The Control Techniques Drives and Controls Handbook

W. Drury (Ed.)
Contents

Preface 1 Industrial motors

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1 D.C. motors General Fundamental equations and performance Wound-field motors Permanent-magnet motors Operating principles Commutation Rotation Compensation D.C. PM commutation Construction of the D.C. motor D.C. motor frame D.C. motor armature Brush gear Mountings D.C. PM design Rotor inertia Permanent-magnet materials 2 A.C. induction motors General Fundamental equations and performance Electrical characteristics of induction motors Torque characteristics Voltage-frequency relationship Increased voltage Reduced frequency Slip-ring induction motor Speed-changing motors A.C. induction motor construction 3 A.C. synchronous motors General A.C. synchronous motor construction 4 Brushless servomotors General Principles of operation of brushless servomotors Introduction Torque constant

Relationships between torque and back e.m.f. constant Stationary torque characteristics Construction of brushless servomotors Stator structure Rotor structure 5 Reluctance motors 6 A.C. commutator motors 7 Mechanical and environmental Mounting of the motor General IEC 60034-7 standard enclosures NEMA standard enclosures Degree of protection General IEC 60034-5 US practice Cooling General Air filters Duty cycles Continuous duty -- S1 Short-time duty -- S2 Intermittent duty -- S3 Intermittent duty with starting -- S4 Intermittent duty with starting and electric braking -- S5 Continuous operation periodic duty -- S6 Continuous operation periodic duty with electric braking -- S7 Continuous operation periodic duty with related load speed changes -- S8 Duty with nonperiodic load and speed variations -- S9 Duty with discrete constant loads -- S10 Terminal markings and direction of rotation General IEC 60034-8 NEMA Ambient conditions Introduction

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Contents 33 34 34 34 34 34 35 37 37 37 37 37 37 37 39 39 40 40 40 40 40 40 40 46 48 48 MOS-controlled thyristor MOS turn-off thyristor Silicon carbide Power device packaging Pressure contact packages Large wire-bonded packages for power modules Small wire-bonded packages for discrete devices Applications 2 Drive converter circuits A.C. to D.C. power conversion General Converters for connection to a single-phase supply Converters for connection to a three-phase supply Voltage ripple characteristics Practical effects D.C. motor drive systems D.C. to D.C. power conversion General Step-down D.C.-D.C. converters Step-up D.C.-D.C. converters A.C. to A.C. power converters with intermediate D.C. link General Voltage source inverters Current source inverters Direct A.C. to A.C. power converters General Soft starter/voltage regulator Cycloconverter Static Scherbius drive Matrix converter 66 66 67 67 67 67 69 70 72 72 72 73 74 76 76 76 79 79 79 81 81 81 81 83 85 85 85 86 86 87

Temperature Altitude Power supply system Noise and vibration General Vibration Noise Motors for special applications Geared motors Brake motors Torque motors Motors for hazardous locations General CENELEC North American standards Testing authorities 8 Effects of semiconductor power converters General Drive converter effects upon D.C. machines Drive converter effects upon A.C. machines Introduction Machine rating -- thermal effects Machine insulation Bearing currents Overspeed Motors for hazardous locations

2 Power electronics
1 Power semiconductor devices General Diode rectifier Thyristor Thyristor gating requirements Power losses and current ratings Surge current ratings High-frequency current operation Gate turn-off thyristor Switching characteristics and gate drive Snubber design Voltage and current ratings Bipolar Transistor Voltage ratings Current ratings Switching characteristic and base drive Safe operating areas Short-circuit performance MOSFET Voltage and current ratings Switching performance Safe operating area Parasitic diode Insulated-gate bipolar transistor Operation Voltage and current ratings Switching behaviour and gate drive Safe operating area Short-circuit performance Series and parallel operation Integrated-gate commutated thyristor Voltage and current ratings Switching behaviour and gate drive Other power devices and materials

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3 Speed and position feedback devices

1 D.C. tachometer generator General Output voltage ripple Temperature effects Linearity and load effects Stability of the output Maximum terminal voltage Maximum operating speed Mechanical construction 2 A.C. tachometer generator 3 Resolver Design principles Synchros Torque synchros Control synchro Resolver General Computing resolvers Phase shifting Brushless resolvers Multipole resolvers A.C. rotary pickoffs Resolver-to-digital conversion 4 Encoder Incremental encoder Absolute encoder Sin/cos encoder

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Contents 5 Selection of a feedback device for a drive system 6 Mechanical considerations 7 Glossary of terms Polyphase switched-reluctance machines Losses in the switched-reluctance motor Excitation frequency Power electronics for the switchedreluctance motor Power supply and front-end bridge Power switching stage Single-switch-per-phase circuits Multiple-phase operation Single-switch circuit using bifilar winding Two-switch asymmetrical bridge Advantages of the switched-reluctance system Rotor construction Stator construction Electronics and system-level benefits Disadvantages of the switched-reluctance system Torque ripple Acoustic noise 3 Stepper-motor drives Stepping-motor principles The permanent-magnet motor The VR motor The hybrid motor Stepping-motor drive circuits (logic modes) Unipolar switching Bipolar switching High-speed stepping -- L/R drives Chopper drives Bilevel drives Application notes Effect of inertia Resonance Special products Stepper/encoders Space-rated steppers Fuel-control actuators

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4 Drive control
1 General The ideal control system Open-loop control Closed-loop control Criteria for assessing the performance of a closed-loop control system 2 A.C. motor drive control General-purpose open-loop A.C. drive Space-vector modulator and inverter Reference-frame translation Reference-frame generation Current limit Performance and applications Permanent-magnet servodrive Reference-frame generation Current control Speed control Performance and applications Closed-loop induction motor drive Flux calculator and reference-frame generation Flux control Performance and applications Operation without position feedback Four-quadrant operation Reference-frame generation Performance and applications Direct torque control 3 D.C. motor drive control Flux controller Torque controller Performance and applications 4 Analysis of and set up of a speed controller Ideal speed controller Calculating the required gains Nonideal effects in a real speed controller

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6 Practical drives
1 General Digital input Programmability Typical specification Digital output Programmability Typical specification Analogue input Programmability Typical specification Analogue output Programmability Typical specification 2 D.C. drives The technology Drive selection Technical specifications and ratings Drive set up and commissioning Autotune PC-based commissioning tools -- MentorSoft Performance Speed and current-loop response Typical applications Low-power analogue D.C. drives

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5 Switched-reluctance and stepper-motor drives

1 General 2 Switched-reluctance motors and controllers Basic principle of the switched-reluctance motor Operation as a motor Operation as a brake or generator To summarise so far Relationship between torque polarity and motoring/generating Control of the machine in practice Low-speed operation What happens as speed is increased? Medium-speed operation How is performance maintained as speed increases? High-speed operation Summary of typical/practical control Control of speed and position

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Contents 149 149 151 151 151 151 153 153 153 153 156 156 157 157 157 158 159 159 160 162 163 166 168 169 169 169 169 169 170 170 171 171 172 172 173 173 173 174 174 174 Summary 2 Network basics Physical layer Network cables and connectors Interface circuits Data encoding Network topology Data-link layer Framing Data model Media access control Error handling Conclusions Application layer Device profile 3 Simple fieldbus systems Modbus Control Techniques' protocol 4 Fieldbus systems Requirements for drive applications Physical layer Error detection Dynamic performance General message services Centralised versus distributed intelligence Profibus DP Interbus-S CAN DeviceNet CANopen CTNet 191 191 192 192 192 192 193 194 194 194 194 195 195 195 195 196 196 196 197 197 197 197 197 197 197 197 198 198 198 198 198

The 4Q2 D.C. drive Cheetah--Puma--Lynx 3 A.C. drives Features common to all A.C. drives Power terminal layout Control terminal layout Wiring precautions to prevent electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) issues Open-loop inverters Specifications and ratings Features and options Methods of control Performance of the Commander SE open-loop drive Typical applications The universal A.C. drive The concept of a universal drive Unidrive option modules Open-loop operation Closed-loop operation Servo operation Regeneration mode High-performance servodrives Performance Summary of practical advantages of SLM technology Applications 4 Soft-start A.C. motor control Conventional starting Direct-on-line starting (DOL) Star-delta starting Auto-transformer starting Disadvantages of conventional starting Electronic soft start Typical applications 5 Application boards and software Applications module Software commissioning tools Communications modes Drive set-up wizard Commissioning screen Monitoring screen Parameter list

9 Supply harmonics due to drives

1 Overview 2 Regulations Regulations for installations Regulations and standards for equipment 3 Harmonic generation within variable-speed drives A.C. drives D.C. drives Effect of loading 4 The effects of harmonics 5 Calculation of harmonics Individual drives -- D.C. Individual drives -- A.C. Systems Isolated generators 6 Remedial techniques Connect the equipment to a point with a high fault level (low impedance) Use three-phase drives where possible Use additional inductance Additional A.C. supply-line inductance Additional D.C. inductance Use a higher pulse number (12 pulse or higher) Use a drive with an active input stage Use a harmonic filter

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7 Position and motion-control systems

1 General 2 Basics of motion control 3 Typical motion functions Position lock -- electronic gearbox Direct positional lock Ramped nonrigid lock Ramped rigid lock Simple single-axis positioning CAM functions Multiaxis positioning 4 Programmability 5 Summary

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8 Communications systems
1 Introduction Drive set up Drive control

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10 Electromagnetic compatibility (EMC)

1 Introduction General Principles of EMC

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Contents EMC regulations 2 Regulations and standards Regulations Standards 3 EMC behaviour of variable-speed drives Immunity Low-frequency emission High-frequency emission 4 Installation rules EMC risk assessment Basic rules Segregation Control of return paths, minimising loop areas Earthing Simple precautions and fixes Full precautions 5 Theoretical background Emission modes Principles of input filters Screened motor cables Ferrite ring suppressors Filter earth leakage current Filter magnetic saturation 6 Additional guidance on cable screening for sensitive circuits Cable screening action Cable screen connections Recommended cable arrangements 214 214 214 215 215 215 216 216 217 217 217 217 217 218 219 219 220 220 221 222 222 222 222 223 223 223 225 Limits to cable length Example Output chokes for long motor cable applications General Principles Calculations Example Position of chokes in multiple motor configurations Typical recommended cable size Power supply considerations High or low line voltage Supply frequency variations Supply impedance/fault level Low supply impedance High supply impedance Multiple drive installations Thermal design of enclosures General Calculating the size of a sealed enclosure Example Calculating the air flow in a ventilated enclosure Example Installation and maintenance of standard motors and electronic equipment Motors General Storage Installation Maintenance guide Brush gear maintenance Electronic equipment General Siting of equipment Ventilator systems and filters Condensation and humidity Fuses Common D.C. bus configuration of A.C. drives General A simple bulk uncontrolled rectifier Using the mains supply converter in one drive to supply all drives from its D.C. link Effectively hard paralleling of all drive input rectifiers A bulk four-quadrant controlled rectifier feeding the D.C. bus A bulk four-quadrant PWM converter feeding the D.C. bus Note on EMC filters for common D.C. bus systems Mechanical vibration, critical speed and torsional dynamics General Example Causes of shaft vibrations independent of variable-speed drives Subsynchronous vibrations Synchronous vibrations Super-synchronous vibrations Critical speeds Applications where torque ripple excites a resonance in the mechanical system High-performance closed-loop applications

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11 Systems design
1 General 2 Design matrix 3 Dynamic/resistive braking General D.C. motor braking Example calculation of a brake resistor of a D.C. motor A.C. regeneration and braking Example calculation of a brake resistor of a PWM A.C. induction motor drive system 4 Fusing General Protection of mains-drive and drive-motor cabling Protection of drive components 5 Motor overtemperature protection General Overtemperature protection of a converter-fed motor What can be used What cannot be used 6 A.C. drive motor cabling General Closed loop -- induction motor Cable resistance Cable-charging currents Closed loop -- PM servomotor Cable resistance Cable-charging currents Open-loop current control--induction motor Cable resistance Cable-charging currents

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Contents Limits to dynamic performance System control-loop instability Measures for reducing vibration 257 257 257 General Centrifugal pumps Centrifugal fans and compressors 3 Application principles/examples Cranes and hoists General Planning an installation Slewing control Crane refurbishment for a Norwegian steel wire rope maker Elevators and lifts Lift system description Speed profile generation Load weighing devices Metals and metal forming Winding, crimping and precise cutting Roll feed line Wire and cable manufacture Four-quadrant D.C. drives for a bar mill Wire-drawing machine Paper manufacturing General Sectional drives Loads and load sharing Control and instrumentation Winder drives Brake generator power and energy Unwind brake generator control Coating machines Paper-slitting machine Paper board machine Building materials Brick-handling line Roofing-tile manufacturing plant Textiles Fabric-dyeing machine Quilting machine Plastics extrusion General Basic extruder components Overall extruder performance Energy considerations Motors and controls Food Control of hammermills in animal feed production HVAC Air conditioning for driver and vehicle licensing agency Air-handling units at Oxford Brookes University students' union Steel Main mill drives Auxiliary drives Chemical Enamel painting of fluorescent tubes Marine applications Cable laying Pipe laying Control of lock gates and sluices Printing Real-time registration and shaftless web tensioning control 284 285 288 288 289 289 289 289 290 291 291 292 292 292 292 295 296 296 296 297 297 297 298 299 300 301 302 302 303 303 304 304 305 307 307 308 308 308 310 310 310 311 312 312 313 313 313 314 314 314 315 315 316 316 318 319 320 320

12 Applications
1 Typical load characteristics and ratings Metals industries Plastics Rubber Chemical Materials handling Lift, hoist and crane Concrete pipe manufacture Fans and blowers Pumps Paper and tissue Printing Packaging Engineering industries Wire and cable Hydraulics Electric motors and alternators Textiles Foods, biscuit and confection 2 Techniques common to many applications Special D.C. loads Traction motor field control Battery charging Electrolytic processes Electric heating and temperature control Digital slaving General Drive slaving techniques Principle of digital speed/position following The digital speed/position controller Load sharing General D.C. thyristor converter-fed system A.C. inverter-fed systems High-frequency inverters General Frequency control of A.C. induction motors High-frequency purpose-designed motors High-frequency inverters High-frequency applications Centre winders General Speed or torque control Taper tension Constant torque and field weakening Power requirements for centredriven winders Inertia compensation Loss compensation Flux compensation Drive selection--limiting parameters Sectional drive systems General Theory of operation Using an IEC61131-3 programming tool to configure a sectional drive line Energy saving

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Contents Offset printing presses Stage scenery -- film and theatre James Bond film stunts Controlling acoustics Exhibition focal point -- the Control Techniques' orchestra Rock concert Millennium Dome aerial ballet 321 322 322 323 323 325 326 Method Calculate speeds and gearing ratio Load, force and torque Power ratings for the motor and drive Inclined conveyor Hoist Data Velocity ratio (VR) Speed and acceleration of the hook Lifting force and torque to accelerate from rest to full speed Lifting force and torque to maintain full speed Required motor power rating Drive module power rating Screw-feed loads

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Appendix A Standards for drives

A1 IEC (international) standards Planned future IEC61800 standards A2 CENELEC (EC) standards A3 British standards A4 IEEE (USA) standards A5 UL (Underwriters' Laboratories, USA) standards A6 Other standards Electricity Association, UK EIA/TIA (previously RS) ANSI

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Appendix C Tables
C1 Mechanical conversion tables Length Area Volume Mass Energy Inertia Torque Force Power C2 General conversion tables Length Area Volume Mass Force and weight Pressure and stress Velocity (linear) Velocity (angular) Torque Energy Power Moment of inertia Temperature Flow Torque Force Moment of inertia Linear acceleration C3 Power/torque/speed nomogram

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Appendix B Symbols and formulae

B1 SI units and symbols SI base units Decimal multiples and submultiples Derived units Geometrical units Time-related units Mechanical units B2 Electrical formulae Electrical quantities A.C. three-phase (assuming balanced symmetrical waveform) A.C. single phase Three-phase induction motors Loads (phase values) Impedance A.C. vector and impedance diagrams E.m.f., energy transfer Mean and r.m.s. values, waveform Principles Mean D.C. value R.m.s. value Other waveforms Form factor B3 Mechanical formulae Laws of motion Linear motion Rotational or angular motion Relationship between linear and angular motion The effect of gearing Friction and losses Fluid flow B4 Worked examples of typical mechanical loads Conveyor Data

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Appendix D World industrial electricity supplies (` 1 kV) Appendix E Bibliography and further reading Index

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