton: t t ll suc cton nvolves
_re cton_ of te _p tens_ on te _ gens_. Ment l ctvty s
outse ts l w. Cogntve n ppettve f cultes o not re ct on
te objects wc reuce tese f cultes to ct, tus rousng ter
mm nent ctvty._Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._, 227.
_ 484 Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._
_ 485 Cf._ MAHER, _Psycology_, cs. x. n xv.
_ 486 Cf._ URRABURU: Vel, s m vs, c c us m effcentem esse c us m,
qu ft lqu, vel quo propre ortur cto, ntellgeno per
ctonem em n tonem et fluxum c epenent m effectus

c us ._op. ct._, 389 (p. 1112).

_ 487 Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._, 229: L cton, leffcence, quest
elle, en quo consste-t-elle? Est-ce une sorte coulement e l
c use  ns leffet? vemment non. Lorsque nous voulons nous lever
une concepton mt pysque, nous nous r ccrocons une m ge
sensble, et nous nous persu ons volonters, que l nettet e l
premre rpon l f clt vec l quelle nous nous fgurons l
secone. Il f ut se fer e cette lluson. Pusque l cton, mme
corporelle, ne mofe pont l gent, l c us lt effcente ne
peut consster  ns un nflux pysque, qu p sser t e l c use
 ns leffet.
_ 488 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 228-9.
489 We mgt  ts oter f ct: t t _ ll_ ns of corpore l ctvty
n c nge (11) seem to nvolve _moton_ or loc l c nge. Ts oes
not prove t t tey ll _ re_ moton or loc l c nge. Te
sgnfc nce of te f ct les prob bly n ts, t t loc l moton s
necess ry for procurng n contnung pysc l cont ct between te
nter ctng pysc l gences._Cf._ NYS, _Cosmologe_, 227-9.
_ 490 Cf._ ST. THOMAS, _Contr

Gentes_, ., 69.

491 Une c use vrt ble est une c use, entre l quelle et son effet
lesprt perot une l son ncess re: cest ns que je
lentenes. [Ts s mbguous.] Or l ny que ltre nfnment
p rf t entre l volont uquel et les effets lesprt perove une
l son ncess re. Il ny onc que Deu qu sot vrt ble c use,
et l semble mme qul y t contr cton re que les ommes
pussent ltre_De l rcerce e l vrt_, Lv. 6me, 2e
p rte, c. .
492 S lon vent consrer ttentvement le que lon
e c use
ou e puss nce  gr, on ne peut en outer que cette e ne
prsente quelque cose e vn._b._
493 Il ny pont omme qu s ce seulement ce qul f ut f re pour
remuer un e ses ogts p r le moyen es esprts nm ux._b._
494 J  toujours soutenue que lme t t lunque c use e ses ctes,
cest re e ses termn tons lbres ou e ses ctes bons ou
m uv s.... J  toujours soutenu que lme t t ctve, m s que
ses ctes ne prous ent ren e pysque._Rflexons sur l
prmoton pysque_. Je cros que l volont est une _puss nce
ctve_, quelle
un vrt ble pouvor e se termner; m s son
cton est _mm nente_; cest une cton qu ne prout ren p r son
effc ce propre, p s mme le mouvement e son br s._Rponse l
3__me__ lettre Arn ul_.
_ 495 Cf._ MERCIER, _op. ct._, 230-2; ZIGLIARA, _Ontolog _ (45);
URRABURU, _op. ct._, 393 _sqq._
496 We
t
w
be

m y re son bly s te occ son lst to suppose for te moment

t we re effcent c uses of our ment l processes n to tell us
t better proof of t coul e em n, or w t better proof coul
fortcomng, t n ts proof from conscousness.

497 MAHER, _Psycology_, c. x., p. 220.

498 Soul nyone oubt t t conscousness oes testfy to ts f ct, we

m y prove t nuctvely from te const nt correl ton between te
ment l st te n te boly movement: I wll to move my rm, t
moves; I wll t t t rem n t rest, t oes not move; I wll t t
ts movement be more or less strong n r p, te strengt n
r pty v ry wt te etermn ton of my wll. W t more complete
nuctve proof c n we  ve of te effcency of our wll- cton on
te extern l worl?MERCIER, _op. ct._, 231.
499 S effectus non proucuntur ex ctone rerum cre t rum, se solum
ex ctone De, mpossble est quo per effectus m nfestetur
vrtus lcujus c us e cre t e: non enm effectus ostent vrtutem
c us e ns r tone ctons, qu e vrtute proceens  effectum
termn tur. N tur utem c us e non cognosctur per effectum, ns
nqu ntum per psum cognosctur vrtus, qu e n tur m consequtur. S
gtur res cre t e non  bent ctones  proucenum effectum,
sequtur, quo nunqu m n tur m lcujus re cre t e potert cognosc
per effectum; et sc subtr tur nobs omns cognto scent e
n tur ls, n qu pr ecpu e emonstr tones per effectum
sequuntur.ST. THOMAS, _Contr Gentes_, L. ., c p. 69.
500 Je emeure  ccor que l fo oblge crore qul y
es corps;
m s, pour lvence, l me semble quelle nest pont entre, et
que nous ne sommes pont nvncblement ports crore qul y t
quelqu utre cose que Deu et notre esprt._Rcerce e l
vrte_, 6me cl rcssement.
_ 501 Cf._ _Scence of Logc_, ., 217.
_ 502 Met p._, v., 17.
503 Qu e m vero  bonum ncln ntur cum lqu cogntone; non quem
sc quo cognosc nt ps m r tonem bon, se cognoscunt lquo
bonum p rtcul re.... Incln to utem  nc cogntonem sequens
ctur ppettus _senstvus_. Qu e m vero ncln ntur  bonum
cum cogntone qu cognosc nt ps m bon r tonem; et  ec
ncln to ctur _volunt s_.ST. THOMAS, _Summ Teol._, ., q.
xlx., rt. 1.
504 Scut nfluere c us e effcents est gere, t nfluere c us e
fn ls est ppet et eser r._De Vert te_, q. xx., rt. 2.
505 In ts moern us ge te term ntenton s nsep r ble from te
noton of _conscous_ recton. Te scol stcs use te term
_ntento_ n _wer_ n _eeper_ sense to connote te n tur l
tenency of ll cre te gences tow rs ter n tur l ctvtes
n lnes of evelopment. An n unconscous gences tey  not
est te to refer to t s _ntento n tur e_ or _ ppettus
n tur ls_.
506 Res n tur ls per _form m_ qu perfctur n su spece,  bet
ncln tonem n propr s oper tones et proprum fnem, quem per
oper tones consequtur; qu le enm unumquoque est, t l oper tur,
et n sb convenent tent.ST. THOMAS, _Contr Gentes_, v.,
19.
Omn suo moo per ppettum ncln ntur n bonum, se versmoe.
Qu e m enm ncln ntur n bonum per sol m n tur lem  btunem
bsque cogntone, scut pl nt e et corpor n nm t ; et t ls
ncln to  bonum voc tur ppettus n tur ls._Summ Teol._,

., q. xlx., rt. 1.
507 C us effcens et fns sb corresponent nvcem, qu effcens
est prncpum motus, fns utem termnus. Et smlter m ter et
form : n m form  t esse, m ter
utem recpt. Est gtur
effcens c us fns, fns utem c us effcents. Effcens est
c us fns qu ntum  esse, quem, qu moveno peruct effcens
 oc, quo _st_ fns. Fns utem est c us effcents non
qu ntum  esse se qu ntum  _r tonem c us lt ts_. N m
effcens est c us n qu ntum gt; non utem gt ns c us
[gr t ] fns. Une ex fne  bet su m c us lt tem effcens.ST.
THOMAS, _In Met p._, v., 2.
Scenum quo lcet fns st ultmus n esse n qubus m, n
c us lt te t men est pror semper, une ctur _c us c us rum_,
qu est c us c us lt ts n omnbus c uss. Est enm c us
c us lt ts effcents, ut j m ctum est. Effcens utem est
c us c us lt ts et m ter e et form e._b._, lect. 3.
508
, . Naua e
 p
pum
quoddam e au
a u d moveau e que
a, 
quo 
e
 pmum,
pe
e e
o

eu
dum ade

._Phy
._, L. ., ap. 1.
509 A

hl alud e
 quam ea ao alquoum opeum
fae
doum._Summa Theol._ a ae, q. lv., a. 3._Cf._ _I

Po
. A
al._, l. 1.
510 Naua
hl alud e
 quam ao uju
dam a
,
le dv
ae,

da ebu
qua p
ae e
move
u ad f
em deem
aum;
u

afex fao
av
po

e lg

buee quod ex
ep


movee
u ad
av
fomam 
due
dam._I
II Phy
._, le. 14.
Om
a
auala, 
ea quae e
o
ve
u
,
u
 
l
aa,
habe
a 

ep

alquod 
l
ao

p
pum, ao
e uju

eoum 
l
ao
aual
e
, _a u quodammodo p
a vada
, e

o

olum dua
u 
f
e
debo
_._De eae_, q. xx., a.
7.
511 I

ullo e
m alo
aua ab ae vdeu dffee,

 qua

aua e
 p
pum 


eum, e a
e
 p
pum
ex

um. S e
m a
fava
av
e

e 


ea lg
o, faa
fu

e
av
a
aua,
u modo f ab ae._I
II. Phy
._,
le. 13.
_ 512 Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, ., 217.
_ 513 Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, , 227.
_ 514 Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, ., 226-31.
515 ARISTOTLE, _Meaph._, v., h. v.
_ 516 Phy
._, ., h. v.
_ 517 bd._
_ 518 Cf._ _Se
e of Log_, ., 264, 268-9.
519 ._De Ce_, ii., 8.

520 Faaism is he view ha a hi

s happe
b a bi
d, i
eviabe,
eer
a fredmed a
d 
i
eiibe
eessi. Ths SENECA
(_Na. aes._, L. III., ap. 36) desribes _fam_ as _
eessias
m
im rerm ai
mqe, qam
a vis rmpa_. This _
eessias
i
eabiis_ is a differe
 frm he 
dii
a phsia

eessi f he rse f Nare depe

de
 
he _Fia_ f a
Spreme Free Wi ided b Spreme I
eie
e (_Cf._ _Sie
e f
Li_, 224, 249, 253, 257). If he
eessi f aa
rre
es is
 imae raeabe  he _Fia_ f a

I
eie
 Wia
d meha
iss de
 ha i a
be s raedi is
rih desribed as faaisi, bi
d, prpseess, 
i
eiibe.
_ 521 Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._, 259, 260.
522 Expiqer par 
e re

re frie, a 
vere
e dme
s,
d
 ha
a sa psse prpre, es re
dre rais
de a
_
vere
e_ par des pri
ipes de _divere
e_.... I es d


radiire dariber a hasard a rais
expiaive de
rdre.MERCIER, _p. i._, 260.
_ 523 Cf._ _Sie
e f Li_, ii., 224, 250, a
d _passim_.
524 Simiier ex priribs perve
ir ad pserira i
are e i

ara: 
de si arifiiaia,  dms, fiere
 a
ara, h rdi
e
fiere
, q

 fi
 per arem: siie pris i
sierer
f
dame
m, e psea eriere
r pariees, e im spp
erer
em.... E simiier si ea qae fi
 a
ara fiere
 ab are,
h md fiere
 si apa
aa s
 fieri a
ara;  pae i

sa
iae, qam 
ii fieri, e ab are e a
ara.... U
de
ma
ifesm es qd i

ara es aerm prper aerm, siie
prira prper pserira, si e i
are.ST. THOMAS, _I
II.
Phs._, e. 13._Cf._ _spra_, p. 417,
. 3.
525 Ord es parim disparimqe rerm sa iqe a ribe
s
dispsii._De Civ. Dei_, xix., 13.
_ 526 Cf._ MERCIER, _p. i._, 257-61.
527 _La 
vere
e de ases i
diffre
es qi raise
 d
e ma
ire
harm
iese e persisa
e 
mme bje rd

,
e sexpiqe
pi
 par des i
ide
es fries; ee rame 
pri
ipe
i
er
e de 
vere
e.__Ibid._, 260.
528 TENNYSON, _I
Memriam_, vi.
529 BROWNING, _A Ss Traed_, A. 1.
530 U
iversm habe b
m rdi
is e b
m separam._I
Meaph._,
xii., . 12.
531 ARISTOTLE, _Meaph._, xi., 10. Des Arise eah ha Gd mves
he 
iverse 
 as is Fi
a Case, as he Spreme Gd wards
whih i e
ds, r as as Effiie
 Case? His hh is here
bsre, a
d has ive
rise  mh 
rvers am
 his
i
erpreers.
532
, ._Ibid._,
xi., 8.

533 ( ) , ._bd._,
7.
534 Tu
d unv
 
  mum mvnm, u
cc
xcu n unv
 dna d ud 
 n ncu 
vuna m mvn
. E
c  ud a m mvn

a dna unv
._Ibd._, x., . 12.
535 ... Amn m
v
a n

Hav d; and m nc  m, wc ma 

T unv
 
mb Gd. In 

T  cau

  nd


O a na w, wc 
 nd
W  n 
dawn. A nau
an
In 
 d, dv
y,
m m,
Sm 

aacn   ma
uc.
Tu
y  dn avn
a mvd n
Tu  va

a  bn, and ac n
W n
nc vn, a ba
 n 
cu
;
T
  una
 dc
 ,
T
m
 a
 ma anma
,
T
 bu a  n
and bnd
.
N ny cau
, vd  nc,
A amd a by 
bw; bu vn 

Ta av nnc and v, a cd.
Ta Pvdnc, w
 w d
a,
W  wn  ma 
v cam  avn,
In wc 
ub
anc a a a

d
I
und: and  nw, a
 u
a
Pd
nd, w a cad by  c
O a
n cd, a nv 

da,
Bu a a am and ad ...
DANTE, _Paad
_, Can. . (. by CARY).

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