Q31. What are the advantages and disadvantages of twisted pair.

Twisted pair cabling is a type of wiring in which two conductors (the forward and return conductors of a single circuit) are twisted together for the purposes of cancelling out electromagnetic interference (EMI) from external sources; for instance, electromagnetic radiation from unshielded twisted pair (UTP) cables, and crosstalk between neighbouring pairs. Advantages

It is a thin, flexible cable that is easy to string between walls. More lines can be run through the same wiring ducts. UTP costs less per meter/foot than any other type of LAN cable. Electrical noise going into or coming from the cable can be prevented. Cross-talk is minimized.

Disadvantages It is susceptible to interference and noise. There is attenuation problem in twisted pair cable. For analog, repeaters needed every 5-6km For digital, repeaters needed every 2-3km It has relatively low bandwidth (3000Hz)

Q32. Why Ethernet is still popular and being used in networking. Ethernet is the predominant LAN (Local Area Network) technology for home and business networks. Ethernet is the most popular data link layer protocol in the world, and there are several reasons why this is so. Because it has been around for more than 20 years, Ethernet hardware, such as NICs and hubs, is inexpensive and easy to find. The popularity of the protocol also means that experienced Ethernet technicians are common and their time is also relatively inexpensive. Standard Ethernet is also tolerant of faults like overlong cable segments and loose connections. Q33. Why twisted pair wire is having less noise than parallel wire? Interference from devices such as a motor can create unequal noise over two parallel lines. The line that is closer to the device receives more interference than the one that is farther. Effect of Noise on Parallel Lines

If however, the wires are twisted around each other at regular intervals, each wire is closer to the noise source for half of the time and farther for the other half. Both receive the same amount of noise. The noise from two wires cancel each other out at the receiver.

Q34. What is the form of the signal in twisted pair cable? How does this differ from the signal in fibre optics cable? Q35. Explain with justification why the light passing through is reflective instead of refractive in fibre optics. When light passes from a medium with one index of refraction (m1) to another medium with a lower index of refraction (m2), it bends or refracts away from an imaginary line perpendicular to the surface (normal line). As the angle of the beam through m1 becomes greater with respect to the normal line, the refracted light through m2 bends further away from the line. At one particular angle (critical angle), the refracted light will not go into m2, but instead will travel along the surface between the two media (sine [critical angle]. If the beam through m1 is greater than the critical angle, then the refracted beam will be reflected entirely back into m1 (total internal reflection), even though m2 may be transparent. In an optical fiber, the light travels through the core by constantly reflecting from the cladding because the angle of the light is always greater than the critical angle. Light reflects from the cladding no matter what angle the fiber itself gets bent at, even if it's a full circle. Q36. Explain cyclic redundancy checking (CRC). Cyclic redundancy checking is used to verify whether the received data is in correct format as it was sent from the sending end. In data communication data is sent in packets. A CRC bit is placed somewhere in the packet and is verified at the receiving end. A CRC is generated by dividing the total number of bits in the block of data being sent by a predetermine binary number. The remainder is added to the packet and the packet is transmitted. On the receiving end the reverse mathematical operation is performed to verified the packet contents. If the computation is successful, the packet is passed to the next step. If it fails, the issuing node is notified and the entire packet is retransmitted. Common CRC patterns are 12-bit(CRC 12), CRC 32 etc. Q37. Explain the light source in optical cable. Optical communication is the transmission of photon (or light) energy through a low-loss waveguide whose function is to propagate the light signals over long distances. In telecommunications systems, the source of the photon energy may be a light-emitting or semiconductor laser diode, whose function is to produce light energy at a single wavelength. By turning the light source on and off quickly, streams of ones and zeros can be transmitted to form a digital communications channel. The wavelength of the optical light source has been selected to best match the transmission properties of recognized optical fiber types. The common optical communications wavelengths of 850 nm to 1550 nm fall between the ultraviolet and microwave frequencies in the light spectrum. Large diameter optical fiber (50- and 62.5-m) is required to adequately support transmission of light sources with larger apertures such as LEDs and vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) by minimizing signal loss and maximizing transmit distances. Small diameter optical fiber (e.g. 9-m) is required to adequately support transmission of laser light sources.

Q38. What are the advantages of coaxial cable? The advantages are: - they are cheap to make - cheap to install - easy to modify - good bandwith - great channel capacity - noise immunity due to low error rate

The advantages of using coaxial cable include the following: One advantage of coaxial cable over other types of radio transmission line is that in an ideal coaxial cable the electromagnetic field carrying the signal exists only in the space between the inner and outer conductors. This allows coaxial cable runs to be installed next to metal objects such as gutters without the power losses that occur in other types of transmission lines. Coaxial cable also provides protection of the signal from external electromagnetic interference. The advantage of coaxial design is that the electric and magnetic fields are confined to the dielectric with little leakage outside the shield. On the converse, electric and magnetic fields outside the cable are largely kept from causing interference to signals inside the cable. This property makes coaxial cable a good choice for carrying weak signals that cannot tolerate interference from the environment or for higher electrical signals that must not be allowed to radiate or couple into adjacent structures or circuits.[2] Broadband system: Coax has a sufficient frequency range to support multiple channels, which allows for much greater throughput. Greater channel capacity Each of the multiple channels offers substantial capacity. The capacity depends on where you are in the world. In the North American system, each channel in the cable TV system is 6MHz wide, according to the National Television Systems Committee (NTSC) standard. In Europe, with the Phase Alternate Line (PAL) standard, the channels are 8MHz wide. Within one of these channels, you can provision high-speed Internet access-that's how cable modems operate. But that one channel is now being shared by everyone using that coax from that neighborhood node, which can range from 200 to 2,000 homes. Greater bandwidth Compared to twisted-pair, coax provides greater bandwidth systemwide, and it also offers greater bandwidth for each channel. Because it has greater bandwidth per channel, it supports a mixed range of services. Voice, data, and even video and multimedia can benefit from the enhanced capacity. Lower error rates Because the inner conductor is in a Faraday shield, noise immunity is improved, and coax has lower error rates and therefore slightly better performance than twisted-pair. The error rate is generally 10-9 (i.e., 1 in 1 billion) bps. Greater spacing between amplifiers Coax's cable shielding reduces noise and crosstalk, which means amplifiers can be spaced farther apart than with twisted-pair.

Q39. On a transmission channel, 600 character message using ASCii7 bit code is used. For synchronous data stream, there are two SYN characters and a single error detection character is added. In case of asynchronous data transmission, there is one start bit and one stop bit and a single error detection character is added. Calculate the efficiency of transmission in the above two types of transmission mode. For synchronous mode of transmission Total number of characters transmitted=600+2(SYN characters)+1(error detection character). =603 characters =603X7=4221 bits But number of bits carrying actual message=600 characters or 600X7=4200 bits Hence, efficiency X100=99.5%

For asynchronous mode of transmission For every character in this mode, there is a start and stop bit. So for each character, we need to send 9 bits i.e. 7+1(start bit)+1(stop bit) Total number of characters to be sent=600+1(error character) or 601X9=5409 bits Total number of message bits=600X7 or 4200 bits Hence, efficiency X100=77.65%

Q40. A message of 2000 characters has to be transmitted from station A to station B. Calculate the time taken for transmission by synchronous communication scheme in which a 16 bit sync is sent after every block of 10 characters. Assume each character is represented by a 7 bit ASCII and also assume the speed to be 1200bps. Number of character per block is 10 characters. So there will be 200 blocks in the total message. Since 16 bit sync is added after every 10 characters, number of bits per 10 characters is 10X7+16 =86 bits. For 200 blocks, number of bits is 86X200=17200 bits. So time taken to send 17200 bits is =14.33sec