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AIM
Introduce the basic concepts and importance of vibration theory to vehicle design Consider the role of the designer in vibration control Demonstrate methods for the control of vibration to help the elimination of noise and harshness Indicate methods by which the designer can control vibration and noise to create an equitable driving environment
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Basic concepts
Vibration sources are characterized by their time and frequency domain characteristics Categorized principally as
Periodic
originate from the power unit, ancillaries or transmission simplest form of periodic disturbance is harmonic In the time domain this is represented by a sinusoid and in the frequency domain by a single line spectrum
Random disturbances
from terrain inputs to wheels only statistical representations are possible commonly represented by its power spectrum
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Basic concepts
All mass-elastic systems have natural frequencies
For linear system these frequencies are constant
related only to the mass and stiffness distribution
A few of the lower order frequencies are of interest because the higher ones are more highly damped. For one frequency, a system vibrates in a particular way, depicted by the relative amplitude and phase at various locations - mode of vibration
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Mathematical models
Provide the basis of all vibration studies at the design stage. Represent the dynamics of a system by one or more differential equations. Distributed-parameter approach - distributed mass and elasticity of some very simple components such as uniform shafts and plates by partial differential equations.
not generally possible to represent typical engineering systems (which tend to be more complicated) in this way.
Lumped-parameter approach - a set of discrete mass, elastic and damping elements, resulting in one or more ordinary differential equations.
Masses are concentrated at discrete points and are connected together by mass less elastic and damping elements. The number of elements used dictates the accuracy of the model To have just sufficient elements for natural vibration modes and frequencies while avoiding unnecessary computing effort.
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Mathematical models
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Formulation of System
Equations of motion determined by applying Newtons second law to each free-body For complicated geometry, the equations can be formulated by energy methods
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System characteristics
Equation of motion mx + cx + kx = F(t ). Characteristics taken at free vibration [F(t) =0] x = X cos (nt ) no damping Similar formulation of a SDOF system to obtain response as given by graph A(w) =
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The frequency response functions (and hence the frequency responses) are complex if damping is included in the analysis.
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Vibration control
Control at source Engine firing and reciprocating unbalance combine to produce a complex source of vibration which varies with engine operating conditions Reciprocating unbalance arises at each cylinder because of the fluctuating inertia force associated with the mass at each piston no such thing as perfect balance
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Vibration isolation
k* = k(1 + i)
where k is the dynamic stiffness and the loss factor
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Tuned absorbers
useful for reducing vibration levels in those systems in which an excitation frequency is close to or coincides with a natural frequency of the system The principles of undamped and damped tuned absorbers can be understood by outlining first the analysis of the damped absorber Undamped absorber as a special case
Figure from Smith,2002
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Tuned absorbers
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Tuned absorbers
A1 = K *X1 / F A2 = K *X2 / F Dimensionless numbers With damping
Wider operating range Reduced fatigue of absorber spring
Damped
Un damped
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Not tuned for particular resonance At infinite damping both masses move together as one
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Engine Isolation
Fluctuating torque at the crankshaft Shaking forces and moments additional dynamic inertial loads arising from vehicle maneuvering and terrain inputs to the wheels The primary components of engine vibration at idling are integer multiples of engine speed
Idle speeds for four cylinder engines range from 820 Hz producing dominant frequency components in the range from 1640 Hz. Since the primary bending mode of passenger cars can be less than 20 Hz it is obvious that it is easy to excite body resonance at idle if engine isolation is not carefully designed
The problem
isolate the chassis from the excitations and restrain the engine against excessive movement due to the engine torque
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For chassis
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Lagragnes Equations
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Engine Mounts
level isolation for passenger cars. The modern car designs have a trend for lighter car bodies and more power-intensive engines. Such a weight reduction and increased power requirements often have adverse effects on vibratory behavior, greatly increasing the vibration and noise level
From Yunhe Yu, 2001
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Elastomeric mounts
Since 1930s represented by familiar Voigt model compact, cost-effective and maintenance free. Bonded elastomeric mounts are known to provide more consistent performance and longer life Dynamic stiffness of an elastomeric mount will be greater at higher frequencies due to damping Desirable :
specific nonlinear characteristics to obtain constant natural frequency in a broad weight-load range use of materials with high internal damping materials with highly amplitudedependent damping and stiffness
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Crankshaft damping
Torsional dynamics of crankshafts dependent on the distribution of their mass and elasticity and the excitations arising from the torque/cylinder Because the torque contains a number of harmonic components and engine speed is variable there is a tendency to excite a large number of Torsional resonances as illustrated by the waterfall plot (Torsional amplitude plotted as a function frequency for a range of engine speeds)
Figure from Smith,2002
Waterfall plot for a multi-cylinder engine (courtesy of Simpson International (UK) Ltd)
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Mass-elastic model and first torsion mode of a six cylinder engine Figure from Smith,2002
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Fundamentals of acoustics
General sound propagation In an automotive context this is the surrounding air or the vehicle body structure, giving rise to the term structure-borne sound. Produces a propagating (travelling) wave which has a characteristic velocity c, the velocity of sound in air. At some arbitrary point on the path, the air undergoes pressure fluctuations which are superimposed on the ambient pressure. A sound source vibrating at a frequency f, produces sound at this frequency. The distance between pressure peaks is constant and known as the wavelength . This is related to c and f by the equation:
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Fundamentals of acoustics
Plane wave propagation Wave motion are most easily understood by considering the propagation of a plane wave
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At large distances from the source (kr >> 1 or r >> /2), z c. [k wave number = w/c; z impedance] Then pressure and particle velocity are in phase and we are in what is called the acoustic far field where spherical wave-fronts approximate to those of plane waves and pressure and velocity are in phase.
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The effect can be described by the directivity index DI in terms of the directivity factor Q.
DI = 10 log Q dB
10
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Sound measurement
Sound level meters The most basic instrument for sound measurement is a sound level meter comprising a microphone, r.m.s. detector with fast and slow time constants. A-weighting network to enable measurements to be made which relate to human response to noise, leading to so called A weighted noise levels LpA, expressed in dB(A).
Figure from Smith,2002 Because of the frequency sensitivity of the human ear, the A-weighting network has the form shown in Figure
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Frequency analysers
Since the frequency spectrum of noise is closely related to the origins of its production, frequency analysis is a powerful tool for identifying noise sources and enables the effectiveness of noise control measures to be assessed Narrow band frequency analyzers are a necessity. Simultaneous filtering in multiple narrow band filters
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Interior Noise
No legal requirements Assessed by experienced assesors Ad Hoc Criterion like Articulation Index used 200 Hz to 16kHz split into 16 bands SPL is measured in each band
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Where, A0 = SPL for zero intelligibility of conversation A100 = SPL for 100% intelligibility Wf = weighting factor for each third octave band Overall AI is measured by adding together 16 different indices
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Engine noise
Engine noise originates from both the combustion process and mechanical forces associated with engine dynamics Noise control:
Controlling pressure variations Piston slap mass of piston, gudgeon pin design, offset Noise shields Crankshaft spoked, damper
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Transmission noise
Misalignment of shafts, single tooth incorrectly cut or damaged. fs1, fs2 = ftm fss
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INTAKE NOISE
Generated by interruption of airflow at inlet valves Transmitted via air cleaner Radiated by air duct Noise of 10-15 dB Turbo charger compressor noise also radiated from the air duct
At blade passing frequency (also higher harmonics) Typically 2-4 kHz
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EXHAUST NOISE
Produced by release of gases as exhaust valves open and close F = engine speed /60 * number of cyls / 2 Vary with engine load (upto 15 dB) Turbo charging reduces engine and exhaust noise (because of better combustion)
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Two types
Dissipative (absorb acoustic energy) Reactive (by intereference)
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Reactive silencers
when the sound in a pipe or duct encounters a discontinuity in the cross-section, some of the acoustic energy is reflected back creating destructive interference Suitable for attenuating low frequency noise Causes pressure loss Figure from Smith,2002
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Catalytic Convertors
Fitted immediately after exhaust manifold
For quick heating needed for their functioning
Hence, Often have a double skin and insulation AND Isolated from vehicle body by suspending it from flexible systems
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Aerodynamic noise
For road vehicles this can be broken down into three noise generating components:
Boundary layer distributed over the vehicle body
Boundary layer noise tends to be random in character Absorbent materials
Edge effects
noise level higher than boundary layer noise Caused by vortices formed at edges
Vortex shedding (large vortices roll up and break into smaller ones)
at various locations on the vehicle body and also at cooling fans
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f = 640 Hz, for d=10 at 70mph inlet and outlet apertures are carefully sited and designed
Should not generate noise and noise from engine compartment should not be transmitted to the occupant
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Noise from the cooling fan Blades shed helical trailing vortices Result in periodic pressure fluctuations when they strike obstacles fan rotors are made with unevenly spaced blades and with an odd numbers of blades
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Tire noise
Two sources of noise
Tread pattern excited noise (affected by tire design) Road surface excited noise
Tire designers reduce tire noise Chassis designers reduce transmission to occupant The mechanism of tire noise generation is due to an energy release when a small block of tread is released from the trailing edge of the tire footprint and returns to its undeformed position.
Tread patterns designed to control frequencies Models of tires with structural dynamic characteristics and the air contained within them are used at the design stage.
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Brake noise
Mechanism of noise generation in disc and drum brakes is still not fully understood
Complex system of linkages Elements of large area held in contact with hydraulic / friction loading
At higher frequencies
a redistribution of drum mass to eliminate some of the specific back plate vibration modes.