RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

Module 1 Nature and scope of RM Research can be generally defined as a systematic method of finding solutions to problems. Research refers to a search for knowledge or facts. search and search again Robert Ross. Research is essentially an investigation, a recording and an analysis of evidence for the purpose of gaining knowledge It is the science of studying the way research is undertaken scientifically to solve the research problem systematically It involves, 1. The purpose of undertaking the research study 2. The way research problem is defined 3. The way hypothesis is formulated and the purpose of formulating it 4. Method of collection of data 5. Nature of the data gathered 6. Justification of the techniques adopted for analysis of data and many other related issues Research is a systematized effort to gain new knowledge. Research is a process of enquiry and investigation. It helps to solve problems and increase knowledge. One of the main purposes of research is to review the existing knowledge and provide solutions to problems Types of researches 1. Exploratory research- done when few or no previous studies of the subject exists
2. Descriptive research to classify and identify the characteristic of a subject

3. Experimental research suggests or explains why or how some thing happens. Thus one of the primary aims of research is to explain new phenomenon and generate new knowledge The specific approach to the research is called the methodology-

1. Quantitative research approach- collecting and analyzing numerical data 2. Qualitative Research approach- more subjective in nature

Research design Before beginning to conduct a research, one must formulate an effective design. A research design is a systematic plan for collecting and utilizing data so that the desired information can be obtained with sufficient accuracy. There fore research design is a means of obtaining reliable, objective and generalized data. Objectives of Research The principal objective of research is to find solutions to problems systematically. Objectives are the following, 1. to acquire familiarity with a phenomenon 2. to study the frequency of dependence or independence of any activity or occurrence 3. to determine the frequency of the occurrence of the individual or group activities and to describe their characteristics
4. to test a hypothesis about the casual relationship that exists between variables

Types of research
1. Fundamental research- in order to identify certain important principles in a specific field. E.g. Maslows hierarchy of needs theory of motivation

2. Applied research- aims at finding a solution to an immediate problem- suggests corrective method s to minimize a problem
3. Historical research- studies bygone social effects that may have given rise to current situations 4. Formulative or exploratory research- mainly concerned with the principles of developing hypothesis and testing with statistic tools.

5. Experimentalrelationship

casual

relationships

are

established-

cause

and

effect

6. Ex post facto- it is conducted to deal with a situation that occur in and around an organization- failure of a product in a market

7. Case study. This method undertakes an intensive research that requires a thorough study of a particular unit

Nature of a good and effective research is as follows 1. Objectivity-objective in offering solutions and not subjective 2. Control- a good research is capable of controlling all the variables 3. Universality- the result of the research can be universally applied
4. Free from personal bias- objective- free from the personal bias of the researcher

5. Systematic- a good research will have several well planned steps that are interconnected and logical.
6. Reproductively- is able to obtain the same methodology for conducting investigations.

result by using identical

Scope of Research Area of application 1. Finance budgeting and investments 2. Purchasing , procurement and exploration
3. Production ,management

*physical distribution * Facility planning * Manufacturing planning 4. Research and development Value and cost information Information can be defined as processed data, which helps in decision making and facilitates communication within the organization. Information has different degrees of values- e.g. A lorry driver about to hit a child who crosses the road, same time feels the itching on his head, prioritizes the information and applies break and only then scratches the head. The value of the information is determined based on the benefits that are derived from the information

Cost of information Cost of information determines the cost involved in obtaining the information, includes Cost of acquiring the data Cost of marinating the Data Cost of generating the information Cost of communicating the information Research process The process of research can be implemented as series of actions or steps that are essential to be performed in a specific order.

Steps 1. Select the topic 2. Define the research problem 3. Mention the objective of the research 4. Survey existing literature- review of literature 5. Determining the sample design 6. Collect the data 7. Execute the project
8. Analyze the data

9. Test the hypothesis

10. Generalize and interpret

11.

Prepare report a. Preliminary pages

b. Main text c. End matter Module 11 Research Design It is a plan of the proposed research work. Miller; Research design is the planned sequence of the entire process involved in conducting a research study. It is guide in collecting and analyzing the data. Bernard S Philips. The research design constitutes the blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. It aids the scientists in the allocation of the limited resourses by posing crucial choices. Criteria of a good research design 1. Objectivity When a phenomenon is observed in its true form without being affected by observers views it may be termed as objective observation. Eg. Milk is white objective, milk is the best drink on earth. Subjective 2. Reliability Reliability refers to consistency through our series of measurements. Frame the questions in such away that the respondent gives the same answered 3. Validity; The researcher must make sure that any measuring instrument selected by him is said to be valid when it measures what it is supposed to measure

4. Generalization Most research is concerned not only with the effect of one variable upon another under the particular setting studies, but also with its effect in a natural setting and on a larger population Types of research Designs
1. Exploratory or fomulative study

The main purpose is to formulate a problem, for more precise investigation. Such study can have other functions as well, namely discovery of facts, insights and priorities for further research 2. Descriptive study It portrays the characteristics of a particular situation, group or communities. The main objective of descriptive design is to acquire knowledge. 3. Diagnostic study It is concerned with discovering and testing certain variables with respect to their association or disassoctiation.A diagnostic study begins with a present social problem and tries to find out relationships between causes and presents a diagnostic problem. 4. Experimental study It is the blue print of the procedures that enables the researcher to test hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationship between independent and dependent variables. Various forms Single group design, parallel group design, rotation group design and factorial design.

Steps in Preparing a Research Design A research design usually comprises of the following major of steps. Selection of Research Problem The research Problem may be selected from the following sources: 1. Theory 2. Every day problem 3. Technological changes 4. Unexplored areas 5. Discussions with supervisor

The selection of research problem depends on whether research is being conducted for obtaining a degree or it is for academic interest. If the research is for Master degree level, M.Phil . Or Ph.D., the problem may be more specific and limited in scope and may offer itself for completion with in a specify time. On the other hand if the research is for

academic interest, time should not be a binding factor. Here the sole objective is to enrich the knowledge through the application of advanced research methods special assignments, research reports and articles may suggest some additional areas of needed research.

Title of the research project The title should be brief, precise and should project the scope of the problem in generalized terms. Purpose of the study The purpose of any research is the acquisition of knowledge. A brief mentioned of the significant of the study area in the present context of social life should attempted highlighting the main purpose which prompted the investigate to take up the present study. Review of literature As a next step the researcher should go through all the existing literature relating his problem. This is essential to know whether the problem has already been investigated before .If so how and to what extent. Through the review, the researcher will get acquainted with the different areas covered by various studies. Finally a critical appraisal of previous studies is more meaningful, useful and correct approach in any field of investigation.

Statement of the problem Once the researcher is able to get a complete knowledge of the subject under study from various sources, he must be in a position to state his research problem in unambiguous and more precise terms. He should be very clear in his plan of research.

Scope of the investigation The researcher should decide in the very beginning as so what he is going to investigate. He should take into consideration the time, money available to him availability of sample, his ability to collect information from the despondence etc. Once the scope of the investigation is delimited, the investigator will report the scope in explicit terms while giving out the limitation of his study.

Objectives of study

If the researcher lacks a clean understanding of the purpose of his research -its theoretical and practical implication, he is likely to be insensitive to the nature of the problem to be studied, the type of data needed, the appropriate approach and the level of precision required. Care has to be taken that the objective s of the study are well within the scope of the investigation envisaged by him. Concepts and variables used in the investigation It is desirable that the research worker should make himself familiar with the concepts normal and operational definitions used in the investigation. He should also possess the intimate knowledge of the variable that is to be applied to the problem. In the absence of such knowledge of the concepts and variables the researcher is likely to commit methodological errors and the deduction drawn by him may not be sound Selection of hypothesis Hypothesis are tentative solution to a problem. The success of a research study depends upon how best hypothesis has been selected by the researcher. The hypothesis should be clear, specific, capable of empirical test and must be related to body of theory and available techniques. So the researchers job is to clearly lay down the hypothesis for testing and verification. This will help him in delimiting the scope of his study. Selection of the sample Sampling study is becoming more and more popular and important in any investigation. The vastness of population, the difficulties of contacting people, high refusal rate, difficulties of ascertaining the universe make sampling the best alternative in case of research studies. While selecting the sample, the investigator should consider the definition of the population, size of the sample, representatives of the sample. The results and sampling should attain a sufficiently high standard of accuracy.

Data Collection Collection of data is of atmost importance for a research investigation. If the data is not accurate and adequate , the findings are bound to be misleading. The researcher should decide the methods which are to be used for data collection; whether it is questionnaire, an interview schedule, a case study or observation method or a combination of any of these. All the same the researcher must be unbiased, sharp and courteous to respondents so that he can get proper feedback relevant to the research problem. Processing, analysis and tabulation of data All collected data need to be processed for their inconsistencies on inaccuracies. Planning of analysis in advance is not always possible because new ideas occur to the investigators as he collects the information. Depending on the nature of the data and the information required by the hypothesis the investigator should subject the data to appropriate statistical analysis. Each statistical technique serves a special purpose and has a special set of assumptions which must be met before it can be used for analysis

and interpretation. The researcher is advised to tabulate the results in a meaningful way. Each table should be followed by a discussion. Interpretation of the results Knowledge of previous studies will have a great impact on the interpretation of results. The researcher should be very definite that his plan of research is based on sound scientific lines. He can safely generalize the findings obtained in his study through inductive inference. The results of the investigation are to be interpreted to uncover any additional factors which could not be visualized by the investigator earlier. Verification The conclusion drawn through a research study is subject to verification at any time. Verifiability presupposes that the phenomena must be capable of being observed and measured. The results should not contradict the earlier findings which were proved to be correct.

Conclusions The results verifies can be used for drawing conclusions. Hence verification helps in drawing specific conclusions. Suggestions for future research Research is not an end in itself. The researcher should be able to give right directions to the future researchers from the insights he has gained during the investigation. Bibliography In preparing the research design, the researcher is expected to give the reference for further information on various aspects of research work. Name of the author, title, year, publication and page number should be included in bibliography. Appendixes Appendixes are relatively short sections normally reported before bibliography. Big tables, figures, notes, copy of questionnaire, case study, to name a few are included in the appendixes. To conclude, research design varies in its complexity and adequacy depending on the nature of the problem, the data, the facilities for carrying out the study, the research sophistication and competence of the investigator. Sampling Sample is a smaller representation of a large population or universe. The researcher selects only a few items from the population. Entire study of the population is

not possible. This is done on the assumption thirt the sample adequately represents the population Characteristics of a Good Sample 1. Must be representative of the universe 2. It should be free from bias 3. The sample should be adequate- should be adequate enough to yield reasonable conclusions regarding the population, from whom the sample is drawn 4. Sample must enable to measure the sample error 5. The result of a good sample should be applicable to all items of the universe with a reasonable level of confidence

The Sampling Design Sampling desing is the proicess of selscting the sample which incudes the following steps 1. Define the population 2. Determine the sample frame 3. Select the sampling technique 4. Determine the sample size 5. Execute the sample process Population Sampling design begins by specifying the target population. Target population is the collection ofd elements or objects that possess the information sought by the researcher and about which inferences are to be made. A sample frame is a representation of the elements of the target population. It consists of a list or set of directions for identifying the target population. Ex. Telephone book, association directory, Residents association directory. A classification of sampling techniques

1. Non probability sampling- a sampling technique that do not use chance selection procedure but rather rely on the personal judgement of the researcher. 2. Probability sampling A sampling technique in which each element of the population has a fixed probabilistic chance of being selected for the sample. Sampling Techniques 1. Non probability sampling a. Accidental Sampling a. Convenience sampling b. Jundgemental sampling c. Quota sampling d. Snow ball sampling. e. Self selection 2. Probability sampling a. Simple random sampling b. Systematic sampling c. Stratified sampling d. Cluster sampling e. Other sampling techniques

Sampling Techniques Non probability sampling f. Accidental Sampling- In this method the researcher simply contacts and picks up those which he / she across and thus continuing the process till the total sample reaches a designated size Eg. The researcher may take the first 100 persons he meets in any one of the area or avenue who are willing to be interviewed
f. Convenience sampling- sample comprises subjects who are simply available in a convenient way to the researcher. likely hood of biasresult obtained hardly be representative of the population

g. Jundgemental sampling or purposive sampling- one which is selected by the researcher subjectively. The researcher attaempts to obtain sample that appaears to him /her to be representative of the population h. Quota sampling- used in market research. Interviewers are required to find cases with particular characteristics. They are given quota of particular types of people to represent the population. QS has 3 stages

a. Classify the population in terms of the same charactiristics b. Determination of the propotion of the population falling into each category c. Assign quota of respondents to various interviewers
i.

Snow ball sampling.- in this technique we initially contact a few potential respondents and then ask them whether they know of anybody with the same charactiristics that we are lokking for in our research. Eg. Studies of the homeless, Drunkards Self selection- is respondents themselves decide that they would like to take part in our survey. Those who volunteer.

j.

3. Probability sampling
a. Simple random sampling- techinique in which each element in the population has a known and eaqual probalilty of slection. Every elelment is selected independently of evry other element and the sample is drawn by a random procedure from a sampling frame. b. Systematic sampling-A probality sampling technique in which the sample is chosebn by selecting a random starting point and then picking every n th element in seccession from the sampling frame.same interval is maiantained, For example there rae 100,000 elements in the population NS Sample of 1000 is desired. If for example this number is 23 the sample consists of elements 23, 123, 223, 323, 423, 523 c. Stratified sampling- under this method all people in sampling frame are divided into strata. A stratum means groups or categories here the entire population is sub divided into groups on the basis of homogeny. Within each stratum a simple random sample or sdysytamatic sample is selected.

d. Cluster sampling- under this method the population or universe is devided into number of clusters or large groups which will for the basis

for primary sampling units. After forming the clusters a few sample clusters are selected by using simple random sampling e. Other sampling techniques

Strengths and weaknesses of the sampling techniques Strength and weakness of basic sampling Techniques Technique Strength Weaknesses Nonprobability Sampling Convenience Sampling Lease expensive, least Selection bias, sample time consuming , most not representative, convenient not ,not recommended for descriptive or causal research Judgment sampling Low cost, convenient , Dose not allow not time consuming generalization , subjective Quota Sampling Sample can be Selection bias, on controlled for certain assurance of characteristics representativeness Snow ball sampling Can estimate rate Time consuming characteristics Probability Sampling Simple random Easily understood, result Difficult to construct sampling projectable sampling frame ,expensive. lower precision, no assurance of representativeness Systematic Sampling Can increase Can decrease representativeness, representativeness easier to implement than SRS, sampling frame not necessary. Stratified sampling Include all important Difficult to select subpopulations, relevant stratification precision variables, not feasible to stratify on many variables, expensive. Cluster sampling Easy to implement, cost Imprecise, difficult to effective compute and interpret results.

Sampling Error The error which arise due to the use of sampling survey, are known as sampling error. The sampling error occurs when estimates are derived from a sample rhater than a census of the population. It decreases when the size of the sample increases. This means that sampling error can be controlled 2 types of sampling errors
a. Biased errors- these are errors which are occurring due to the faulty selection of the sampling method due to the prejudice of the researcher. As a result of os sucha selsction certain errors may occur.

b. Unbiased errors. c. This type of bias is occurring due to chance between the items included in the sample and items not included in the sample. It is known as the random sample error. Non sampling Error. Non sampling error occurs due to mistakes and biases. Mistakes may be committed at the time of tabulation. It can occur at the time planning or at the time of survey. It can be due to a. inapparopriate statistical units b. In adequacy of data specification c. Inaccurate and insatiable methods of interveiew d. In abilty to recall infromations. e. Lack of trained and experienced investigators
f. Errors due to non response of respondents

Choosing a Basic Method of Research A research design, either descriptive or causal, is chosen based on a projects objectives. The next step is to select a means of gathering data. There are three basic research methods: 1. Survey 2. Observation 3. Experiment Survey research is often descriptive in nature but can be causal. Observation research is typically descriptive, and experiment research is almost always causal. Survey research involves an interviewer (except in mail and internet surveys) who interacts

with respondents to obtain facts, opinions, and attitudes. A questionnaire is used to ensure an orderly and structured approach to data gathering. Face to-face interviews may take place in the respondents home ,a shopping mall ,or a place of business.

A. Survey The survey is a non experiment al, descriptive research method. It is a fact finding study. Survey is a method of descriptive research used for collecting primary data based on verbal or written communication with a representative sample of individuals or respondent from the target population. Types of surveys There are two basics types of surveys: cross sectional surveys and longitudinal surveys Cross -Sectional Surveys In cross sectional studies variables of interest in a sample of subject are examined once and the relationships between them are determined. Cross sectional surveys are used to gather information on a population at a single point in time. an example of a cross sectional survey would be a questionnaire that collect data on how parents feel about internet filtering ,as of March of 2011. Longitudinal Surveys Longitudinal Surveys gather data over a period of time. That means the respondents are questioned at different moments in time. The main objective of Longitudinal survey is to examine continuity of response and to observe changes that occur in due courses. 1. Trend Studies Trend studies focus on a particular population, which is sampled and scrutinized repeatedly. While samples are of the same population, they are typically not composed of the same people. Trend studies, since they may be conducted over a long period of time, do not have to be conducted by just one researcher or research project. A researcher may combine data from several studies of the same population in order to show a trend. An example of a trend study would be a yearly survey of students asking about the percentage of reference questions answered using the Internet.

2. Cohort Studies Cohort studies also focus on a particular population sampled and studied more than once. But the focus of the cohort studies may be different. For example, sample of 1999 graduates of Government College Madappally at the University of Calicut could be questioned regarding their attitudes toward employees of University of Calicut. Five years later, the researcher could question another sample of 1999 graduates, and study any changes in attitude. A cohort study would sample the same class, every time. If the researcher studies the class of 2004 five years later, it would be a trend study, not a cohort study. METHODS OF SURVERY There are two methods of survey 1. Census method 2. Sample method

A. Census and Sample Survey The census method involves a complete enumeration of all units of the population or universe. All things in any field of inquiry constitute a Universe or population. It is the aggregate of all units possessing certain specified characteristic on which the sample seeks to draw inferences. Census method enables to yield correct factual data. This type of enquiry involves great deal of time, money and energy. Although the census methods gives correct factual information, it may be incomplete, inadequate and inaccurate. When the universe is small it is better to adopt census method for collection of information Sample Survey Complete enquiry or survey is impossible in practice in all cases. So sample technique is used in all spheres of life. In sample method the enumeration of only a sample part of the population or universes is done.

Fax Survey A questionnaire is inserted in a magazine. The respondents are required to submit that filled questionnaire by fax it to a certain phone number. Questionnaires can also be faxed to the respondents. These fax surveys reduces the cost of the researcher. Internet and E-mail surveys An internet survey is a self administered questionnaire posted on a website. The respondents answer that questionnaire. In case of e-mail surveys questionnaires are sent to the respondents through e-mail. E-mail is relatively a new method which can be used for collecting data. B.Experiment. In casual research the researcher investigates whether the value of one variable causes or determines the value of another variable. It is an attempt to establish causal relationship between them. An experiment is the process of manipulating one or more independent variables and measuring their effect on one or more dependent variables, while controlling for the extraneous variables. The researcher can manipulate the independent variable according to his/her wishes. Its value can be changed or alerted. For example pricing. The researcher can effect a price change of a particular product and can measure the sales volumes resulting out of it. Dependent variables are variables on which the researcher has no control. These variables cannot be changed or altered by the researcher. It is the outcome of experiment. Experimentation also calls for a control group as well as an experimentation group, and subjects would be assigned randomly to either group. The group receiving the treatment is called experimental group and the other group is the control group. The control group is treated exactly like the experimental group except that it is has not exposed to experimental treatment. For example the researcher wants to find out the influence the music played through intercom during working hours on productivity of employees. There are two conditions. One is experimental group. That means in experimental conditions music is played during working hours. Other group is control group. In control situation the work situation will be the same.

C.OBSERVATION Observation is a classic method of scientific enquiry. Observation is one of the important methods of acquiring knowledge is social and physical science. It is one of the important sources of information to any scientific investigation or research. These are methods for gathering data that involve watching test subjects without interacting with them; there is no verbal communication with the respondents.

Module 111 Data Collection Secondary data The secondary date are those data, which have already been collected, tabulated and presented in some form by someone else for some other purpose. It means data that are already available. Economic surveys of the government of India, economic reviews published by various state governments, census data, and data relating to agriculture, industry forestry, education etc by the government are the examples of secondary data. The secondary data are in the form of finished products. Researchers has to modify such data for their individual requirements. The secondary sources may be both internal and external in character. Before going through the time and expense of collecting primary data, one should check for secondary data that previously may have been collected for other purposes but that can be used in the immediate study. Analysis of secondary data helps to define business research problem and develop an approach. Secondary analysis attempts to re-interpret the original data set in relation to a news research question. It is already collected data for other purposes other than the problem researched by the researcher. Secondary data helps to identify problem, define the problem, develop an approach to the problem, formulate a suitable research design, answer certain research questions and test some hypothesis, and interpret primary data more insightfully.

Sources of secondary data: 1. Economic survey 2. Plan documents 3. Report of industry associations 4. Report of government departments 5. Centre for monitoring Indian economy 6. Stock exchandge bullettines 7. RBI annual report 8. Publication of government policies and procedures 9. National sample survey reports 10. Census data

Primary Data Primary data are those data, which are collected for the first time. In other words the primary data are original in character. These data is collected by the researcher or through investigators or enumerators for the first time. Census survey of population,

automobiles, livestock, court records, personal diaries, personal documents etc is coming under this category. Primary data is considered as the raw material to which statistical methods are applied for the purposes of analysis and interpretation. In other words primary data is the information generated to meet the specific requirements of the investigation at hand. Primary data can be obtained by communication or by observation., Communication involves questioning respondents either verbally or in writing. This method is versatile, since one needs only to ask for the information; however, the response may not be accurate. Communication usually is quicker and cheaper than observation,. Observation involves the recording of actions and is performed by either a person or some mechanical or electronic device. Observation is less versatile than communication since some attributed of a person may not be readily observable, such as attitudes, awareness, knowledge, intentions, and motivation. Observation also might take longer since observers may have to wait for appropriate events to occur, though observation using scanner data might be quicker and more cost effective. Observation typically is more accurate than communication.

Methods and instruments of data collection ( basic means of obtaining primary data) Primar data can be collected through various means . they are 1. Observation method 2. Interview method 3. Questionnaire method 4. Schedule method 5. Survey 1. Interview Method Interview is one of the powerful techniques of data collection through primary sources. It is a verbal method of collecting data in the field surveys. Interview according to Carter V. is an oral type of questionnaire or schedule whereby the subject supplies needed information in a face to face relationship. Aims of interview a. Direct contact- establishes a direct contact with the people. b. Concealed information- only method to bring out the concealed infromations. Able to know the inner feelings of the people. c. Varification is possible in interview

d. Foemulation of hypothesis- interaction enables formulation of new hypothesis e. Relating two sets of data researcher and the respondent f. Diversity in the collection of information can collect additional information otherwise not available. Types of interview On the basis of time 1. Short period interview 2. Prolonged interview

On the Basis of Formality 1. Formal 2. Infromal On the Basis of Number 1. Individual 2. Goup interview On the basis of Purpose 1. Diagnostic 2. Treatment 3. Research 4. Curiosity

On the basis of Approach 1. Non directive interview 2. Directive interview

3. Focused interview- it is a carefully structured at the same time gives sufficient time and freedom to the enumerator to give their observation.

It is focused on the subjective experience like attitudes, emotions regarding the particular concrete situations 4. Repeated interview- when the researcher wants to study the progressive change in the attitude and behavior of the individual under varying conditions.
5. Depth interview- interviewer must be trained to conduct such interviews like seeking indepth answers by skillfully uncovering attitudes , motives and opinions.

2.Observation Observation is systematic viewing with consideration of the seen phenomena. It is the process of recognizing and noting people, objects and occurrences rather than asking for information Types of observation 1. Natural Vs contrived observation 2. Structured Vs unstructured observation 3. Direct Vs Indirect observation 4. Participant Vs Non participant observation 5. Controlled Vs Uncontrolled observation. Advantages and disadvantages of observation Most direct means of studying, no other best way the behavior of human being can be studied Data collected is more accurate and reliable, we do not rely on the willingness and the ability of the respondents or subjects Disadvantages Investigator oriented, Respondent oriented, situation oriented 3. Schedule A schedule is a list of questions which helps to collect data from the field. This is generally filled in by the enumerator or the researcher or the interviewer himself. He sits with the informant face to face and fills up the data sheet asking him the questions. Types of Schedules

1. Observation Schedule- this method is used to supplement the collection of data along with observation technique. When a schedule is used to record the data through observation it is called observation schedule.

2. Document schedule-these are the schedules which are used to record the information contained in various documents such as files, books.
3. Evaluation schedule- generally used by organizations or institutes to measure their performance relating to a particular activity. The studies conducted by various commercial banks and other financial organizations come under this category.

4. QUESTIONNAIRE A questionnaire is a tool or device answers to the set of question by the respondent who fills in the form of questionnaire himself. Information through a questionnaire can be obtained either in person or by post. If the questionnaire is posted to the respondents, it is called Mail questionnaire.

Merits of questionnaire method 1. Low cost 2. Avoids bias 3. Anonymity 4. Less pressure 5. Coverage Distinction between schedule and questionnaire 1. Chief difference bet questionnaire and schedule is in the mode of administration. Schedules are collected in person by the investigator himself or by the enumerator appointed by him. In contrast questionnaire are generally posted to the respondents to be filled in by them at their convenience 2. Collection of data through questionnaire works out to be cheaper compared to that of the schedule. 3. There is a great problem of incomplete information by the use of the questionnaire method. Respondents may not complete the questionnaire in full. Investigators can overcome this deficiency if data are collected through the schedule. 4. Data collection through a questionnaire may involve delay in the response. But in the case of the schedule method the personal visits of the enumerator speed up the process.
5. Person filling the questionnaire is not always clear. A questionnaire poated to a chief executive of a company may be filled up by his personal assistant or secretary.

This causes distortion in the quality of data collected. In schedule there is no such scope for impersonalization.
6. As far as responses are concerned non respone is usally high in case of questionnaire. This will not happen in the case of schedule as the eneumeraotor approaches the respondent in person.

7. Questionnaire method can be used only when the respondents are literate. Schedule helps the investigators to collected data even from these people. 8. Wider samples are possible in the case of questionnaire method, which is is not so in the case of schedule. Eg. Data from, Assam, Delhi rajastan etc.
9. Questionnaire method has the advantage of avoiding the bias of the researcher. 10. Anonymity is the important characteristic of the questionnaire method, which may encourage the respondents to be free and fair in their answers. 11. The success of the questionnaire depends upon the quality of the questionnaire itself, while in case of schedules much depends on the honesty and competence of the enumerator. 12. Compared to the schedule the questionnaire has to be neatly typed and made appealing to the respondents.

13. Along with schedule the observation method can be used to collect data which is not possible in the case of Questionnaire.

Procedure for developing a questionnaire Step 1. Specify what information will be sought Step 2. Determine the type of questionnaire and the method of administration Step.3. Determine the content of the individual questions. Step.4. determine the form of response to each question Step.5. determine the number of questions and the sequence of each question Step.6 reexamine the steps 1-5 and revise if necessary Step7. Pretest the questionnaire and revise if necessary

Form of response

1. Open ended questions respondents are free to reply to open ended questions in their own words rather than being limited to choosing from a set of alternatives.

Eg. When you think of mobile phones, which brand comes to mind 2. Dichotomous- The dichotomous question is also a fixed alternative question, but in whch there rae only two alternatives --- Yes / No 3. Multichotomous Questions is a fixed alternative question: the respondent is asked to choose the alternative that most closely corresponds to his position on the subject 4. Scales Another type od fixed alternative question is the question that employs a scale to capture the response. Eg. How aften do yopu watch the Vodafone daily comedy show Never, Occasionally, Sometimes, often -------1---------------2---------------3--------------------4---------------Here the question is miltichotomous and the response represents a scale of use Limitations of questionnaire method

1. Poor response 2. Incomplete information 3. Dealy in getting replies 4. Wrong administration 5. Not suited to indepth studies

Types of questions in a questionnaire 1. Open ended questions Eg. What is your opinion about the income tax policy of the Government 2. Closed ended question When the enumerator is able to list all possible responses to the question.They are

a. b. c. d.

Fill in the blanks questions- what is your name Dichotomous questions- are you satisfied with the salary-Y/N Ranking scale questions- allows the researcher to arrange the list of items in the order of their importance Aarranging in the alphabetical order Multiple choice questions- allows you to select an option from a list of options.

Eg. What is the type of organization you are working with- Bank, It sector, Manufacturing company, others e. Rating scale questions.here the user is required to rate the options according his opinion

Eg. Number of times you got promotion-once(1), Twice(2), Many times(3), Never(4). Attitude Measurement and Scaling Attitude is the mental state which makes an individual to act or to respond against a particular situation or an object. Attitude is the predisposition to behave in a particular manner. In order to measure the attitude only the observable acts are taken into account. The term measurement means assigning numbers or some other symbols to the characteristic of certain objects. When numbers are used the researcher must have a rule for assigning a number to an observation in a way that provides an accurate description. Therfore in research we do not measure the people or the consumers, what is measured is only are their perceptions, attitude or any other relevant characteristics. Two reasons for which numbers are usually assigned 1. Numbers permit statistical analysis of the resulting data 2. They facilitate the communication of measurement results.

Scaling may be considered an extension of measurement. Scaling involves creating a continuum upon which measured objects are located. To illustrated consider a scale for locating consumers according to the attitude towards Kingfisher airlines. Each respondent is assigned a number indicating an unfavourable attitude(measured as 1), a neutral attitude ( measured as 2), or a favourable attitude(measured as 3). Measurement is the actual assignment of 1,2,or3, to each respondent. Scaling is the process of placing the respondents on a continuum with respect to their attitude toward Kingfisher airlines. I our example scaling is the process by wich respondents would be classified as having an unfavourable, neutral or favourable attitude. Types of measurement scales

There re 4 types of measurement scales that help in the measurement of attitude of a group or an individual.they are 1. Nominal scale 2. Ordinal scale 3. Interval scale 4. Ratio scale 1.Nominal scale This is the lowest level of measurement. Here numbers are assigned for the purpose of identification of the objects. Any object which is assigned a higher number is in no way superior to the one which is assigned a lower number. Eg. Are You married 1) yes, 2)no What is your religion 1. Hinduism, 2. Sikhism, 3. Christinanity, 4. Islam. Any religion which is assigned a higher number is in no way superior to the one which is assigned a lower number

2.Ordinal scale This is the next higher level of measurement than the nominal scale measurement. A ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extend to which some characteristics is possessed. It is possible to determine whether an object has more or less of a characteristic than some other object in nominal scale measurement we cannot say whether the assigned number to an object is a higher or lower than the one assigned to another option. The ordinal scale measurement takes care of this limitation. An ordinal scale tell us the relative position of objects and not the difference between the magnitutde of the objects. Examplefor ordinal scale: Rank the following while choosing a restaurant for dinner. The most important attribute may be ranked one, the next important may be assigned a rank of 2 and so on. Attribute Food quality Prices Menu variety Ambience Rank

service 3.Interval scale The interval scale measurement is the next higher level of measurement. It takes care of the limitations of the ordinal scale measurement where the difference between the score on the ordinal scale doesnot have any meaningful interpreataion. In the interval scale the differences of the score on the scale has meaningful interpretation. The respondent is able to answer on a continuum scale.

Example. How do you rate the Campus environment of your college Very good 5 Good 4 Neither good nor bad 3 Bad 2 Very Bad 1

The numbers on this scale can be added substracted multiplied or divided. One cam compute arithmetic mean, standard deviation correlation coefficient. Interval scale data can be converted into nominal scale and ordinal scale. 4.Ratio Scale. This si the highest level of measurement and takes care of the limitations of the interval scale measurement, where the ratio of the measurement on the scale does not have a meaningful interpretation. A ratio scale possess all the properties of the nominal, ordinal, and interval scales and in addition an absolute zero point. Thus in ratio scales we can identify or classify objects and compare intervals or differences. It is meaningful to compute the ratios of scale values. Example Not only is the difference bet ween 2 and 5 the same as the difference between 14 and 17 but also 14 is seven times larger as 2 in an absoluter sense. All statistical techniques can be applied to ratio data. Thes include specialized statistics such as geometric mean, harmonic mean and coefficient of variation. Validity and reliability in Measurement

Validity in measurement It is very obvious that errors will creep into measurement, making it necessary to evaluate the accuracy and dependability of the measuring instrument. For such an evaluation we have 3 criteria

1. Validity- the extend to which an instrument measures what it is designed to measure 2. Practicality concerned with factors such as , convenience, economy and interpretability 3. Reliability- is connected with the precision and accuracy of the procedure for the measurement
Validity 1. External validity- external validity of research findings is the datas ability to be generalized across persons, settings and timings 2. Internal validity consists of; a) Content validity- defined as the representativeness of the content of a measuring instrument. The content validity is good if the instrument contains a representative sample of the universe of the subject matter of interest.
b) Criterion Validity-it reflects the success of the measures used for empirical estimating purpose c) Construct validity- it testifies how well the results obtained from the use of the measure fits the theory around which the test is designed

Reliability in Measurement The reliability of a measure is indicated by the consistency and stability with which the instrument measures the concept and helps in assessing the goodness of a measure. A measure is reliable to the degree that it supplies consistent results 1. Stabilty- the abilty of a measure to maintain stability over timedespite uncontrollable testing conditions 2. Equivalence- is concerned with variations at one point in time among investigatots and sample of items. Administration of surveys. ( read by yourself)

Module V Qualitative Research Methods Qualitative research Qualitative research is a method of inquiry employed in many different academic disciplines, traditionally in the social sciences, but also inmarket research and further contexts.[1] Qualitative researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such behavior. The qualitative method investigates the why and how of decision making, not just what, where, when. Hence, smaller but focused samples are more often needed than large samples. In the conventional view, qualitative methods produce information only on the particular cases studied, and any more general conclusions are only propositions (informed assertions). Quantitative methods can then be used to seek empirical support for such research hypotheses. Qualitative research thus is presumed to go beyond the obvious of constructs and variables that are not visisble or measurable, rather they have to be deduced by various methods. The rationale for using qualitative research method is essentially to provide inputs that are helpful in uncovering the motives behind visisble and measurable occurrences Methods of Qualitative Research. 1. Observation method.method of observation involves viewing and recording individuals, groups, organizations or events in a scientific manner in order to collect valuable data related to the topic under study.
2. Content Analysis. Qualitatively, content analysis can involve any kind of analysis where communication content (speech, written text, interviews, images ...) is categorised and classified. In its beginnings, using the first newspapers at the end of 19th century, analysis was done manually by measuring the number of lines and amount of space given a subject. With the rise of common computing facilities like PCs, computer-based methods of analysis are growing in popularity. Answers to open ended questions, newspaper articles, political party manifestoes, medical

records or systematic observations in experiments can all be subject to systematic analysis of textual data. By having contents of communication available in form of machine readable texts, the input is analysed for frequencies and coded into categories for building up inferences. Robert Philip Weber (1990) notes: "To make valid inferences from the text, it is important that the classification procedure be reliable in the sense of being consistent: Different people should code the same text in the same way" (p. 12). The validity, inter-coder reliability and intra-coder reliability are subject to intense methodological research efforts over long years (see Krippendorff, 2004).
3. Focus groups F G is managed by a skilled moderator to get a valuable motivational search technique. The group interview must be non directive in approach and the group must also achieve spontaneous interaction. The mutual reinforcement within the group produces the revelations and behaviours reveal underlying motives. 4. Depth interviews- is considered as the heart and soul of motivational research technique. It is a lengthy process based on one on one personal interview conducted directly by the motivational researcher. The power of the depth interview depends upon the insight sensitivity and skill of the motivational researcher.

Indirect Research 1.Projective test

In psychology, a projective test is a personality test designed to let a person respond to ambiguous stimuli, presumably revealing hiddenemotions and internal conflicts. This is sometimes contrasted with a so called "objective test" in which responses are analyzed according to a universal standard (for example, a multiple choice exam). The responses to projective tests are content analyzed for meaning rather than being based on presuppositions about meaning, as is the case with objective tests. Projective tests have their origins inpsychoanalytic psychology, which argues that humans have conscious and unconscious attitudes and motivations that are beyond or hidden from conscious awareness. Theory The general theoretical position behind projective tests is that whenever a specific question is asked, the response will be consciously-formulated and socially determined. These responses do not reflect the respondent's unconscious or implicit attitudes or motivations. The respondent's deep-seated motivations may not be consciously recognized by the respondent or the respondent may not be able to verbally express them in the form demanded by the questioner. Advocates of projective tests stress that the ambiguity of the stimuli presented within the tests allow subjects to express thoughts that originate on a deeper level than tapped by explicit questions. Projective

tests lost some of their popularity during the 1980s and 1990s in part because of the overall loss of popularity of the psychoanalytic method and theories. Despite this, they are still used quite frequently. Projective Hypothesis This holds that an individual puts structure on an ambiguous situation in a way that is consistent with their own conscious & unconscious needs. It is an indirect method- testee is talking about something other than him/her self. Reduces temptation to fake Doesn't depend as much on verbal abilities Taps both conscious & unconscious traits Focus is clinical perspective - not normative - but has developed norms over the years [1]

Rorschach The best known and most frequently used projective test is the Rorschach inkblot test, in which a subject is shown a series of ten irregular but symmetrical inkblots, and asked to explain what they see.[2] The subject's responses are then analyzed in various ways, noting not only what was said, but the time taken to respond, which aspect of the drawing was focused on, and how single responses compared to other responses for the same drawing. For example, if someone consistently sees the images as threatening and frightening, the tester might infer that the subject may suffer from paranoia. Holtzman Inkblot Test This is a variation of the Rorschach test. Its main differences lie in its objective scoring criteria as well as limiting subjects to one response per inkblot (to avoid variable response productivity). Different variables such as reaction time are scored for an individual's response upon seeing an inkblot.[3] Thematic apperception test Another popular projective test is the Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) in which an individual views ambiguous scenes of people, and is asked to describe various aspects of the scene; for example, the subject may be asked to describe what led up to this scene, the emotions of the characters, and what might happen afterwards. The examiner then evaluates these descriptions, attempting to discover the conflicts, motivations and attitudes of the respondent. In the answers, the respondent "projects" their unconscious attitudes and motivations into the picture, which is why these are referred to as "projective tests." Draw-A-Person test The Draw-A-Person test requires the subject to draw a person. The results are based on a psychodynamic interpretation of the details of the drawing, such as the size, shape and complexity of the facial features, clothing and background of the figure. As with other projective tests, the approach has very little demonstrated validity and there is evidence that therapists may attribute pathology to individuals who are merely poor artists.[2] A similar class of techniques is kinetic family drawing.

Criticisms of Drawing Tests Among the plausible but empirically untrue relations that have been claimed:

Large size = Emotional expansiveness or acting out Small size = emotional constriction; withdrawal, or timidity Erasures around male buttocks; long eyelashes on males = homoeroticism Overworked lines = tension, aggression Distorted or omitted features = Conflicts related to that feature Large or elaborate eyes = Paranoia [4]

Animal Metaphor Test The Animal Metaphor test consists of a series of creative and analytical prompts in which the person filling out the test is asked to create a story and then interpret its personal significance. Unlike conventional projective tests, the Animal Metaphor Test works as both a diagnostic and therapeutic battery. Unlike the Rorschach test and TAT, the Animal Metaphor is premised on self-analysis via self-report questions. The test combines facets of art therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and insight therapy, while also providing a theoretical platform of behavioral analysis. The test has been used widely as a clinical tool, as an educational assessment, and in human resource selection. The test is accompanied by an inventory, The Relational Modality Evaluation Scale, a self-report measure that targets individuals' particular ways of resolving conflict and ways of dealing with relational stress. These tests were developed by Dr. Albert J Levis at the Center for the Study of Normative Behavior in Hamden, CT, a clinical training and research center. Sentence completion test Sentence completion tests require the subject complete sentence "stems" with their own words. The subject's response is considered to be a projection of their conscious and/or unconscious attitudes, personality characteristics, motivations, and beliefs. Picture Arrangement Test Created by Silvan Tomkins, this psychological test consists of 25 sets of 3 pictures which the subject must arrange into a sequence that they "feel makes the best sense". The reliability of this test has been disputed, however. For example, patients suffering from schizophrenia have been found to score as more "normal" than patients with no such mental disorders.[5] Other picture tests:

Thompson version, CAT (animals) and CAT-H, (humans) Senior AT, Blacky pictures test - dogs

Picture Story Test - adolescents Education Apperception Test -attitudes towards learning Michigan Picture Test - children 8-14 TEMAS - hispanic children Make-A-Picture Story- make own pictures from figures 6yrs & up

[1]

Word Association Test Word association testing is a technique developed by Carl Jung to explore complexes in the personal unconscious. Jung came to recognize the existence of groups of thoughts, feelings, memories, and perceptions, organized around a central theme, that he termed psychological complexes. This discovery was related to his research into word association, a technique whereby words presented to patients elicit other word responses that reflect related concepts in the patients psyche, thus providing clues to their unique psychological make-up [6] [7] [8] Graphology A lesser-known projective test is graphology or handwriting analysis. Clinicians who assess handwriting to derive tentative information about the writer's personality attend to and analyze the writing's organization on the page, movement style and use of distinct letterforms.[9] 2.Sociometry Sociometry is a quantitative method for measuring social relationships. It was developed by psychotherapist Jacob L. Moreno in his studies of the relationship between social structures and psychological well-being. The term sociometry relates to its Latin etymology, socius meaning companion, and metrum meaning measure. Jacob Moreno defined sociometry as "the inquiry into the evolution and organization of groups and the position of individuals within them." He goes on to write "As the ...science of group organization, it attacks the problem not from the outer structure of the group, the group surface, but from the inner structure. "Sociometric explorations reveal the hidden structures that give a group its form: the alliances, the subgroups, the hidden beliefs, the forbidden agendas, the ideological agreements, the stars of the show". He developed sociometry within the new sciences, although its ultimate purpose is transcendence and not science. 'By making choices based on criteria, overt and energetic, Moreno hoped that individuals would be more spontaneous, and organisations and groups structures would become fresh, clear and lively'

RESEARCH PRESENTATION No matter what the quality is of the research undertaken, much of the acceptance of.the results depends on the way they are communicated to the relevant audiences. REPORT WRITING Report writing is the final stage of the research.

Essentials of a Good Report As indicated earlier, a researcher's ability is revealed through the quality of his study. It depends on how well he could make his presentation valid, reliable, clear and acceptable 1. Clarity and Coherence Clarity is the first essential requirement of a good research report. The researcher should be first clear in his writing. It is commonly said that one should first say it. However it is not that simple when it comes to the question of writing. Usually, one continues to learn about a subject as one writes about it, new.ways of relating information. In many a case, one does not really find out what one wants to say until the writing is completed, revised or rewritten. As such, clarity and coherence are the ones which set out all this process of revision or rewriting. 2. Writing Correctly Another requirement of a good research report is that it should be written correctly. In fact, correctness is important in achieving clarity. Incorrect writing is frequently ambiguous, sometimes quite misleading and usually difficult to understand. 3.Styled to the Reader s Taste A good report is one that is written in style than the audience can follow. A message is clear only when the people to whom it is meant can understand it. Your audience may be a pure layman or your fellow scientist. Depending on the focus group, you have to change your style of presenting the results. For a layman, technical details may not be interesting. 4.Readability Readability is yet another requirement of a good report. Clarity and coherence usually provide readability to a text. Of course, ensuring readability is not an easy task. Writing straightforward text about a complicated subject and writing it quickly requires talent, training and experience. One may depend on the language texts that provide clues to effective writing.

5.Effective Arrangement Proper organisation of the report is the important ingredient in the whole process. A poorly constructed sentence can be repaired by a literary'editor: a technically inaccurate statement can be corrected by a technical editor; but a poorly organised

report is. beyond help. Simply to know that a report has an introduction, body and conclusion is of little use.

Types of Reports As is discussed, the purpose of reporting is communication. It is through the reports, one would be able to express his ideas and opinions. However, reports need not be in writing. They may be also oral presentations. As such, a preliminary classification of reports is into two types as oral and written reports.

Oral Report If the idea of reporting is to communicate with the other person or persons, it can as well be verbal presentation. What goes on in seminars, conferences, symposia, etc. is mainly oral presentation. In case of corporate reporting, the meetings, discussions, gettogethers provide an opportunity to communicate with each other. 'II lough in general a report can be oral or written, research reports are expected to be in writing Written Report Compared to oral reporting, the preparation and presentation of written-report is somewhat difficult. As indicated earlier, if one is asked to talk, he goes on talking in his own style. When it comes to the question of putting the same in writing there arises the difficulty of language, words, meaning, etc A useful classification of research reports seem to be the one based on the audience, i.e., the people to whom the report is meant. On this basis, written reports can be categorised as follows: i) ii) iii) The popular report The report for the Administrator The technical report

The Popular Report: This is the report meant to be read by general public or laymen interested in the developments taking place around them. A research report meant for such people should present broad facts, findings and recommendations. They are generally disinterested in detailed technical aspects. They want such information that concern them most and how their lives are going to be effected by the results of the present research. The Report for the Administrator:

Many of the business reports are of this type. They may be submitted to any level. Usually, supervisors submit periodical reports about production, machinery maintenance, overtime, etc. Similar reports are also submitted by the middle level managers to the top level management. The Technical Report: A technical report is written by an expert to be read by another expert. In this sense, a thesis is a technical report intended to be read by another researcher. Not only thesis, but even a monograph, an occasional paper, a journal article are technical writings.

STAGE OF REPORT WRITING There are three major stages in the writing of a report. They are: i) ii) iii) organisation of the report writing-up of the report documentation of the report

1. Organisation After the collection and analysis of data, the researcher has to plan for a congenial structuring of the report. The report must be arranged in an orderly manner as per theexisting norms and traditions. However, there is no one best format for all reports. The physical format can be employed to create desirable emphasis and clarify. The' use of widely spaced paragraphs, varied margins, separated headings, different type sizes, and colours are all to emphasize the major points and to clarify the sequence and relationship of ideas. The following are said to be the three main sections of a dissertation: i) The preliminaries ii) The text iii) The end matter Preliminaries Preliminaries constitute some essential items that precede the text. These serve as a guide to the text of the dissertation. They include the following: i) Essential Constituents a) The title page b) The table of contents c) The preface and/or the acknowledgements.

ii) Additional Constituents a) frontispiece b) dedication or epigraph c) list of tables and illustrations d) list of abbreviations and symbols 1. Title Page: This is the first page of the thesis. This contains the details regarding the subject, the author, the imprint and the additional elements. The title of the thesis is generally indicative of the work done. (ii) Table of Contents: . As we are aware, this part of-the thesis gives the reader an understanding regarding the areas covered and arrangement of the material. It also serves as useful index for the location of information [iii) Preface and Acknowledgements: Every author wishes to say something other than connected to the thesis material. Usually, researchers, through this, try to present a brief account of the nature of the study and the circumstances that led to the study.

A part of the preface may be devoted to acknowledge the help, the author received from various individuate and organisations. This is a courtesy which the researcher am show towards the people from whom he gathered the material for his study.

(iv) Frontispiece: This is an illustrated leaf preceding the title page of the thesis. This is not counted in the pagination.

(V) Dedication or Epigraph: Like books, theses can also be dedicated to any one, whom the author wishes to remember. An epigraph or a motto, consists of words from celebrated author, or book, expressing sentiments appropriate to the text of the thesis (vi)List of Tables and Illustrations: Usually, theses in commerce and management disciplines carry a number of tables with quantitative and qualitative information. Like the table of contents, these must also be listed in the order in which they appear in the text

Illustrations include charts, graphs, curves, diagrams, and line drawings. These must be indicated in list. The maps and photographic plates, if they are significant in number may be listed separately. (yii) List of Abbreviations and Symbols: If certain names or phrases appear quite frequently in the study, it is considered better to use a short form for them. Similar may also be true in case of certain symbols used.

b. The Text The text is the core of the research work. The preliminaries and the ending parts are merely aids to the text. An intelligent reader is naturally interested in the text rather than the supplementary information. As such, the researcher should give a serious thought to the organisation of the text. The text is generally organised in the following manner.
1. Introduction-specifying the context of the study , -, 2. Methodology-covering the objectives, hypotheses, sample, data collection and analysis 3. Findings-discussion of the findings is divided into several chapters 4. Conclusions and recommendations 5. Summary of the report

Let us make a brief review of the various divisions of the text to underline the importance of each of the segments. 1. Introduction: The usual style of writing thesis in India is to start with an introduction specifying the context of the study. This, in a way, leads to the statement of the problem. . 2. Methodology. This is the most vital part of the text. It can be described as the key to understand the study. This provides scope to decide about the scientific nature of the study, simply the method employed to carry out the present study. It includes the following. i) Objectives ii) Hypotheses iii)Research design iv) Sampling v)Sources and methods of data collection vi) Data analysis techniques vii) Limitations of the data and study, if any

viii) Survey of literature

(i) O bjectives: Every study should spell out the objectives clearly. Objectives imply the purposes behind taking up the study. The reader must know clearly what the report covers. (ii)

Hypotheses: activity

Hypotheses are presumptions about the study. Every Research

is an attempt at testing the hypotheses. As indicated earlier, hypotheses generation is the logical starting point for any research study. It establishes the relationship of concept with theory, arid specifies the tests to be applied especially in the context of a meaningful value judgement. It is the testing and proof of hypotheses that lead to theory. Thus.-the researcher should incorporate in the study the hypotheses with which he started his search for truth.
(iii) Research Design: A research design is a plan of action to be carried out in connection with a research project. It is a specific presentation of the various steps in the process of research, viz. selectionvof the research problem, the formulation of hypotheses, the sources and methods of data collection and survey of literature. Before deciding about these steps, the researcher should make it clear whether the study is exploratory or conclusive in nature and whether it is case, statistical or experimental in design. It is also the responsibility of the researcher to explain the reasons for the selection of the particular design and the merits and demerits of such design. (iv)Sampling: Most of the studies in commerce and management relate to a sample - of the universe. Since the universe is large and geographically widespread, sample studies have become almost a must. The researcher, while writing his report should deal with the sampling method employed by him adequately

(v) Source and Methods of Data Collection .The researcher should indicate in clear terms the diverse sources from which he had collected the data. (vi) Data Analysis Techniques: The report of the investigator should also clearly state the techniques used to analyse the data. There are now simple ratio analysis to sophisticated linear programme techniques employed in the studies relating to commerce and management. Statistical techniques like correlation, regression, discriminate analysis, factor analysis have found their signfficance in these studies. The researcher is expected to make a mention of the techniques used, though he is not required to explain them in great detail.

(vii)Limitations of the Data and Study: A good report should list out the limitations if any of the data or study. The researcher may be hindered in the collection, compilation and presentation of various facts relating to the study. With

respect to data, the limitations may pertain to the availability, continuity, authenticity and accuracy. They are common to both primary and secondary sources of data

Viii Survey of Literature: Generally, in the studies relating to commerce and management survey of literature is included a part of methodology, and many a time arranged at the end of the methodology chapter. 3. Findings: Findings are the results of the study. This is, in fact, the bulky part of any report. This is also termed as discussion in some reports. However, in case of theses, findings part is divided into few chapters and results are segregated according to the topic of discussion. It contains an assortment of statistical tables and charts, followed by narration of the results. 4. Conclusions and Recommendations: Another important part of the text is the one dealing with conclusions and recommendations. Every research report should draw out in a coherent and concise manner, the major conclusions of the study. It is needless to say that conclusions should be drawn with direct reference to the objectives of the study. In the same way, the researcher must also be specific with reference to the hypotheses formulated by him. He should indicate in this part whether the hypotheses he proposed have been accepted or not accepted, so that the readers would be clear as to the attempt of the study. 5. Summary of the Report: In addition to the conclusions and recommendations part, it is also customary to provide a summary to the whole report. This would help the readers to understand the contents in a quick manner. The End Matter .

The end matter, which comes after text, is a separate section by itself. It provides additional information which could not be included in the text for want of convenience and readability. The end matter contains the following: i) Appendix or Appendices ii) Glossary iii)Literature Cited iv) Bibliography
(i) Appendix: The purpose of the appendix is to provide a place for those items of the report that do not "it in to the main body of the research report. This may be necessary because the information are detailed and exhaustive and hence may tamish the brevity of the report. Generally, the questionnaires, schedules used in the study are provided as appendices. Similarly, in case of quantitative studies, the statistical data are provided in the appendix

ii) Glossary: A glossary is an alphabetical listing of unfamiliar terms, with their meaning, used in the dissertation. Theses which contain many local or regional terms need a glossary.

(iii) Literature Cited: This is a list of references cited in the text. The literature cited is generally arranged in the order in which the references are indicated in the text. It is thus conveniently possible to identify the source and to locate and check the information cited. (iv) Bibliography: Bibliography is a comprehensive listing of the works relevant to the study of the researcher. This may not be limited to the literature cited in the text, and may include additional sources of information. It is arranged in a logical order, generally in alphabetical sequence by the name of the authors. Separate listings are also given in case of books, articles, monographs, reports, etc.

2. Writing up of the Report Writing thesis is considered a most difficult exercise by many research students

While writing the report, a research student is supposed to care for the following , i) Style ii) Sections and sub-sections iii) Headings and sub- headings iv) Notes and footnotes v)Quotations vi) Citing of references vii) Tables and figures

1. Style Style is one's own approach. As thesis writing is individualistic, one has to adopt his own style of communicating the results. Style includes the art of selecting and arranging words to communicate a message in a way appropriate to the needs of the reader. It is in fact this style that distinguishes people from poets. Every one of us is familiar with words in one or the other language.

2. Sections and Subsections As indicated earlier, the actual w r i t i n g of the thesis requires the investigator to divide the text into different parts, sections and chapters. There are no bench marks as to the division of the text into parts and section

3. Headings and Sub-headings The text is divided into various divisions and sub-divisions such as parts, chapters, sections, subsections. This leads to a more systematic organisation and presentation of information. These divisions are given proper headings and sub-headings. Sometimes, these divisions are also indicated by numbers.

4 Notes and ootnotes It is common in the writing of reports to indicate the source of information. Wherever the material is borrowed or a point is cited. Additional information in the form of notes is also provided to clarify the point cited in the text. Such information are given separately either at the bottom of the page, as footnotes or at the end of the chapter as notes. Notes or footnotes is written separately only when the researcher thinks that such material interferes with the continuity and flow of the text. 5 Quotations Research students during their work, note, down the material relevant to their topic verbatim. While writing the report they have a tendency to quote the observations of others as it is. Quotations are generally used to substantiate a point by citing the words of another author or to incorporate the more succinct, apt and picturesque words which have been used in the context. Though quotations add beauty to the text, their overuse is equated with poor argumentation 6. References: A reference is naturally to the material used by the author, when it is not of his own. The term' References' is used almost synonymous to the other terms such as works cited, sources consulted and selects bibliography 7 . Tables and Figure

Tables and figures appear quite frequently in the theses relating to commerce and management. Depending upon the quantitative nature of the study, tables and figures multiply.As such a commerce research studentshould be a familiar with the preparation and presentation of tables and figures. 3. Documentation This is the final stage in the report writing process. It is needless to emphasize that a good report must be properly documented in terms of notes, references, appendices and bibliography. Unless properly documented, the comprehensiveness and utility of the report is diminished: More so, these present the painstaking effort of the researcher and leave the reader to form his own opinion about the effort of the researcher. As we have discussed at length about the issues pertaining to documentation in this and in the chapter on sources of data, repetition is avoided in this section

Conclusion Although we have attempted to delineate few principles relating to the art of report writing, it is an individualistic affair. What one can present are only broad contours of the issue concerned. More specifically, report writing is an art. No two individuals will write about the same phenomenon in the same style and language. The content is something different from the way one can put it in writing. All of us can talk, but few of us are only effective public speakers. In much the same way, not all researchers can turn out to be effective writers. But the guidelines will enable them to present the matter in the a more accepted form. In fact, every research organisation has its model of reporting. All the standard journals publish their guidelines to make the article readable in their style. For the benefit of research scholars, the Manuscript Guidelines of the Journal of Marketing are given in Appendix. . These are quite exhaustive as far as the preparation of a research paper is concerned.