Games as a Pedagogical Approach for Teaching Compassion: A Holistic Scientists inquiry into Creating Social Change

Masters Dissertation
Heather Browning Supervised by Alan Dyer

Table of Contents Abstract Preface Background o Holistic science inquiry o Nonviolent communication o Introduction to constructivist thought Introduction The state of Modern Western social interaction Empty Self Education as healing Timeless learning Games to create timeless learning How games teach Games as teachers of prosocial behavior Games building self-efficacy Games building community Competition vs. Cooperation The case for games Games for change Building a game for social change A game to develop compassion Discussion Conclusion References Appendix A: Selections from MSc Journal

Games as a Pedagogical Approach for Teaching Compassion: A Holistic Scientists inquiry into Creating Social Change
Heather Browning

Abstract This dissertation consists of an argument that games are a successful pedagogical tool to change attitudes and behaviors; it provides evidence that it would be possible for a game to encourage compassionate attitudes and behaviors in players that would last after the game was completed. This paper covers literature from education, psychology, and game research in order to synthesize these fields and show that through games it is possible to create a holistic pedagogy that nurtures the student by providing engaging and encouraging experiences in which to practice prosocial behavior. This paper is the result of a holistic science inquiry into social problems and environmental destruction. It therefore uses both narrative and literature review to build a picture of how games could support positive social change. Preface When I was 14 I wrote down a list of careers that I was interested in pursuing. My list was extremely long. It spanned from engineering robots for NASA to developing a system for communicating with dolphins. I looked at my list. I asked myself what I thought the most important thing for me do with my life was. I knew that the most important thing to do with my life was to make the largest positive impact on the world. Of all the careers on my list I decided that teaching would be most likely to create change in the world. I decided that rather than battling to make incremental changes in the current educational system, I wanted to create an alternate system. After many years of inquiry into education as both a student and a teacher, I have decided that the most important thing is to nurture people to feel deeply content and satisfied with their lives; that learning primarily takes place through voluntary participation in engaging activities. This is why I want to make a game that will change the world. We are potentially facing mass environmental destruction and social collapse. With drastic climate change and peak oil looming in our future, what can we do to curb their effects? The fear that this future brings up for me instills a sense of urgency in my mind. This fear makes me want to create the most change now, rather than working towards substantive change and paradigm shift. However, I have come to believe that acting from a place of fear cannot possibly bring love and joy into the world. Hearing the story of Ecover, from no less a source than the founder, Gnter Paoli, and how their quest to create a sustainable business led to the destruction of vast acres of orangutan habitat, renewed my belief that to create any real lasting change, the change has to take a systemic approach by targeting worldviews. Other changes are simply bandaid solutions which allow the broken system to perpetuate. I have renewed my commitment to loving and joyful education not only of school children but also of the public at large in order to change hearts and create a paradigm shift in how we view our relationship with the world and our interactions with each other.
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I believe it is extremely important that we all learn to live lightly on this planet. If everyone on the earth consumed as many resources as the average American, it would be impossible for the planet to support this lifestyle. It is vital that we change the nature of consumption in industrialized countries to more accurately reflect the carrying capacity of this planet. I want to empower people to live fulfilled lives and use fewer of the earths resources. I want to co-create a future in which people live in a manner that takes into account the resources available, and can be sustained for millennia. Background This section explores three key lines of thought that have influenced my worldview and my approach to making change. Holistic Science, nonviolent communication, and constructivist teaching are all bases from which I examine and understand the world around me. Holistic science inquiry Hardings (2006: 36) Jungian Mandala, Figure 1 provides a process of inquiry that Harding describes as the heart of holistic science. This Mandala is derived from Jungs cross the compass of the psyche (Jung, 1971: 60). Jung builds his compass using his proposed psychological functions, thinking, feeling, sensation, and intuition (Jung, 1971: 6) In Psychological Types Jung (1971) explains the relation between these functions. One can use either thinking or feeling in order to reason and make judgments. One can use either sensation or intuition to build irrational perceptions. Thinking is a judgment made based on reason: connecting concepts and ideas together. Feeling is a judgment made based on subjective experience. Perception based on Sensation comes directly from the sense perception of external and internal stimuli. Perception based on intuition comes unconsciously as a whole, as instinct; it is not possible to discover where or why this perception forms. The aim of the holistic scientist is to hold all these ways of knowing at the same time when exploring natural phenomena in order to see them in a new way.
Intuition Thinking Sensing Feeling

Figure 1: Jungian Mandala showing the relationship between the ways of knowing (Harding, 2006: 36). Our world faces many problems. Climate change and peak oil are two primary problems that have been discussed at length at Schumacher College, and which holistic scientists are trying to address in many ways. My own holistic inquiry, using these four ways of knowing, has lead me to choose games as a method of alleviating climate change and shifting our reliance from oil. I have sensed the joy, connection, and gratification that come from game play. I had an intuition that games were a powerful tool that could be used to change the way people see the world. I thought and learned about how games could be used to influence the way people behave. I felt
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that this would be a fun and exciting way to have a positive effect on the world. From this inquiry, I have set out to demonstrate that one could make a game that would encourage compassionate thought and action, and thereby create social change. Nonviolent communication I believe our society has lost many structures and rituals designed to nurture and support the individual and the community. There are many different areas which affect community; I believe that the ability to communicate is key to creating lasting nurturing communities. In our society we are often told not to complain or make a fuss, if we do not like something we must get over it. If someone has hurt us, however unintentionally, we tend to let this build into resentment rather then risking a confrontation. I have seen how damaging that can be to friends, family, and communities. In my own life, I have come across a powerful tool which I believe can go a long way to enabling open and productive communication that supports community life: Nonviolent Communication. Marshall Rosenberg (2003) has written a book outlining the process he has termed nonviolent communication. The key essence of nonviolent communication is empathy, understanding, and compassion. Although there is a process to aid in reaching these states, the process can be discarded once the practitioner can develop compassion for those they communicate with. The process of nonviolent communication has three or four steps. First, one makes observations. These are factual statements about the event in question. Then, one characterizes the feelings which arise out of the described situation. Then, one identifies the needs which accompany these feelings. Then, if appropriate to the situation, one can make a request. This must be concrete and achievable. The person making the request must also be open to having the request refused and the process continue. For example When I see your socks left out on the floor, I feel frustrated, because my need for consideration is not being met, would you be willing to put your socks in the laundry basket when you take them off? This process, especially the stating of need, allows the other person to understand and identify with the reason behind the emotions. An extremely important distinction made in nonviolent communication work is the difference between a need and a strategy. A need is the motivation, while a strategy is our way of meeting the need. For example: comfort is a need; getting a hug is a strategy. A hug is not the only way that one could receive comfort, but it is the strategy that we have come up with in order to receive comfort. We often confuse needs and strategies and this distinction is a core aspect of how nonviolent communication changes our attitudes. Another important aspect of nonviolent communication is that participants reach a win-win situation rather then a compromise. In a compromise both parties are giving something up. In a win-win solution, both parties are getting their needs met. Nonviolent communication has made a large impact on my life, and in the way I relate to others. I believe nonviolent communication is a tool which will allow for communities to form and sustain themselves in the face of conflict. I would like to see nonviolent communication introduced at a young age so that people could be fluent in this method of communication by

adulthood. I believe that by weaving aspects of nonviolent communication into games, people will become more aware of their own thought patterns and more able to identify their needs. Introduction to constructivist thought My background is in teaching. As a teacher, my primary influence has been a constructivist philosophy of education. I therefore tend to examine any form of concept transfer through this lens. As this paper focuses on pedagogy, it is important to understand the framework from which I am operating. The term constructivist is a general term referring to a pedagogical practice wherein student ideas are expanded and built upon. Developmental level is important to constructivist teaching; the teacher must direct teaching to students operative cognitive level. The instructor presents concepts in a way that can be processed given the students cognitive level. The teacher tries to advance the cognitive level by setting up situations for the students to confront differences between accepted scientific frameworks and the frameworks they hold. An important element of this theory is that there are pre-concepts which are acquired in the process of creating an understanding In constructivist thought, rather than the view of a student gathering or banking knowledge, the acquisition of knowledge is seen as a developmental sequence. This idea was first proposed by Baldwin and continued by Piaget who has done extensive work in this field. In a process termed equilibration, multiple disequilibrations and reequilibrations lead from a state near equilibrium to a different state which is equilibrium. Jean Piaget is one of the originators of constructivist theory of education. Many of Piagets pioneering insights have held up to experimental testing and remain foundational to the field. Piagets (1985) concept of equilibration is of great importance to understanding the acquisition of knowledge. Equilibration is a process of assimilating ideas, then accommodating them into a conceptual framework. Concepts gained through experience are assimilated into previous ways of understanding the world. When these concepts do not match existing frameworks, disequilibration is created. Disequilibration requires accommodation. This occurs when an assimilated scheme is applied in a different context. This happens in three ways: (1) assimilation of objects into schemes of action, (2) coherent subsystems assimilating to and accommodating with each other, and (3) integration of these subsystems into the major framework. After accommodation the learner goes through reequilibration. This is the act of settling into either a new or a previous state of equilibrium. The equilibration concept provides the basis for many constructivist ideas, such as the notion that individuals construct their knowledge, and the idea that grappling with conflicting ideas lead to development. Piaget (1985) outlines that for these assimilations and accommodations to occur, the child must go through a process of discovery. A schema is a structure for dealing with a particular situation. It is thought that this discovery must be catalyzed by incongruities between schemas. A childs first developmental step requires that he or she build schemas to accommodate the external reality of the world. The action of the subject equilibrates with the property of the object, enabling the subject to utilize the object. Systems are created from cycles of subsystems, which are structurally analogous but ordered hierarchically. Within a system, the subsystems equilibrate through conservative interactions. Subsystems develop at different speeds, depending
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on experience. Because of this, they have inherent incongruities to overcome. A child must figure out how subsystems relate and how they interact with each other. When a child has separate systems for dealing with different situations, a time will come when she or he will need to combine these into a large framework of interacting systems that allow further exploration of the world. This framework of interacting systems is reached when an individual achieves a level of reasoning not contained in any of the existing systems. The need for this coordination of systems arises when a child confronts a problem for which he or she does not have a schema. Presented with this obstacle, the child must combine the systems she or he has developed. This is Piagets law of composition. Piagets (1985) concept of reflective abstraction is at the center of his ideas on equilibration. In the process of equilibration, in which one reflects and builds on simpler structures to create different more advanced structures, reflective abstraction is the process through which coordination is achieved. Knowledge is reprocessed using less complicated structures within coordinations of more complicated structures. Any structure will be, in turn, used to develop a more advanced structure. Introduction How can we design a game that not only motivates people to specific action but which changes the way we view, think about, and act in the world? Is it possible to develop a game that is fun, engaging, and marketable which brings about a greater sense of compassion that extends to life outside the game? Can a game present information in a way which will encourage an examination of behavior or values? Can a game empower people in a way which will motivate them to live their lives in a way more congruent with their beliefs? Can games create a positive feedback loop, increasing happiness, which will increase positive action for the world? I am interested in addressing social change. Our society is afflicted with many problems and inequalities. Some of the major societal issues I would like to work towards alleviating are depression and apathy, overconsumption, prejudice, and lack of access to necessary resources and services. I believe these are at the heart of many of the more specific problems such as environmental destruction, high levels of incarceration and other social issues. I believe that addressing social interaction is a powerful way to improve many of these conditions. Our society ascribes value using currency. The environment is a resource to exploit either for raw materials or for the commercial value of sightseeing. Economists trying to create reasons to protect the environment have tried to put value to even things such as fresh air. We need to understand the intrinsic value of being stewards of the world. We often see others as competitors in school or the work place; it is dangerous to collaborate because the people we work with might claim our ideas for themselves and we will not get ahead. We feel like we cant leave our cars unlocked and our bags unattended. We other people. People of different groups are not trustworthy, they do not have the same societal rules and regulations as we do, they dont know how to act. We fail to recognize that the majority of people are just like us. We need to relate to the people around us, see them as human beings who have morals and values rather than nebulous strangers capable of anything. If we meet the world with a vulnerable attitude rather then a defensive one we are more likely to build meaningful relationships and create community. If we are able to have compassion, to see that the people around us have similar goals and motivations for their lives, we can begin to connect. Why dont you talk to the person next to you
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in line? Why dont you forgive the person who cuts you off, even though when you do it you have a good reason? Why dont you smile at the construction workers as you walk by? It is important to change the way we think and feel, rather then focusing on changing actions. Our actions are based on our beliefs. If we just change peoples actions without getting them to think differently about things, the effect of changing their actions wont last, so we need to change how they perceive the world, and then empower them to act on their beliefs. The state of Modern Western social interaction Modern Western society creates spaces in which it is easy to be disconnected from other people and from the environment. As a general rule we live or aspire to live modular lifestyles. The culturally accepted norm is that each nuclear family has its own home, in which they live a life separate from neighbors and extended family. Within the home, bedrooms often serve as separate living spaces for each member of a family. Each bedroom often has its own entertainment selection consisting of a combination of music device, telephone, computer, and television. Each member of a family often has their own vehicle allowing them to participate in separate activities outside the home. People are also isolated while traveling to their daily activities, such as work or school, either by the use of a personal vehicle or a digital device. Workplaces have been divided as well; many people work at their own desks, in their own cubicles, working on their own projects. Our modular lifestyles separate us from the people around us. We have fewer casual interactions with strangers, the people around us who are not our co-workers, friends, or family. Social norms have increased this deficit of social interaction. There are fewer places where it is appropriate to engage and have meaningful interactions with strangers. In the U.S., especially, we live our lives in increasingly smaller, less dense households. In the last 50 years, there has been a steady decrease in average household size from 3.33 people in 1960 to 2.59 people in 2010 (Bureau of the Census, 2010). We are more physically separated from those we live with as well: in 1940, 20% of homes housed more than one person per room; in 1990 that had dropped to 1% (Bureau of the Census, 1990) Our activities are also unconnected from the people we live with. Not only do we have more space, but we have a greater array of personal entertainment options. In 2010, the average household size was 2.59 people (Bureau of the Census, 2010) while the average number of television sets per household was 2.93(Nielsen Media Research, 2010). In 2010, 76% of households had three or fewer people (Bureau of the Census, 2010) while 55% of households had three or more television sets (Nielsen Media Research, 2010). In 2009 the average number of vehicles per licensed driver was 0 .991 which suggests that many drivers have their own vehicle (Santos et al., 2011). A personal vehicle allows for independence. Not having to rely on sharing a vehicle allows for a greater number of individual activities. This data in addition to my own empirical observations paints a bleak picture of modern American society: children drive themselves to and from school, come home, sit in their rooms to watch TV, talk to their friends, or play video games until sleeping, and leave the next morning for school, with little necessity for interaction with other members of the family or community.

This is lower than the 2001 number of 1.06, 1995 1.00 and 1990 of 1.01. In 2009 vehicles per worker was 1.39.

In our society, strangers are often viewed with suspicion, if not outright fear. Children are taught about Stranger Danger in schools; hitchhiking is seen as a risky pursuit; people never leave handbags unattended in public. Despite this apparent aversion to strangers, people are happier when they have positive interactions with strangers (McGonigal, 2009). Our lifestyles and our social norms inhibit our interactions with strangers. Games can and have been used to create spaces for coming together with strangers and having positive interactions (McGonigal, 2009) Allowing for positive interactions with strangers not only can increase happiness, but has implications for creating a sense of compassion. When a stranger becomes a companion, it can shift perception. It may be possible to shift from seeing strangers as people we have no reason to interact with, to people whom we have the potential to create relationships with. If we have more frequent positive interactions with strangers it is possible that we might be more able to identify with people who we do not know, seeing them as potential allies rather than people who do not matter. The Empty Self There is extensive literature on the phenomenon that people in our culture are becoming less and less satisfied with their daily existence and the problems that follow from this discontent. In his examination of The Empty Self, Cushman (1990)2 states that individuals in our society suffer from alienation and loss of community. He goes on to argue that there is a sense of emptiness which comes from a society that lacks many of the social support networks which we need. We have lost many of the societal structures which help us create meaning and a sense of purpose. Our current social norms have alienated us from our family, our community, and tradition (Levin, 1987; Rieff, 1966; Zaretsky, 1976, cited in Cushman 1990). Cushman argues that these support networks are crucial to stable mental health and well-being and the lack of these has in great part led to the sense of Empty Self prevalent in our culture. This sense of emptiness leads to factors implicitly involved in the destruction of our world and society. Cushman (1990) suggests that overeating, drug use, consumer consumption and the ability to be manipulated by charismatic leadership can all be linked to Empty Self. Obesity caused by overeating, drug-crime facilitated by drug use, and environmental destruction caused by the overuse of resources, along with a system managed by charismatic politicians rather than politicians who create real social change can be pointed to as major social ills. It is therefore important to examine and alleviate this sense of emptiness which is prevalent in our culture. If we can address the issue of the empty self, we will be making steps towards alleviating these problems in a meaningful and lasting way. In addition to addressing the problem of the Empty Self, we need to address the problem of disenfranchisement and apathy. Many people worry about societal and environmental issues. They often want to make an impact and know ways to do it. It is not enough to know what we should do; we also need to act on this knowledge. We need to make the changes in our lives that we want to make. For example, we need to be able to drive less, use fewer animal products, avoid plastic bags, vote, boycott, and write to companies and legislators sharing our opinions. There are many things people know they should and want to do but still do not. How can we form communities and create connections between strangers? How can we teach people
Mary Jane Rust introduced me to Cushman and his ideas on Ecopsychology, the 5 th module of Schumacher Colleges masters in Holistic Science.
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to be kinder and more connected to those around them? How can we motivate people to act on the beliefs they hold? How can we empower people to feel like they can act and that their actions will make a difference? All the doom and gloom messages about why we need to act are not empowering and affirming. What would give us a sense that change is possible and that we are the agents that will make that happen? Games are powerful tools, which can help motivate and inspire the confidenceself-efficacy that we need to change the way we live. Education as healing I believe that education is one way that we can heal the Empty Self created by our culture, not only education in schools but education for the wider public as well. We have lost the social structures and mechanisms that give us strength and support and we now need to learn new tools for creating meaningful and satisfying lives. We have for the most part lost mechanisms for working together with open and honest communication, we have forgotten how to be vulnerable and accepting. We have lost the faith that we can make change in our own lives as well as in the world around us. I believe games are an effective way to a educate which empowers and connects people in our society. Games used as a pedagogical tool will work towards healing the Empty Self thereby healing society and the planet. Timeless learning There have been many efforts to define and create educational models that address issues of wellbeing. David Orr, Nel Noddings, and John P. Miller are among many educators who have seen the need for a new type of education that nurtures all the human beings involved. In Educating for Wisdom and Compassion, Miller (2006) outlines an educational model for timeless learning. Miller (2006) wishes education to create a greater sense of satisfaction and fulfillment. He believes that to do this education must grow and nurture the whole human being rather than solely fill the student with important knowledge. Although enabling people to be fulfilled and satisfied is not exclusively the preview of religion or spirituality, spiritual traditions have invested much attention to this area of life; therefore, Miller (2006) rightly looks to the spiritual and religious traditions to discover useful practices. Miller (2006) wishes to add these practices to our current educational model to create a more nurturing educational environment, an environment where timeless learning can take place. Aspects of timeless learning are letting go, attention, compassion, and contemplation practices deeply rooted in the perennial philosophy3. Miller (2006) demonstrates that timeless learning leads to a sense of joy, wholeness, awe, wonder, and purpose. Miller (2006) believes it is possible to create experiences that are more likely to produce timeless learning that specific characteristics can promote timeless learning. According to Miller (2006) an experience that is likely to encourage timeless learning would allow for the mysterious and unexplainable; such an experience would be transformative, embodied, holistic/integrative, connected, non-dualistic, participatory, soulful, and flow
The elements which Miller (2006:16) uses to define the Perennial philosophy are 1.There is an interconnectedness of reality and a mysterious unity (e.g., Huxleys divine Reality) [Huxley, 1970: ivv, cited in Miller (2006)] in the universe. 2. There is an intimate connection between the individuals inner self, or soul, and this mysterious unity. Knowledge of this mysterious unity can be developed through various contemplative practices. 4. Values are derived from seeing and realizing the interconnectedness of reality. 5. This realization can lead to social activity designed to counter injustice and human suffering.
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producing. He believes that an experience that contains even a few of these characteristics creates the conditions for timeless learning. Timeless learning enables people to live more fulfilled and content lives. If one of our goals as a society is to have fulfilled and happy people it is important to examine how our educational model can support timeless learning. The characteristics outlined by Miller (2006) are helpful guidelines for enhancing education and creating a new educational model. Transformative education has the objective of producing a profound change in the way participants viewed the world. Education that values embodied learning encourages people to live in a way that is congruent with what they believe. Holistic education develops the emotions, body, soul, spirit, and intellect. It is important for education to nurture a sense of connection between these five internal elements, and foster a sense of connection to external elements such as other people and the environment. This educational model would develop a sense of connection between the individual and these elements of themselves, and strive to grow a sense of connection with the external world. Education that demonstrates a non-dualistic perspective promotes the view that the individual is a part of a larger systemthat the individual and the world around them are not separate. In participatory education students and teachers share the experience and co-create knowledge. Soulful education sparks passion and inspiration. Miller (2008: 7) defines soul as the vital and mysterious energy that can deepen meaning and purpose. Timeless learning touches this part of the student, in Emersons (1990, cited in Miller, 2008: 8) words, [it sets] the hearts of their youth in flame. This brings the student to a greater understanding of how they fit into the world around them. It is important for education to induce states of flow4. During a state of flow ones attention is utterly focused and directed. Csikszentmihalyi (1997) states that this directed attention is necessary for complex learning. Timeless learning is encouraged by leaving room for the unexplainable. There are some things in the world that are mysterious and unknowable; we can explain how things happen but not why. An understanding that not all things can be known instills awe and wonder in the student. Miller believes that the type of knowledge or understanding gained by timeless learning is immeasurable. It would be hard to pin down a specific outcome of a timeless learning experience. It is impossible to measure the depths of learning one gets out of an experience such as motherhood or a walk in the woods there is no way to measure the learning encapsulated in these experiences. Miller (2008) has outlined for us what qualities are important in an educational model. There are many aspect to an educational model, what to teach and when, the educational structure etc. My focus is on pedagogy. In a situation where we are trying to teach deep understanding and promote cognitive development, I think it is less important what we teach, then how. If we teach about the value of co-creating knowledge in a didactic manner, it becomes a pointless lesson. The next question becomes: how can we teach in a way that intrinsically incorporates these characteristics? To answer this question it is important to find activities which demonstrate these characteristics. One of the most powerful activities that I have found is playing games. Games exhibit many of these characteristics; they are powerful pedagogical tools for education that foster feelings of satisfaction and fulfillment.
Also named optimal experience (Csikszentmihalyi,1992: 39) flow is the state of total immersion in an activity. A joyful state of complete focus and concentration during which one is so involved in what they are doing that nothing else seems to matter (Csikszentmihalyi,1997).
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Games to create timeless learning Games are a transformational experience. Not only do they superficially transform us by creating alternative realities and giving us characters and roles to play, they change our sense of what is possible. When we play games we feel confident and optimistic (McGonigal, 2011). Playing games gives us a feeling known as eustress5, or positive stress. When we feel eustress we feel competent and capable. This feeling leads us to be willing to take more risks and believe more is possible. Trying for the impossible leads to the gaming experience of epic win6. McGonigal (2011) describes epic wins as crucial to the transformative power of games. Epic wins help people to see that no matter how unlikely something is it is in fact possible. Experiencing an epic win encourages an optimistic perception about whether unlikely things can happenthey expand our notion of what is possible. Games can be a vehicle for getting people to embody their beliefs. A profound example of this is the game World Without Oil. This six week long game asked players to imagine what would happen if there was an extreme shortage in the supply of oil. Changing behavior was not an explicit part of the game. There was no requirement for the players to do anything differently in their real lives, but after the game many players reported that the game had changed the way they lived. A group of people who knew that there will be disastrous effect if we run out of oil, and who knew that conserving oil is important if we wish to avoid that future, were inspired to finally make substantive change in their lives. Games are holistic they tend to combine the use of soul7, emotions, body, and intellect. A good game inspires and engages the participants. The players use empathy to be able to find common ground with others in order to succeed. They experience the elation of triumph and the disappointment of failure. There is often a physical component to games requiring players to use fine motor control, apply brute strength, or communicate without vocalization. Most games require some sort of planning or strategy that requires the use of the intellect. By combining all of these elements, games develop and integrate these different parts of the player. Because of the intrinsically collaborative nature of games, they are connected, non-dualistic, and participatory. By working together to co-create an outcome players realize that they are part of a larger whole and that they are connected to every other person in that system. Games are soulful; they get people fired up and enthusiastic. Games can create a passion for something that would otherwise be dull and uninteresting; such as endlessly fitting one shape into another, as in the traditional 2D puzzle video game, Tetris.
Eustress (Selye, 1984), is stress we feel good about. Hard work that we have to do causes us to feel stressed, we feel insecure about our ability to accomplish the task and we fear failure which puts us into a negative mind frame. McGonigal (2011) explains that games are hard work that we have chosen to do; we do this because games are intrinsically interesting. Because we have chosen to do this work we feel Eustress. Eustress creates a positive mindset, we are optimistic about our ability to complete the task, we know we will learn from any failure we encounter. 6 Epic win is a gamer [a person who identifies as a player of games, most commonly video game] term. Its used to describe a big, and usually surprising, success: a come-from-behind victory, an unorthodox strategy that works out spectacularly well, a team effort that goes much better than planned, a heroic effort from the most unlikely player. (McGonigal, 2011:Kindle Locations 4031-4032) 7 As defined by Miller (2008).
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Games have all the elements required to create environments in which people are likely to experience flow. The experience of flow is one of the primary pleasures that come from game play. Erik M. Gregory (2008) has used Csikszentmihalyi (1997) to outline specific internal and external conditions that an experience needs to meet in order to create a state of flow. An activity is likely to get the participant into a flow state if it is intrinsically rewarding, and has a clear goal, immediate feedback, and challenges that match the skill level of the participant. If the participants are in flow they are in deep concentration, forget their problem, feel in control, lose self-consciousness, and have an altered sense of time. Games, especially video games, create ideal circumstances for players to enter into flow states. Games are intrinsically rewarding because they are enjoyable. People play games regardless of external rewards such as monetary gain or approval. External rewards often come with game play, but when players are concentrating on these external factors they tend to lose focus and flow. All games also have clear goals. The objectives set out by the game enable all players to identify their specific goals. Games have feedback. It is easy for a player to know when they are succeeding or failing. If a player misses the basket, they receive feedback that their aim was off. The feedback from video games, due to their ability to change difficulty in real time and provide instant visual evidence of accomplishment, is uniquely able to provide many instances that lead to flow and create a sense of gratifying achievement (McGonigal, 2011). Flow occurs when the challenges of a task match up to the skill level of the person doing it. When challenges and skills are not aligned people have the tendency to feel uninterested and unfocused. If the task is too difficult, the participant will feel frustrated and stressed. If the challenges are too simple, the participant will feel bored and anxious (Gregory, 2008). When the skills the participant has are equal to the challenges they must perform they become motivated and engaged. Games are good at providing suitable challenges for players. Players can choose to play games that match their skill level. There are many ways to modulate the difficulty level of a game. Choosing opponents and teammates is a way to alter a game so that it more accurately matches the players skill level. Video games are excellent at being able to keep challenges on par with skill level. Video games often have difficulty settings which allow players to choose their own challenges. They also have levels that get increasingly harder over time. As the player builds up skills by completing all the tasks in their current level, they go on to a more challenging level. Some video games have real time difficulty where the better the player is doing in the moment the more difficult the game becomes. The game playing experience leads to states of deep concentration and focus, as anyone who has tried to talk to someone playing a video game will recognize. Any external stimulus is blocked out as an unnecessary distraction; this includes any thoughts on the world outside the game, such as preoccupations and feelings of self-consciousness. Because players skills match the difficulty of the game, the player feels a sense of mastery this leads to the player feeling in control of the games outcomes. Concentration that blocks out negative emotions and the empowerment of knowing that ones actions make a noticeable differences lead to flow being an extremely positive emotional state.

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Education and learning can be a grueling and enervating process. Fortunately, there are many ways to make education a satisfying and fulfilling experience. Games are an ideal way to create an educational space for timeless learning to occur. All the elements that enable timeless learning are intrinsic to game play or can be created in a game environment. Using games for teaching is a valuable way to build an experience that will make a lasting impact on students. How games teach Gentile et al. (2005) demonstrate that video games operate as extremely powerful pedagogical tools to change behavior and attitudes. They examine educational theory to see what educational characteristics best reinforce learning, they show that that video games have these characteristics and provide evidence that playing violent video games influences attitudes and behaviors. Because violence is the solution required by many games this builds a mindset that violence is a viable solution to problems. Gentile et al. (2005) argue that effective education has several attributes. Effective education teaches skills and knowledge in a way that allows students to make continuous progress as difficulty increases. It demonstrates that there are various ways of solving the same problem. This increases the likelihood that students will transfer skills to different applications. It provides gratifying stimulation which excites and motivates students. The reward for achievement is being presented with difficult challenges that require building on skills previously developed. Students are recognized for achievement by their peers. It is accessible to everyone regardless of background. Gentile et al. (2005) show that video games are successful pedagogical tools for several reasons. Games are active and participatory so that players take ownership over their actions and feel connected to their results. Games have clear objectives8. Having a clear objective allows players to know when they have succeeded which reinforces self-efficacy. The difficulty of games can adjust to and grow with the skills of the players9, when this is effective the player is kept at the edge of their skill level and never becomes bored when it is too easy, or frustrated when it is too hard. Games allow for practice which is accompanied by instant feedback10. The knowledge gained from this feedback can be immediately applied to further practice. In a game this practice continues until mastery is reached. Reaching mastery makes it more likely that individuals will remember more of what was learned more accurately in the future. (Bahrick, 1984; Ebbinghaus, 1885; J. R. Gentile & Lalley, 2003; Semb & Ellis, 1994; Willingham, 2004, cited in Gentile et al., 2005) Video games allow for over learning. Once mastery is reached the player continues practicing these skills; this allows for automaticity (Chase & Simon, 1973; Chi, et al., 1982, cited in Gentile et al., 2005). Gentile et al. (2005) point out that video games provide a mechanism for extrinsic and intrinsic rewards not only do games give points and scores but they give a chance for validation through accomplishment. Moreover in video games extrinsic rewards serve as an opportunity for feedback, which supports intrinsic motivation. Video games have levels of
8 9

Also an important requirement for a flow producing activity, which in turn supports learning. Also an important requirement for a flow producing activity, which in turn supports learning. 10 Also an important requirement for a flow producing activity, which in turn supports learning.

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increasing difficulty. In order to advance to a higher level a player must master the skills which will be required to achieve in the next level. This structure is analogous to that proposed in spiral curriculum design11 (Bruner, 1960, cited in Gentile et al., 2005). The spiral curriculum is effective because it creates meaning and purpose. Mastery is not an end in itself but a step on the way to using the skill in a meaningful way. In a video game it is easy to see how building skills will pay off and how the skills will be needed later in the game. Additionally surmounting a level and moving to another that requires greater skill is a form of feedback, allowing players to see their improvement and feel a sense of achievement, which builds self-confidence. Games promote different styles of practice as players often repeatedly practice the same skill over and over again in a single gaming session they do this until they have achieved some competence with it, they then practice it over the course of subsequent gaming sessions. The intensive repeated trials over a single gaming session represent mass practice, while practicing a skill, frequently over time represents distributed practice (Gentile et al., 2005). Mass practice allows the player to build the skill and distributed practice solidifies and commits the skill to memory, so that it need not be relearned each time. This combination allows for processes to become automated and integrated into a framework for understanding. (e.g., Ellis & Hunt, 1993; Anderson, 1983; Glaser, 1984, cited in Gentile et al., 2005). People usually play many different video games that require the same skill set; for example, a violent response is required by various situations in many video games. When the same knowledge and skills are required in different ways or different contexts they are more likely to be transferred to other contexts (Gentile et al., 2005). There are two primary reasons for this multiple contexts allow for an abstraction of the skill rather than merely the application of is as an algorithm to be applied to the specific situation (Bransford, et al., 1999, cited in Gentile et al., 2005). In addition, exposure to the information in different situations creates additional memory triggers for the recall of this information (Gentile et al., 2005). Gentile et al. (2005) point out that games have an additional advantage over conventional education: games are cool. Because video games are marketed and accepted in society performing well in video games is seen as important to social stature. This ability for video games to increase recognition by peers gives players additional extrinsic incentive to play and improve their game skills, whereas, it is often not cool to achieve academic success (Gentile et al., 2005). From this understanding of games and education Gentile et al. (2005) test three hypotheses. First, that people who play multiple violent video games are more likely to have aggressive attitudes and behaviors. Second, this learnt aggression is more likely to have a longterm effect if the lesson is distributed, if the violent game play happens over multiple sessions, even when total playtime remains the same. Their third hypothesis is that players who are addicted to video gaming are going to exhibit more aggressive attitudes and behaviors because of the operant conditioning created by the addiction. The study provided significant evidence for all three hypotheses.

The spiral curriculum model employs this advancement to more difficult tasks based on mastered skills (Bruner, 1960, cited in Gentile et al., 2005). The spiral curriculum in an expression of constructivist philosophy of education.

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Gentile et al. (2005) conclude that there are important lesson that educators can learn from how video games teach aggressive behavior: focus on a few key concepts which are to be mastered and overlearnt; use a spiral curriculum so that tasks use and build on previous knowledge and skills; provide students with challenges of increasing difficulty while motivating them to accept these challenges with both extrinsic and intrinsic rewards; find appropriate uses for educational video games to develop desired skills. Through the mechanisms outlined by Gentile et al. (2005) it is obvious that video games can affect attitudes and behaviors beyond the time frame of the game. It is therefore possible to assume that these same mechanisms could be applied to teaching attitudes and behaviors that benefit the person acting and society, prosocial behaviors12. Games as teachers of prosocial behavior The effects of video games on violent behavior have been extensively studied over the last decade. The general consensus of this research is that there is a relation between aggressive behavior and playing violent video games (Gentile et al., 2009). A few recent studies have begun to explore the effects of prosocial video games. These studies provide good evidence that there is a positive effect on prosocial behavior by games with prosocial13 content. Gentile et al. (2009) set out to make a comprehensive report the effects of prosocial video games on behavior. They completed three studies each looking at some aspect of prosocial behavior including helping behavior, cooperation and sharing, trait empathy and emotional awareness. Gentile et al. (2009) conducted three studies relating to this issue. The first was a correlational study of Singaporean 13 year olds. This study used questionnaires to assess the types of games played by participants and general social attitudes and behaviors. Participants were asked about their three favorite games, how many hours a week they spent playing, and how often players helped or hurt/killed other game characters. The questionnaires measuring prosocial/aggressive attitudes and behaviors covered helping behavior, cooperation and sharing, trait empathy, emotional awareness, approval of aggression, and hostile attribution bias (a measure of how often participants attribute actions of others to hostile intent). This study found that there was a statistically significant, positive correlation between prosocial video games and prosocial attitudes and behaviors, negative correlation between prosocial video games and aggressive attitudes, positive correlation between violent video games and aggressive attitudes, and a negative correlation between violent video game and helping behavior and trait empathy. Interestingly violent video games were not shown to have an impact on cooperation and sharing or emotional awareness, this is to be expected with the assumption that games are collaborative activities. The second study in this report was a longitudinal study in Japan with children in two samples the mean age in the first was 10.9 and in the second sample 13.6 and 16.6. These
Prosocial behavior is behavior which is generally beneficial to others (Penner et al., 2005) It is important to note that prosocial and violent behavior are not mutually exclusive. For example a game in which the players cooperate which is a prosocial behavior, to kill which is an aggressive behavior has both prosocial and aggressive messages. To further demonstrate this independence Gentle et al. (2009) provided evidence that violent games not only increase aggressive behavior and attitudes, but may decrease some prosocial behavior and attitudes as well. Results were mixed as to whether prosocial games decrease aggressive behavior and attitudes.
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children were asked how frequently in the last month, on a scale from one to five, they played video games which showed either of two scenes, characters helping others in trouble, and friendship or affection between parent and child. Participants were also asked in the previous month how often, on a scale from one to five, they performed one of four specific prosocial behaviors not reported in the study. They were asked these questions again four months later. Researchers used LISREL 8.5 to test competing models using maximum likelihood procedures. Prosocial game playing reported at time one was predicted and shown to significantly correlate with prosocial behavior at time two. Prosocial behavior was shown to significantly correlate with prosocial gaming at time two. This provides evidence that this is an escalating process. This situation creates a positive feedback loop between playing prosocial games and prosocial behavior that these activities are reinforcing, so that if one participates in either of these activities their participation in the other will increase and will in turn participate more often in the first activity. The third study was an experimental study carried out on undergraduates, 19.2 years mean age, at a U.S. university. This study looked at the short-term effects of playing prosocial video games. Participants were given one of six rated E14 games which had been previously rated in a pilot test for the quantity of prosocial or violent content. Based on these ratings games had been assigned as prosocial, neutral, or violent, two of each type of game were used for this study. Participants played their game for 20 minutes. Following game play they were then told that they were going to assign a set of 11 puzzles for another participant. They were told that the other participant would receive a gift certificate if they were able to correctly solve 10 of the puzzles. The puzzles had three difficulty levels and the student could chose up to 10 puzzles of each difficulty level, they were asked to include multiple levels. Choosing easy puzzles was considered helpful behavior while choosing difficult puzzles was considered hurting behavior. Participants who had just played a prosocial game were significantly more likely to choose a greater quantity of easy or helpful puzzles then participants who had played either of the other game types, there was no statistical difference between helpful behavior from violent or neutral game players. Violent game players chose a significantly greater quantity of difficult or hurtful puzzles than other players. There was no statistical difference in hurtful behavior between prosocial and neutral game players. There were two games of each type and each game was rated on how much violent or prosocial content contained in the game. The amount of prosocial content in a game was significantly positively correlated with the quantity of helpful puzzles chosen. The amount of violent content in the game was significantly negatively correlated with the quantity of helpful puzzles chosen. The amount of violent content was significantly positively correlated with the quantity of hurtful puzzles chosen, whereas there was no statistical effect of prosocial game content on choosing hurtful puzzles. This study concludes that content is extremely important in examining the effect which video games have on the players. They also highlight that although most studies have concentrated on the effect of violence it is important to examine the effect of prosocial content as well. In their studies they have found a positive effect on prosocial behavior by games with
Titles rated E (Everyone) have content that may be suitable for ages 6 and older. Titles in this category may contain minimal cartoon, fantasy or mild violence and/or infrequent use of mild language. (ESRB, 2011)
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prosocial content. Gentile et al. (2009) argue for causality based on the triangulation of their three studies one experimental, one correlational and one longitudinal each examining a different age group and occurring in culturally different countries. These three studies all gave convergent evidence that prosocial behavior was affected by prosocial video games. In addition to the extensive literature on the lasting effects of violent video games the studies performed by Gentile et al. (2009) on the effect of prosocial gaming provide a basis for the assumption that a game designed with the intent to change attitudes and behaviors would likely succeed if the mechanisms outlined by Gentile et al. (2005) were applied to prosocial behavior. Games building self-efficacy Why is it that even after we have decided we wish to live life in a different way it is still difficult to change? There are many things that I personally would like to change about my lifestyle in order to live more lightly on this earth, I would like to buy fewer cloths, use cars less and eat less dairy. I know that these changes will make an impact and I believe that they are the right things to do yet I still do not make the change. I view it as extremely important to empower people to make the changes they wish to make in order to create social change; this is more important than convincing them to wish to make the changes I think they should make. The theory of planned behavior (Ajzen, 1985, 1987, cited in Ajzen, 1991) supports my belief that to support an intention to change it is important to develop self-efficacy, defined as a belief in ones own ability, The theory of planned behavior states that there are three predominant factors which lead to the intention to participate in a specific behavior: attitude, subjective norm and perceived behavioral control. Attitude is based on the persons own perception of the behavior. Subjective norm is the communal or societal norm, what the people around them believe about the behavior. Perceived behavior control is the degree of self-efficacy that the person has in respect to performing the behavior. A positive attitude, a subjective norm that the behavior is positive, and a positive perception of ones own ability to control the behavior lead to a strong intention to perform the behavior (Ajzen, 1991). Intention is highly predictive of actual execution of behavior when the perception of behavior control is not unrealistically high (Ajzen, 1988; Sheppard, et al., 1988, cited in Ajzen 1991). Therefore increasing the strength of the intention is likely to increase the occurrences of the behavior. Many people concerned about the environment are already aware of how their actions negatively impact the environment, but have not changed these actions. I hear many people say, I drive in an apologetic tone; this indicates that these people believe they should not drive but do so anyway. The reluctant driver believes, for example, that driving damages the environment and promotes resource wars. Their attitude towards not driving is positive which strengthens their intention to not drive. The reluctant driver has many friends who believe that driving is harmful, discuss the negative impacts of driving, and have given up their cars or avoid driving. However, the reluctant driver doubts their ability to live without the convenience of a car, that they are fit enough to cycle, and that they will have time to accomplish all things they need to do without the aid of a car. The reluctant driver supported by attitude and subjective norm still

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cannot stop driving because the driver does not see a valid alternative. This driver needs to feel that they are capable of living a car-less lifestyle. How can we promote self-efficacy and thereby empower people to action? If people believe that this action is necessary, that they have to do it, then they are doing it because of externally motivating factors such as societal pressure or potential environmental destruction. Acting from external motivation, as is the case when working, creates a fear of failure and a pessimistic outlook on ability to succeed (McGonigal, 2011). These activities have to become intrinsically motivating in order to create an optimistic perception of ability. Fortunately, games are intrinsically rewarding and thus are excellent tools for growing ones perception of personal potential. Creating a game around encouraging specific behavior can thus be an effective way to create self-efficacy and enable action. For example, the reluctant drivers could get together and plan an adventure where they leave work, pick up the kids, buy groceries and get home in time to cook dinner. They could decide to give each adventurer points for most creative methods, fastest time, or best meal. Then getting home without driving would be a fun and entertaining activity. In addition to the self-efficacy created in the game, it is self evident that self-efficacy is improved after having successfully experienced accomplishing the target activity. Games building community One of the important factors that Cushman believes has lead to the modern condition of the Empty Self is loss of community. Community is important to well-being; we need to rebuild community in our society in order for people to live more fulfilled, less consumptive lifestyles. Games not only bring together friends but can also bring together strangers to create new communities. Games often serve as community building activities and can be designed to enhance this aspect of game play. Games inherently build community by creating shared spaces where people of similar interest come together and collaborate in order to create an enjoyable experience. The creation of games leads to the creation of a community of people who play games gamers. Within this larger community there are communities of people who play different formats of games, people who play video games, board games, pen and paper games etc. Then there are communities of people who play different types of games within this, strategy games, first person shooter games, massively multi-player games. Then there is a community of people created by those who enjoy playing a specific game Call of Duty, World of Warcraft, Settlers of Catan. Then there is the more close knit community created by the teams formed to play these games. By their very nature as collaborative enterprises, games form communities of people around playing the game. The shared intentions and interests of people playing games form bonds between them. Cultures and social norms develop in these communities. A game could be designed to enhance the community building aspect of game play. This game could be designed to exploit the ability to create social norms in order to combat the Empty Self by creating social norms around nurturing and supporting others. Competition vs. Cooperation

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Competition is a predominant story in our society. We use competition as a framework for understanding the world and creating new systems. The necessity for competition is deeply embedded in our consciousness; it is seen as fundamental law that governs both society and the natural world. It is vitally important for us to be good at it. We ascribe our very survival and dominance as a species to our ability to compete. Intrinsic to the idea of survival of the fittest is the notion that we need to be competitive to survive. Survival of the fittest has even been taken out of the realm of evolution and applied to economic systems and personal gain. We view most situations through the lens of competition. We need to compete with each other to achieve in society, we need to have businesses that compete in order for our economic system to function. In order for our species to achieve ecological dominance it was necessary to out compete all others. Is competition a necessity or is it a choice we make? A basic predator-prey relationship provides a good example of how we choose the lens of competition to explain the world. The coyote needs to eat the rabbit in order to survive the rabbit will not survive if the coyote eats it, both animals are competing for their very survival. This is a very clear-cut case of competition; there is a definite winner and loser. At least that is how we have been trained to view this relationship. What would happen if the rabbit always won? The rabbits would over populate, destroy their own food supply, and there would be a population crash. Does the rabbit really benefit if it always wins? If we look at this situation systemically rather than looking at one rabbit and one coyote, we see how the predator-prey relationship balances out the ecosystem. The rabbits and coyotes are cooperating through the predator-prey relationship to balance the population of both species. Therefore, it is possible to see this simplistic predator-prey relationship as a cooperative enterprise rather than a competitive one. Competition is certainly an aspect of life, but to see it as an overarching rule of the universe narrows our view. We miss other elements of the situation when we focus too narrowly on competition. Many people see games as primarily competitive activities; in fact, games are concerted collaborative efforts that necessitate the cooperation of all players. Jane McGonigal (2011) a prominent game researcher and designer believes that collaboration is one of the predominant skills that games require and develop. McGonigal (2011) defines collaboration as a way of working which combine, cooperation, coordination, and cocreation. For McGonigal collaboration is the synthesis of cooperation, coordination, and cocreating. Collaboration occurs when people are working toward a common goal, sharing resources, managing who does what things when, and working to build a novel outcome. In her words, [games are] about creating something together that it would be impossible to create alone (McGonigal, 2011: Kindle Locations 4367-4368). Through collaboration, players build the abilities to create common ground, mutual regard, and collective commitment, and to share concentration, synchronized engagement, and reciprocal awards. Many of these are abilities are abilities which can lead to compassionate thinking. The case for games There are many social and environmental ills which people are working towards alleviating. Identifying a specific issue such as the river is polluted, and solving that problem by putting money and time into cleaning it, is a reductionist approach which is only effective to a
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limited extent. Educating people about the effects of pollution is another wider but still reductionist approach to this problem. A holistic approach must take into account the entire system which has led to this problem and address that issue. We must examine what aspect of the system allows this to happen. In my examination of societal problems, I have found that the core issues are alienation, loss of community, and deteriorating relationships. If people feel happy, worthy and loved they will need very little else. As a holistic scientist addressing the problem of climate change and peak oil, the only truly transformative systemic solution I can see to this problem is to facilitate people into a feeling of contentment. As one becomes happy, they will be kinder and will create community around them, and the people they touch will then go on to influence others. In this way, the healing of the individual will be amplified and expand to the healing of society and the environment. Telling people about the disastrous effects of their actions is not extremely effective. Not only is the perception of behavior only one aspect of behavior change in the theory of planned behavior, but dire messages might reduce the likelihood that people will stop this behavior. When presented with messages related to mortality, people react by continuing behavior related to worldview and self-esteem, and with indulgence in behavior that does not interfere with selfesteem. Studies have shown that death-related warnings on cigarette packages can actually encourage smoking in people who link smoking to self esteem. Being confronted with mortality activates a search for self esteem (Pyszczynski, et al, 2004 cited in Hansen et al., 2010). Building self-esteem is a coping strategy. It has been shown in many different situations that when confronted with mortality, people cope by attempting to bolster their self esteem (Pyszczynski et al., 2004; Taubman Ben-Ari,et al., 1999, cited in Hansen et al., 2010; Jessop, et al., 2008; Ferraro, et al., 2005). It is therefore reasonable to assume that when confronted with the message of drastic impending climate change which could result in the death of many people and species, people would employ the same coping strategies. Therefore, if driving their car and buying certain products are relevant to their self-esteem, they may increase these behaviors. In addition, people display indulgent behaviors when the indulgence not detrimental to their self-esteem (Ferraro et al., 2005), so that if body image is not essential to self-esteem, they may be inclined to be more indulgent and consume more food when reminded of their mortality. It is important to tread carefully if we want to give a message that changes behavior. Far from being transformative, a dire message which reminds people of their own mortality leads people to more firmly identify with, and act in accordance with, their current world view (Arndt et al., 2002). Therefore, if we want to change worldview and behavior, messages which remind people of their own mortality should be avoided. If we wish to avoid reminding people of their own mortality while still providing them with necessary information, a game, which is already actively increasing self-efficacy, may be a method of subverting the necessity for self-esteem boosting behavior. As individuals, we are suffering from symptoms of the Empty Self. A society that is made up of empty selves exhibits symptoms of Empty Self mirrored in the larger society, thus increasing the emptiness felt by individuals. Many of our major societal ills are perpetuated by the symptoms of Empty Self. Overconsumption, destruction of natural resources, drug use, obesity, and ineffective political structures have all been directly linked to Empty Self. The Empty Self leads to climate change by creating a sense of emptiness, which people fill with over-consumption thus leading to more resource use and production thereby increasing carbon
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dioxide emissions and our reliance on a petroleum-based economy. If we lived simpler lives with fewer material possessions and ate no more than the necessary amount of food, the petroleum use and carbon emissions that occur as a result of the production of our commodities would be drastically reduced. If we had close-knit communities and families, there would be support for those who could not work, and people would not be driven to live on the streets. If people did not feel the need to use drugs as a mechanism for coping with unhappiness, we would have less drug use, fewer people would be mentally and emotionally damaged by the direct effect of drug use, less violence would be perpetrated by drug users, families would not be broken apart by drug use and imprisonment and the vast cartels and gang networks which support the trafficking of illegal drugs would no longer be a source of violence and coercion. Healing the feeling of Empty Self in the individual has great potential to heal a society which is both a product and a perpetuator of this emptiness. Increasingly I see people on their phones in public or on their television sets or computers at home playing games. Many people think of video game playing as something that primarily young men engage in, but middle-aged women are an increasing market share (Radium, 2004, cited in Gurau 2008). My intuitive understanding of the role of apps and game play is as a form of self-medication. Games are extremely satisfying and gratifying experiences which are designed to put us into states from which we derive feelings of achievement and gratification. Cskszentmihlyi (1992) says that we are not very good at using our free time in a way that produces flow states, and we are therefore often more satisfied during our work day than during leisure time. The accessibility and prevalence of video games has filled this unsatisfying gap in our leisure time, and we now have access to extremely satisfying experiences whenever we want. As people are already using games to feel more connected, it seems logical that games could be designed with that intent specifically in mind. Pondering satisfaction people are already deriving from the accessibility of gaming brings this question to my mind: Would it be possible to design a game which builds community and creates connection between people in order to combat the empty self and heal individuals in order to heal society at large? Games for change Games have been around as a form of education since the first infant exhibited mimicking behavior. In the early 90s I remember learning how to type using Mario Teaches Typing. Using games as social tools is just beginning to take off in our modern context. Marketers have used advergames to persuade people to buy their products, Pick-Klop is a game to help smokers quit (Khazaal et al. 2010), SIMULME (Hansmann et al., 2005) and Learning Sustainable Devlopment (Torres & Macedo, 2000) are simulation games that have been used to teach people about environmental stewardship and responsible consumption, Deepak Chopra (2011) will be coming out with his game Leela in November 2011 with the aim of encouraging meditation, Cruel 2 B Kind is a game to boost positive social interaction (McGonigalMg, 2011), and World Without Oil allowed 2,000 players to invent solutions to living during to an oil crisis (World Without Oil, 2011). Building a game for social change

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The primary concern when designing any game has to be how fun it is to play. Although this has not been the focus of this paper, a game that would have mass social impact must strive to be as appealing as the most widely played video games. This would require attention to the aspects of game play that make games popular, in addition to the attention I have given to the aspect which makes games most beneficial. I would like to create a game that could be adapted as a video game, a board game, or a street game, so that it could reach as many people as possible. I believe that because of their popularity and adaptability video games have the most potential to influence the greatest number of people. Personally, I like playing games with other people in the same room as me I find this to be a much more satisfying social experience. With the rise of single player and online games, many video games have gone away from this mode of play. However, some recent games, such as Rock Band, have brought people back together for a real life game playing experience, enhanced by digital technology. Despite this I am still personally inclined towards games that are not focused around a screen. I think street games are an exiting format of game and have great potential to build community. Street games are physical games like tag or hide and seek, in that the players play with their own bodies rather then with a digital avatar or game piece. Because street games are played in specific locations with real people, they seem to have potential to build a community which could last outside the game space. In Reality is Broken, McGonigal (2011) describes a street game specifically designed to create positive interactions in a specific location. Cruel 2 B Kind is a specific street game designed to increase the jen ratio of a public space. Dacher Keltner (2009, cited in McGonigal, 2011) created a measure called the jen ratio to measure the social well-being of a shared space. The jen ratio simply takes the number of positive interactions between strangers and measures that against the number of negative interactions. In Cruel 2 B Kind, players are not aware of anyone else who is playing, players must build their teams by saying kind things to people in the streets. If a player says a kind thing to another player, the one who was spoken to must join the others team. The game ends when all players are on a single team. This game is an example of how street games can make a real impact on their location. It is interesting to consider how to apply ideas to multiple platforms rather than identifying and designing for a specific mode of play. A game to create social change must consciously build self-efficacy. People must choose to play the game because they enjoy it. One of the most inherently pleasurable aspects of game play is the experience of flow. Therefore, to maximize self-efficacy a game must maximize flow states. The game must be intrinsically rewarding by providing opportunities for improvement and achievement. The game must have a clear goal so that players know what they are working towards. The game must have immediate feedback so that players can feel satisfaction in their real time performance. Finally the game must have challenges that match the skill level of the participant. This game would have to be non-violent and prosocial in nature. When violence is required as a solution by games, this transfers to attitudes and behaviors beyond the game. As demonstrated by Gentile et al. (2009), however, non-violence is not enough to produce prosocial behavior. A game has to specifically require prosocial solutions in order for players to show greater prosocial behavior after the game.

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A game to promote compassion would demonstrate that traditional modes of competition are not always the best solutions. Through playing games, we have been taught that competition is a solution which works well. This is because many games have been designed so that competition leads to favorable outcomes. Sassenberg et al. (2007) studied the prejudicial effects of competitive tasks. In three different studies they showed how competitive tasks influenced prejudicial attitudes. They examined groups that are typically prejudiced toward each other: white Americans towards African Americans, East Germans towards West Germans, and unspecified Germans towards Muslims. They showed that prejudice was heightened not only when the out group was directly in competition with the participants, but even when the out group was not involved at all in the competition. Competition was also correlated with increased levels of prejudicial thinking immediately afterwards. The final study in this paper controlled for the effects of frustration and disappointment, which were possible factors in prejudicial thinking; however it was determined that these had no effect on the results. In addition to the research showing the lasting effect of violent behaviors and prosocial behaviors, these studies show that prejudicial attitudes are also demonstrated immediately subsequent to competition. A game to create social change would require solutions that are cooperative in nature. There need to be more games which require solutions other than competition or violence. In all games, players are presented with a set of obstacles. Often, other players are set up as obstacles, such as in competitive sports like basketball. In basketball, a player needs to skillfully get around the other players basketball would not work if players on opposing teams came to amicable solutions. The way the game is designed, it would not be a satisfactory playing experience: the goal in basketball is to get the ball in the hoop, but because the difficulty of getting the ball into the hoop is static, the challenge, and therefore interest, of the game comes from the presence of other players trying to prevent the ball from going into the hoop. Competition is not the only way to add interest to a game, however. When I was eight, I had an eye-opening experience about the advantages of cooperation. Our teacher broke us up into groups of two. The instructions were to arm wrestle for one minute, and for each win, the winner would receive a chocolate. We all struggled against our partner to win the chocolate. The teacher asked each person how many wins they had and gave then chocolate accordingly. No one received more then two chocolates. This was repeated a second time, with the same result. We played again, but I was thinking, how could we maximize chocolate acquisition? I asked my partner to not resist as I pushed her hand to the table, and then I told her to push my unresisting hand down. We managed to get quite a few wins in before the minute was over. It was interesting that we were so conditioned to the rules of the game arm wrestling that it took a while for us to reevaluate the situation to see that cooperating was truly most beneficial to us in this circumstance. We learned that competition is not always the best route to achieving a goal. Games represent the ultimate social contract. Everyone in the society formed by the game has to agree to rules and norms of behavior, or the game collapses almost immediately. In this way, games build an understanding of fair play and the importance of acting to uphold social norms. Engaging game spaces can be created that hold up social norms of planning into the future, caretaking of the community, and kindness to others. These aspects of the games social contract could affect the way people perceive the social contract outside the game space as well.

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A game to create social change would need to be developed with the intention of co-creating the social norms of the gaming community that would form around the game. A game to develop compassion I believe that compassion is an extremely important element in combating the Empty Self. Compassion has the ability to improve the lives of the compassionate and those receiving compassion. Compassion is likely to lead to kind interactions between people. McGonigal (2011) highlights the importance of kindness, [r]esearchers have shown that sharing the same space for even just a few minutes a day with kind and friendly strangers makes us more optimistic, improves our self-esteem, makes us feel safer and more connected to our environment, and generally helps us enjoy our lives more. And if we return the favor, we benefit as well: when we give to others, or act cooperatively, the reward centers of the brain light up (2011: Kindle Location 3134). How can we encourage more compassionate attitudes in our society? I believe games have great potential to create more compassionate thinking and action in our society. I see four primary mechanisms through which games can encourage compassion: through promoting kindness and prosocial behaviors, creating meaningful positive interactions with strangers, building self-efficacy so that people make the positive behavior changes that they wish to, and finally demonstrating that we live in an interconnected world and society and that all our action affect others. The Collins Concise dictionary (1995) defines compassion as a feeling of distress and pity for the suffering or misfortune of another. Miller describes compassion as boundless love, (Sutta-Nipata I49-I50, cited in Miller 2008:61). Miller says that compassion is a recognition that other beings want relief from suffering and genuine happiness (Miller, 2008: 60), [it] is rooted in seeing that we are all deeply interconnected (Miller, 2008: 60) . The Dali Lama has said that compassion [arises] without any effort, [and]is unconditional, undifferentiated and universal in scope. [It is] A feeling of intimacy towards all other sentient beings.( Dalai Lama XIV, 2000: 127-128).Lorne Ladner a clinical psychologist and director of the Guhyasamaja Buddhist Center says, in The Lost Art of Compassion (2004:15), that compassion is, a state of mind thats peaceful or calm but also energetic, in which one feels a sense of confidence and also feels closeness with or affection for others and wishes that they may be free from suffering such compassion can be directed toward one person or any number of living things. In his essay Positive Psychology & the Buddhist Path of Compassion (2011) Landner discusses how compassion has been represented in the psychological community and society. In our language we have strong delineations between feelings such as annoyance, anger, rage and hatred but do not have as clear distinctions between emotions such as concern, sympathy, empathy and compassion. He points out that psychological researchers also have largely neglected compassion, that there is no clinical definition of compassion, and very little research has been conducted on the causes for and results of compassion. Though the modern western academic tradition has overlooked this line of inquiry Landner points out that Buddhist monastic universities have found that the most powerful way of becoming happy is developing compassion (Landner, 2011:1).

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I often feel that the definition of compassion which comes from Dharmic traditions15 is too focused on suffering, that compassion can exist without the need for suffering and there for when building my own definition for compassion I omit suffering as a defining feature. In my mind compassion arises out of the ability to connect with other beings with an understanding that their motivations and desires are similar to, and as valid as, our own. It is the understanding that the way people act is the only option given to them by circumstance. The understanding that actions arise out of necessity or perceived necessity. Compassion is loving and accepting others for who they are. It is unconditional love that sees and accepts all aspects of a person. Compassion comes from seeing ones self as inextricably linked to the system which caused this person to be who they are. I believe the core of compassion is unconditional love and acceptance of the way things are. How can we create a game which will lead to people being kinder and more compassionate to each other outside of the game context? I imagine a game like Portal. Portal is a puzzle video game. The player is trapped in a room and has to shoot portals on the wall in order to get to the next room. There are various obstacles to over come which makes it difficult to get to the next room. As one plays Portal one learns new techniques which are applied in a more complex pattern in later rooms. The game I envision is played by two teams: each team has a separate goal and does not know the goal of the other team. Teams must work together to solve puzzles and accomplish tasks. Some tasks will be directly related to creating obstacles for the other team. For example, block the other teams path before that team reaches this point in the game. The last level will require that both teams work together, although neither team will know that this is the solution. One objective of the game will be to introduce some concepts from nonviolent communication. This game will focus on the difference between needs and strategies on various levels players will be each given separate tasks to accomplish which will represent needs. The most obvious way for each player to meet these needs, their strategy, will be in direct conflict with those of their teammates. Players will have to give up their identification with their strategy in order to fulfill their needs along with the needs of their teammates, creating a win-win situation. This skill will be needed again during the last level of the game when the same situation will be created with the opposing team. Teams will be required to set up obstacles for each other and will be aware of the obstacles set by the other team. These obstacles will be crucial to build the skills that the team will need in order to finish the game. By setting teams in direct opposition to each other I hope to create an othering of the opposing team. Competition in general sets up negative judgments of the other team (Sassenberg, 2007) and I hope that by tasking each team with actively obstructing the other this effect with be increased. In the final level of the game they will be required to figure out how to work cooperatively with the other team. This solution will be less evident if the teams are already in a competitive mindset. I hope that learning to cooperate with a group towards which active antipathy has been built up will create disequilibration (Piaget, 1985) and allow for greater learning. The team which had been the other, the enemy, will become the collaborator, friend. I hope that people will also realize that they would not have been able to learn the skills necessary to win without the obstacles which the other team put in their way. It is
15

Philosophies and religions originating from the Indian subcontinent: Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism

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much harder for people to have compassion for someone who has hurt them. This game attempts to simulate an environment where there has been a direct conflict. In order to win the game players must forgive each other and work together. This is a model of behavior I hope players will take out to their interactions in the wider world. I envision an exiting moment when both teams with different goals end up in the same room together, stuck not knowing how to go further. Both teams will try and fail to achieve their goal suddenly realizing that they need more people and knowledge or skills that they have not yet acquired. When the teams begin to communicate their goals seem mutually exclusive, until they communicate their objective and figure out a way that both teams can achieve the objectives and complete the game. I hope that people would walk away from this game feeling much like I did when I was arm wrestling for chocolate at the age of eight. The teams have been shown their underlying assumptions and knowing them, they will be able to grow. Discussion There has been much critique by game designers on the gamification of media. Sebastian Deterding (2010), a game designer and researcher, outlines many of the concerns voiced by game designers in their 2010 talk at Playful, a London-based game conference. Deterdings primary concern is that adding game elements to an experience to increase motivation does not create the same effect as a well-designed game. When non-experts design game-like features to improve an experience, they neglect the game mechanics that make a satisfying game experience. Games need to be playful and imaginative; people who add game features to non-game products often overlook this crucial point. Much of this criticism comes from the fact that marketers limit their game development to creating a system of awarding points to influence behavior. As has been discussed in this paper, points are an extrinsic reward and therefore not a primary motivating factor of game play. If points are the only motivating facet of an experience, many of the dynamics of a good game have been overlooked. Many of the misconceptions of how to design advergames comes from a 2001 study (Chen & Ringel, cited in Gurau 2008). Chen and Ringel recommend that games should be kept simple to promote continuous interaction. This analysis neglects flow, the primary engaging factor in games. Flow is not achievable if the game is too easy. Marketers have avoided making games which are challenging for fear of alienating consumers. Deterding believes it is important to stay true to the nature of games and focus on creating rewarding games. I agree that having a well designed and tested game is of primary importance. Although it has not been the focus of this paper, I love games. I love playing games. I am very picky about which games I think are fun and which are boring and useless. I think games should be challenging. I would not be happy with a game that was not well designed and fun to play. There is an industry devoted to how to make games fun. In this paper I have sought to add to what a game could be rather than to neglect what games already are. It is often thought that games, especially video games, are only played by adolescent boys, but games are increasingly acquiring new audiences. Not only are gamers continuing to play the games they love, but social network games and the ubiquity of handheld devices are bringing in players who would not identify as traditional gamers. Smartphone apps are bringing
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gameplay out of the obscurity of subculture and turning it into an accepted part of daily life. Industry has done extensive market research to find out the demographics of game players. In 2004 it was found that 66% of frequent game players are over 18, and that the mean age of these players was 28 years (D4 games, 2004, cited in Gurau 2008). An early 2004 industry market research study found that American women over 40 spend 41% of their online time playing games while men spend 26% of their online time playing games (Radium, 2004, cited in Gurau 2008). An important area for further research is in the field of cognitive development. It would be useful to have a scientific study of the concepts and pre-concepts in the domain of compassion. Understanding which pre-concepts lead to the concepts that make up a compassionate attitude would allow for specific attention to be given to teaching these concepts. A game could then be designed to bring a player through the pre-concepts to the concepts required for compassion. This game could also be designed to give an initial test to evaluate players' understanding before the game in order to start the game at an appropriate level. We are entering into a new age of interacting with information and each other. An age where game play is going to mediate many of our exchanges. We are on the cusp of this social shift. As marketers and the government become better game designers, they will become more adept at persuading and motivating us to the actions that they wish. Educators and activists must co-evolve with this gaming society. It is important to have games that teach people to think for themselves, rather than be blindly influenced by a satisfying experience. It is important to teach media criticism and media savvy so that we do not blindly accept the messages presented in games. It is important to become self aware of the subtle lessons and effects that games have on our attitudes and behaviors. Conclusion Games have been shown to create a lasting effect on the behavior of players; this has implications for their effectiveness as useful mechanisms for social change. By changing attitudes and behaviors, games have the potential to change the way we relate to each other, create connections between people, and build community. Strong communities serve as support networks for the individuals in them, so that healthy communities lead to fulfilled people. Fulfilled people consume less and have a smaller effect on the planet. In this way games can help to alleviate the environmental destruction that we see around us.

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