Ductile Failure

Ductile failure has extensive plastic deformation in the vicinity of the advancing crack. The process proceeds relatively slow (stable). The crack resists any further extension unless there is an increase in the applied stress. Ductile fractures have the following characteristics: 1. There is considerable gross permanent or plastic deformation in the region of ductile fracture. 2. The surface of a ductile fracture is not necessarily related to the direction of the principal tensile stress, as it is in a brittle fracture. 3. The characteristic appearance of the surface of a ductile fracture is dull and fibrous. Ductile fracture is characterized by tearing of metal and significant plastic deformation. The ductile fracture may have a gray, fibrous appearance. Ductile fractures are associated with overload of the structure or large discontinuities. Stages that occur in ductile fracture:

a) Necking

b) Void Nucleation

c) Coalescence of cavities

Macroscopic structure

d) Crack Propagation e) Fracture

As shown above from the macroscopic fractography of the material, the failure type of this material is ductile failure cup-cone shape fracture for cylinders . That is because the material doesn't just fracture directly, but it undergoes through the stages before it fractures as it can be noticed from the figure. Moreover, from macroscopic fractography we can see that there is a remnant of micro void formation and the coalescence occurs at the surface of the cup and cone shape.

Microscopic structure

The microstructure of the fracture surface is quite complex and may include both trans-granular and intergranular fracture mechanisms. The figure above indicates a microscopic fractography, with different scales, that shows a void nucleation sites and also Fracture surface of tire cord wire loaded in tension.

Brittle Failure
Brittle failures are characterized by rapid crack propagation without appreciable plastic deformation. If brittle fractures occur across particular crystallographic planes they are called Tran crystalline fracture. If

along grain boundaries they are called intergranular fracture. Brittle fracture is promoted by: Thicker section sizes, Lower service temperatures, and Increased strain rate.

A materials tendency to fracture in a brittle mode can be determined by measuring its notch ductility. The most common test for this is the Charpy V-notch test. Failure under test condition can exhibit energy and fracture transitions. Shear fracture occurs under the notch and along the free surfaces. Cleavage fracture occurs in the center characterized by a bright, shiny, faceted surface. 50% cleavage is the fracture transition point. Cleavage fracture is caused by inability of the crystal structure to cross-slip. Yield strength loading is required to initiate a brittle fracture; however, only much lower stress may be needed to propagate it. Examples: ceramic cups, plates etc.

As mentioned earlier, brittle fracture can be categorized into two: 1. Transgranular fracture which means that the cracks that pass through the grains. Cleavage - in most brittle crystalline materials, crack propagation that results from the repeated breaking of atomic bonds along specific planes. This leads to transgranular fracture where the crack splits (cleaves) through the grains.

2. Intergranular fracture the propagation of cracks along the grain boundaries. Intergranular failure is typically due to elemental depletion (chromium) at the grain boundaries or some type of weakening of the grain boundary due to chemical attack, oxidation, embrittlement.

Macroscopic structure

As it can be seen from the macrostructure of the material, the fracture surface is flat which indicates clearly that the material just fractures without necking or plastic deformation. This is a brittle failure. Even though the figure is macrostructure, we are able to see the micro-voids are on the fracture surface.

Microscopic structure

Obviously as it is shown in the figure above, we found that the failure is brittle due to the chevron marks or fan-shaped ridges coming from cracks.

Fatigue Failure
Fatigue is a form of failure that occurs in structures subjected to dynamic stresses over an extended period. Under these conditions it is possible to fail at stress levels considerably lower than tensile or yield strength for a static load. Single largest cause of failure in metals; also affects polymers and ceramics. Common failure in bridges, aircraft and machine components. Stages that occur in ductile fracture: 1. Crack initiation 2. Crack propagation 3. Final failure Macroscopic structure

According to the figure above we can say that the failure type of this material is fatigue failure due to the beach marks (River-marks and chevrons pointed at origin) that propagates from the origin outwards like a wave in a pond. Microscopic structure

Fracture surface with crack initiation at top. Surface shows predominantly dull fibrous texture where rapid failure occurred after crack achieved critical size. It can be clearly seen that the failure is fatigue failure. We can see the River-marks and wave are originating and growing from one point outwards. .

REFERENCES
http://corrosion-doctors.org/Failure-Analysis/13-failure-type.htm http://www.tec-eurolab.com/en/doc-219-1.aspx Wikipedia/ductile http://people.virginia.edu/~lz2n/mse209/Chapter8.pdf http://www.springer.com/cda/content/document/cda_downloaddocument/9781849962650-c1.pdf? SGWID=0-0-45-935845-p173992972 http://www.mse.arizona.edu/undergraduates/files/fatigue_akpan_dooley_popov.pdf http://academic.uprm.edu/pcaceres/Courses/MatEng3045/EME8-4.pdf http://web.mse.uiuc.edu/courses/mse280/notes/09/ch09_fracture.pdf http://www.nhml.com/ductile--brittle-fracture.cfm