PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING:LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OFEXAMPLE CONSTRUCTIVISM Running Header: PROBLEM-BASED AN OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Problem-Based Learning: An Example of Constructivism Douglas P. Becker Boise State University

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Abstract Problem-Based Learning (PBL) is often cited as one of the most intriguing and stimulating methods to teach and to learn. Learnersare asked to develop responses to a board-based question without being given any formal instruction on the topic at hand. Learners are then required to form an action plan to research, evaluate, and reach a solution to the proposed problem. Often this is accomplished in small groups where learners can collaborate on and discuss possible solutions. All of these actions will be combined to construct a new knowledge base in each individual. This construction of new knowledge is the heart of the constructivist view of learning. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how Problem-Based Learning can beemployed in the learning environment and to demonstrate how it fits into the constructivism theory of learning.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Problem-Based Learning: An Example of Constructivism Problem Based Learning (PBL) is one of the best examples of the constructivism learning theory. It employs all aspects of the theory and can be adapted to many subject areas. It is based on a small group working toward a solution to board problem with little guidance from outside the problem group. Procedure, research and conclusions are all done though collaboration with the members of the group. The instructors role is limited to being a resource to the student teams. The instructor frequently acts as a mentor or tutor to the group. During the investigation the instructor relinquishes the role of the dispenser of information. Constructivism Constructivism is a philosophy of learning founded on the premise that, by reflecting on our experiences, we construct our own understanding of the world we live in. Each of us generates our own rules and mental models, which we use to make sense of our experiences. Learning, therefore, is simply the process of adjusting our mental models to accommodate new experiences. Constructivists believe that (Duffy & Jonassen, 1991) knowledge and truth are constructed by people and do not exist outside the human mind (p. 9). This would mean that knowledge and learning couldnt be passed on from one individual to another by conversation alone. The learner must be exposed to similar situations so that meaning and understanding can be developed from within the individual. Von Glaserfeld (1984) has written ...learners construct understanding. They do not simply mirror and reflect what they are told or what they read. Learners look for meaning and will try to find regularity and order in the events of the world even in the absence of full or complete information.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Therefore if it is true that the individual is responsible for constructing meaning and understanding, what instructional techniques can be used to enhance learning? If learners are exposed to similar situations and are allowed time to discuss what hey have experienced together, the likelihood that each individual will develop similar knowledge and understanding will be increased. According to Ertmer and Newby(1993), Instruction must provide learners with a collaborative situation in which they have both the means and the opportunity to construct new and situationally-specific understandings by assembling prior knowledge from diverse sources(p. 63). Conditions where learning can be enhanced have several characteristics in common. As Chung (1991) described, a constructivist learning environment is characterized by (1) shared knowledge among teachers and students; (2) shared authority and responsibility among teachers and students; (3) the teachers new role as guide in instruction; and (4) heterogeneous and small groupings of students. This view is shared by Mark Windsehitl (2002), when he suggests that the following activities encourage meaningful learning: Teachers elicit students' ideas and experiences in relation to key topics, then fashionlearning situations that help students elaborate on or restructure their currentknowledge. Students are given frequent opportunities to engage in complex, meaningful, problem-based activities. Teachers provide students with a variety of information resources as well as the tools (technological and conceptual) necessary to mediate learning.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Students work collaboratively and are given support to engage in task-oriented dialogue with one another.

Teachers make their own thinking processes explicit to learners and encourage students to do the same through dialogue, writing, drawings, or other representations.

Students are routinely asked to apply knowledge in diverse and authentic contexts, to explain ideas, interpret texts, predict phenomena, and construct arguments based on evidence, rather than to focus exclusively on the acquisition of predetermined "right answers."

Teachers encourage students' reflective and autonomous thinking in conjunction with the conditions listed above.

Teachers employ a variety of assessment strategies to understand how students' ideas are evolving and to give feedback on the processes as well as the products of their thinking, (p. 137),

According to Kanuka and Anderson (1999), If learning is a process whereby we actively construct knowledge using language based on our past experiences, then context-rich, long-term learning environments with tools that enhance communication and access instructional methods that provide real-world examples are required. This kind of learning environment will provide learners with experience-based learning opportunities to practice and reflect on the learning process and to a lesser extent the content. Moreover, according to constructivism learning principles, in this kind of learning environment the tasks will reflect the complexity of the real world in which learners must function after the planned learning activities have occurred.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Constructivism and Technology Amidst all the different instructional techniques available today it is evident that there are two major challenges. One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from the new learning opportunities that technology now affords (Salomon, 1991). Constructivism has presented the first challenge of reconceptualizing learning as a constructive process whereby information is turned into knowledge by means of interpretation, by actively relating it to existing bodies of knowledge, by the generative creation of representations, and by processes of purposeful elaboration (e.g. Resnick, 1989). Presenting the second challenge is the computer. Because of its versatility and accessibility, its use in education may help to shift the foci from knowledge-as-possession to knowledge-asconstruction, and from learning as outside-guided to learning as self-guided. It also carries with it a renewed conception of instruction that shifts attention from instruction as the imparting of knowledge to instruction as the guidance of socially-based exploration in intellectually rich settings (Salomon, 1991). The computer can serve in the process of information gathering, inquiry, and collaboration, not merely as a vestige of direct instruction with its reliance on integrating technology in the existing curriculum (Rice & Wilson, 1999). The use of technology can revolutionize learning activities in todays classrooms. The digital world allows students access to information and visualization that can make events and ideas real to them. It is important howeverthat computer-supported constructivist environments should not involve the knowledge and intelligence to guide and structure learning processes, but rather should create situations and offer tools that stimulate students to make maximum use of their own cognitive potential (Scardamalia et al., 1989).

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

Problem-Based Learning Problem-based learning was developed in medical education in the early 1970's and since that time it has been refined and implemented in over sixty medical schools. Problem-based learning typically involves students working on problems in small groups of five to twelve with the assistance of a faculty tutor. According to Gijselaers (1996) Problems serve as the context for new learning. Their analysis and resolution result in the acquisition of knowledge and problem-solving skills. Problems are encountered before all relevant knowledge has been acquired and not only after reading texts or hearing lectures about the subject matter underlying a problem (p. 17). The most widespread application of the PBL approach has been in the first two years of medical science curricula where it replaces the traditional lecture based approach to anatomy, pharmacology, physiology etc. (Savery & Duffy, 2001). Since that time the model has been adapted to other learning applications including high schoolclasses as well as university studies.The chart below (Barrows and Myers, 1993) outlines the procedures used by a group of medical students to process and diagnosisthe symptoms presented by a patient.

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

STARTING A NEW CLASS

1. Introductions 2. Climate Setting (including teacher/tutor role)

STARTING A NEW PROBLEM

1. 2. 3. 4.

IDEAS (Hypotheses)

Set the problem. Bring the problems home (students internalize problem) Describe the product / performance required Assign tasks (Scribe 1 at the board, Scribe 2 copying from board, and reference person)

FACTS

LEARNING ISSUES

ACTION PLAN
Things that need to be done in order to complete the problem task

Students conjectures A growing synthesis of Students list of what regarding the problem- information obtained they need to know of may involve causation, through inquiry, understand in order to effect, possible important to the complete the problems resolutions, etc. hypotheses generated task 5. Reasoning through the problem What you do with the columns on the board.

IDEAS (Hypotheses)
Expand/ focus

FACTS

LEARNING ISSUES

ACTION PLAN

6. 7. 8. 9.

Synthesize & reIdentify/ justify Formulate plan synthesize Commitment as to probable outcome (although much may need to be learned) Learning issue shaping assignment Resource identification Schedule follow-up

PROBLEM FOLLOW-UP
1. Resources used and their critique 2. Reassess the problem

IDEAS (Hypotheses)
Revise

FACTS
Apply new knowledge and resynthesize

LEARNING ISSUES
Identify new (if necessary)

ACTION PLAN
Redesign decisions

PREFORMANCE PRESENTATION AFTER CONCLUSION OF PROBLEM

1. Knowledge abstraction and summary (develop definitions, diagrams, lists, concepts, abstractions, principles) 2. Self-evaluation (followed by comments from the group) Reasoning through the problem Digging out information using good resources Assisting the group with its tasks Giving or refining knowledge

Figure 1. The problem based learning process. Taken from Barrows and Myers (1993).

PROBLEM-BASED LEARNING: AN EXAMPLE OF CONSTRUCTIVISM

It should be noted that the same four categories are revisited several times and revised or adapted to include the new information that is discovered by the individuals of the group. Learning Goals One of the issues many critics of the PBL techniques is that learning goals are not determined before hand but rather are developed as the problem is being worked on. This is contrary to most instructional designs. Thus to be useful in outcome based instruction environments the problems presented must have narrow interpretations and limited real solutions. Although this is not ideal, it will allow learners to investigate a problem independently even though the instructor has basically pre-determined the possible solutions. Savery and Duffy (2001) developed the following learning principles Anchor all learning activities to a larger task or problem. Support the learner in developing ownership for the overall problem or task. Design an authentic task. Design the task and the learning environment to reflect the complexity of the environment they should be able to function in at the end of learning. Give the learner ownership of the process used to develop a solution. Design the learning environment to support and challenge the learner's thinking. Encourage testing ideas against alternative views and alternative contexts. Provide opportunity for and support reflection on both the content learned and the learning process (p. 3). Presenting a Problem In order to engage students, problems must be selected carefully and presented in a manner that appeals to the students. There are critical issues involved in presenting the problem.

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If the students are to engage in authentic problem solving, then they must own the problem (Savery & Duffy, 2001). Students own the problem only if it directly impacts their relationships and/or environments. There has to be a direct connection between the learner and the problem to provide the desire to pursue the solution. According to Brooks and Brooks (1993), a good problem is one that Requires students to make and test a prediction Can be solved with inexpensive equipment Is realistically complex Benefits from group effort Is seen as relevant and interesting by students (p. 65).

The example of PBL mentioned earlier is being used in Medical Schools to train future doctors. PBL has since been adopted in other areas including Business Schools (Milter & Stinson, 1994), Schools of Education (Bridges &Hallinger, 1992; Duffy, 1994); Architecture, Law, Engineering, Social Work (Boud & Feletti, 1991). Myers and Barrows have developed problems to be used in high schools as well. Several of these are listed below. Do asteroids in space pose a problem, and if so, what should we be doing about it? What caused the flooding in the Midwest last year and what should be done to prevent it in the future? The use of PBL is also being explored in the private sector as well. Savery and Duffy (1991) noted We are still developing problems and sub-problems for our Corporate and Community Education program. One of the problems currently being developed relates to the numerous

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PCB sites around Bloomington and the general public apathy about cleaning up these sites. The problem is basically: There are three reasons why the problems must address real issues. First, because the students are open to explore all dimension of the problem there is real difficulty of creating a rich problem with aconsistent set of information. Second, real problems tend to engage learners more -- there is a larger context of familiarity with the problem. Finally, students want to know the outcome of the problem (p. 11). Role of the Tutor / Teacher Once the problem has been prepared and the learner groups have begun their investigations, what exactly is the role of the teacher? The teacher has to find a balance between allowing students to discuss issues and intervening to make sure that the critical learning issues are raised (Wilkerson, 1995). The tutors primary role is to ask questions that force students examine the knowledge they are accumulating critically. Questions such as Why? and How do you know? force student to defend what they have discovered which leads to retention. Another role that the tutor must take on is that of a guide without actually giving direction or opinion. By asking the appropriate questions students may wish re-examine what they have found in their research but have misinterpreted. Asking students to elaborate on statements made during meetings requires that each individually is ready to explain to others exactly what is meant, thereby clearing up any questions. If the challenges are not made than learning will be incomplete for many of the individuals. Conclusion This paper was written to present PBL as an instructional model and to show how PBL is consistent with constructivism theory of learning. The PBL environment requires that the learners be actively engaged in working at tasks and activities that are authentic. The focus of

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this model is on learners constructing their own knowledge. Students are encouraged and expected to think both critically and creatively and to monitor their own understanding. Knowledge is gained and confirmed only when the members of the group agree upon its validity. A second goal of this document was to present how PBL is being used and how it could be implemented in the future. The responsibilities of both learners and instructors have been presented so as to give an overview of how the technique should be employed. The effectiveness of PBL is actually controlled by the participants themselves as they work through the solution of the problem and is often difficult to predict. References Boud, D. & Feletti, G. (Eds.) (1991). The challenge of problem based learning. New York: St. Martins Press. Bridges, E. & Hallinger, P. (1992). Problem based learning for administrators. ERIC Clearinghouse on Educational Management, University of Oregon. Brooks, J. G. and Brooks, M. G. (1993). In search of understanding: The case for constructivist classrooms, American Society for Curriculum Development. Alexandria, VA. Chung, J. (1991). Collaborative learning strategies: The design of instructional environments for the emerging new school. Educational Technology, 31 (6), 15-22. Duffy, T.M. (1994). Corporate and community education: Achieving success in the information society. Unpublished paper. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University. Duffy, T. M. & Jonassen, D. H. (1991). New implications for instructional technology. Educational Technology, 31 (3), 7-12. Ertmer, P. A. & Newby, T. J. (1993). Behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism: Comparing critical features from an instructional design perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 6 (4), 50-72. Gijselaers, W. H. (1996). Connecting problem-based practices with educational theory. In L. Wilkerson & W. Gijselaers (Eds.), Bringing problem-based learning to higher education: Theory and practice. New Directions in Teaching and Learning. 68, 13-21. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

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Jonassen, D. H., Peck, K. L., & Wilson, B. G. (1999). Learning with technology: A constructivist perspective. Special Education (Vol. 16, p. 0). Prentice Hall. Retrieved from http://www.mendeley.com/research/learning-with-technology-a-constructivistperspective/ Kanuka, H., & Anderson, T. (1999). Using constructivism in technology-mediated learning: Constructing order out of the chaos in the literature. Radical Pedagogy, 1(2). Retrieved from http://radicalpedagogy.icaap.org/content/issue1_2/02kanuka1_2.html Milter, R.G., & Stinson, J.E. (1993). Educating leaders for the new competitive environment. In Gijselaers, G., Tempelaar, S., Keizer S. (Eds.), Educational innovation in economics and business administration: The case of problem-based learning. London: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Resnick, L. B. (1989). Introduction. In L. B. Resnick (Ed.) Knowing, learning, and instruction, Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 1-24. Rice, M. L. & Wilson, E. K. (1999). How technology aids constructivism in the social studies classroom, http://global.umi.com/pqdweb. Salomon, G. (1991). From theory to practice: The international science classroom A technologyintensive, exploratory, team-based and interdisciplinary high school project. Educational Technology, 31 (3), 41-44. Savery, J. R. & Duffy, T. M. (2001). Problem based Learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. Center for Research on Learning and Technology. Indiana University. Bloomington, IN Scardamalia, M., Bereiter, C., McLean, R. S., Swallow, J. & Woodruff, E. (1989). Computersupported learning environments and problem-solving. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Von Glaserfeld, E. (1984). Radical constructivism. In P. Watzlawick (Ed.) The invented reality, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 17-40. Wilkerson, L. (1995). Skills for the problem-based tutor: Student and faculty perspectives. International Science. 22. 303 315. Windschitd, M. (2002). Framing constructivism in practice as the negotiation of dilemmas: An analysis of the conceptual, pedagogical, cultural and political challenges facing teachers. Review of Educational Research. 72: 131-175.