OPTIMISATION OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE MATERIAL & ITS ANALYSIS

A project report submitted to Jawaharlal Nehru Technological University, Kakinada in the partial fulfillment for the award of Degree of BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN MECHANICAL ENGINEERING Submitted by
V.SURENDRA KUMAR G.CALEB PAUL M.LOKESH A.RAHUL G.SIVA

Under the esteemed guidance of

Mr.K.CHANDRA SEKHARAsso. Professor

BATCH: 2009-13 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

QISCOLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

An ISO Certified & accredited by NBA institute (Affiliated to JawaharlalNehruTechnologicalUniversity, Kakinada.)

ONGOLE 523 272, A.P.

QISCOLLEGE OF ENGINEERING & TECHNOLOGY

An ISO Certified & accredited by NBA institute (Affiliated to JawaharlalNehruTechnologicalUniversity, Kakinada.)

VENGAMUKKA PALEM 523272, A.P.

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitled

OPTIMIZATION OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE MATERIAL & ITS ANALYSISis a bonafied work of the following final B.Tech., studentsin

the partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology inMECHANICAL ENGINEERING for the academic year 2009-13. V.SURENDRA KUMAR G.CALEB PAUL M.LOKESH
Signature of guide

A.RAHUL G.SIVA
Signature of Head of Department

Mr.K.CHANDRASEKHAR
M.Tech.,( Ph.D) Signature of Principal

Dr. B.S.R.MURTHY
M.Tech.,Ph.D Signature of External Examiner

Dr.K.VEERASWAMY
ME., Ph.D

DECLARATION
We do here by declare that the project report entitled OPTIMISATION

OF

STEAM

TURBINE

BLADE

MATERIAL & ITS ANALYSIS

Bachelor of Technology. Date:

is an original work done and

submitted by us as a partial fulfillment for the award of degree of

V.SURENDRA KUMAR G.CALEB PAUL A.RAHUL M.LOKESH G.SIVA

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT We thank the almighty for giving us the courage and perseverance in completing the project. This is itself an acknowledgement for all those people who have given us their heartfelt cooperation in making this project a grand success. It is great pleasure to express our deep and sincere gratitude to the project guide Sri.K.CHANDRA SEKHAR.,
M.Tech.,(Ph.D.)

Associate professor for extending their

sincere and heart full guidance throughout the project work. We are greatly debated to our Head of the dept.,Dr.B.V.S.MURTHY,
Ph.D,for M.TECH,

giving valuable guidance at every stage of the project work. We are profoundly

grateful towards the unmatched services rendered by him.We are thankful to our principal Dr.K.VEERASWAMY,
M.E, Ph.D, MISTE,

for giving us the opportunity for doing

this project at an esteemed organization. Our special thanks to all lectures of Mechanical Engineering department for their valuable advices at every stage of this work. Without their supervision and many hours of devoted guidance, stimulating and constructive criticism, and this thesis would never have come out in this form. We would like to thank our friends whose direct or indirect help has enabled us to complete this work successfully. Last but not least we would like to express our deep sense of gratitude to our beloved parents for their moral support.

V.SURENDRA KUMAR G.CALEB PAUL A.RAHUL M.LOKESH G.SIVA

ABSTRACT
A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. A system of angled and shaped blades arranged on a rotor through which steam is passed to generate rotational energy. The blades are designed in such a way as to produce maximum rotational energy by directing the flow of the steam along its surface. The blades are made at specific angles in order to incorporate the net flow of steam over it in its favor. The blades may be of stationary or fixed and rotary or moving or types. The main aim of the project is to suggest the best material with in low cost. The project equipped with the construction and analysis of steam turbine blade with different materials used generally (chrome steel, titanium) and the project improves the mechanical properties like stress, displacement, temperature gradient and thermal flux etc of bladematerial for which the new material usage is introduced which is cast iron with zirconium coating. The theme of the project is to design a steam turbine blade using 3D modeling software Pro/Engineer by using the CMM point data. In this project we are conducting structural and modal analysis by applying the pressures. By conducting above analysis we are finding stresses developing on blade and mode shape of the blade. In our project we are also conducting thermal analysis for finding temperature distributing on blade. Pro/ENGINEER is the standard in 3D product design, featuring industry-leading productivity tools that promote best practices in design. Thermal analysis, to verify the thermal characteristics of the blade is also done by applying temperatures. Structural and thermal analyses are done in ANSYS.

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements.

CONTENTS:CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTIONTO STEAM TURBINE BLADE

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1.2 MANFACTURING OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE

1.3 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES AND SELECTION CHAPTER-2 INTRODUCTION TO NEW BLADE MATERIAL CONCEPT
2.1 MATERIALS USED TO MANFACTURE STEAM TURBINE BLADE 2.2 NEW BLADE MATERIAL INTRODUCTION AND ITS PROPERTIES

CHAPTER-3 DESIGN OVERVIEW

3.1CMM DATA 3.1.1GENERATION OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION ON TURBINE BLADE 3.2 LAYER OVERVIEW 3.3 INTRODUCTION TO CAD 3.4INTRODUCTION TO PRO-E 3.5DESIGN OF BLADE 3.5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS 3.5.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE

CHAPTER-4 ANALYSIS OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE

4.1INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS 4.2 ANALYSIS OF BLADES WITH DIFFERENT MATERIALS

CHAPTER-5 RESULTS OF ANALYSIS ON BLADE CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSION CHAPTER-7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

CHAPTER-1 INTRODUCTION TO STEAM TURBINE BLADE

1.1 INTRODUCTION:
STEAM TURBINE:A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam, and converts it into rotary motion. A system of angled and shaped blades arranged on a rotor through which steam is passed to generate rotational energy, and this energy is used for generation of power.

BLADE:The blade is one of the crucial part of the Entire turbine construction, if the profile is vary a little bit its entire system efficiency will effects, not only blade profile but also the material used. The blades are of two types .Which is stationary blades, moving blades.The stationary blades are used like nozzles for converting pressure energy into kinetic energy. Generally these are fixed on frame, where as the other type of blades are (moving blades) fixed on rotor these will absorbs energy which is generated from fixed blades. This is the mechanism occurred in the reaction turbine. But where as in impulse turbine, the steam (jet) will directly touches the blade profile, here we are going to use of fixed blades. In those two types each having their special features, advantages & disadvantages. The blades are manufactured by using various machining process & various tools based on work material (work piece) optimization of tool usage. Of course it is a costly process & takes more time for reducing both cost & time we are going to do this project. Not only that but also we can reduce monthly maintenance like replacement turbine blades. Generally now a days titanium is used as blade material, but it is a costly one so with good properties which are required for blade ,here our project deals with optimization of materials with the replacement of titanium with low cost material by use of refectories .It is used like a painting on surface.

1.2 MANUFACTURING OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE:

The different processes followed in the manufacture of steam turbine blade on CNC 3axis machine as follows 1. RAW MATERIAL PROCUREMENT:The steam turbine blade material is procured as per the design specification. The material is inspected dimensionally and all the mechanical and chemical analysis are made as per the specification. 2. LENGTH CUTTING: The material is cut to length by keeping machining allowance at both ends either by Band Saw or by Power Hack Saw. 3. THICKNESS MILLING: The material is clamped in a vice or fixture and thickness is milled on both sides by keeping n allowance of 0.5mm on both sides for grinding. This operation is done either by horizontal milling machining or by vertical milling machine. 4. THICKNESS GRINDING:The milled bars are deburred and kept on a magnetic chuck of the segmental surface grinding machine. 5 to 10 blades are kept each time depending on the size and ground each side to maintain the dimension. The tolerance on the grinding dimensions would be +/0.05 mm and parallarith should be within 0.02 mm. 5. RHOMBOID MILLING:The ground blade bars are milled to rhomboid shape with an angle given in the process by clamping in a fixture on both sides with an allowance of 0.5mm on both side. This is done on the horizontal milling machines. 6. RHOMBOID GRINDING: The milled bars are deburred and kept on magnetic chuck of the surface grinder and grinding is done on both sides and the tolerance should be +/0.05 mm. The surface must be within 8 microns. 7. FACING AND SIZE MILLING: The ground blades are faced on the root side to maintain perpendicularity. This is very important as the blade is held on this face while in assembly. Then on other side size milling is done to maintain the total length of blades as per the drawing.

8. ROOT MILLING:Clamp the blade in a vice or ficture and machine the root on both sides as per drawing keeping an allowance for root radius. Do not machine 2 blade as these are used for locking purpose. This operation is done on horizontal milling machine. 9. ROOT RADIUS MILLING: Clamp the blade in a vice or fixture and machine the root radius as per drawing by CNC Machining centre. This operation is done on CNC Vertical machining centre by CNC Program. 10. WIDTH MILLING:The profile width is done on both sides on horizontal milling machine as per the drawing. 11. CONVEX MILLING:The milling is done on convex side by aCNC machining centre. The CNC Program is developed based on the profile coordinates and then loaded into the CNC system of the machine. 12. CONCAVE MILLING: The profile milling is done on concave side by a CNC machining center. The CNC Program is developed based on the profile coordinate and then loaded in to the CNC system of the machine. 13. TAPER MILLING: The taper milling is done on a horizontal milling machine by putting in a fixture specially made. The taper is calculated Etc are the steps in manufacturing .

1.3 OPTIMIZATION TECHNIQUES AND SELECTION

Optimization techniques can be classified based on the type of constraints, nature of design variables, physical structure of the problem, nature of the equations involved, deterministic nature of the variables, permissible value of the design variables, separability of the functionsand number of objective functions

Classification based on the nature of the design variables There are two broad categories of classification within this classification First category : the objective is to find a set of design parameters that make a prescribed function of these parameters minimum or maximum subject to certain constraints. Second category: the objective is to find a set of design parameters, which are all continuous functions of some other parameter, that minimizes an objective function subject to a set of constraints.

Classification based on the physical structure of the problem Based on the physical structure, we can classify optimization problems are classified as optimal controland non-optimal controlproblems. (i)Anoptimal control (OC)problem is a mathematical programming problem involving a number of stages, where each stage evolves from the preceding stage in a prescribed manner. It is defined by two types of variables: the control or design variables and state variables. (ii) The problems which are not optimal control problemsarecalled non-optimal control problems. Classification based on the nature of the equations involved Based on the nature of expressions for the objective function and the constraints, optimization problems can be classified as linear, nonlinear, geometric and quadratic programming problems. (i)Linear programming problem If the objective function and all the constraints are linear functions of the design variables, the mathematical programming problem is called a linear programming (LP) problem.

(ii) Nonlinear programming problem If any of the functions among the objectives and constraint functions is nonlinear, the problem is called a nonlinear programming (NLP) problem this is the most general form of a programming problem. (iii)Geometric programming problem A geometric programming (GMP) problem is one in which the objective function and constraints are expressed as polynomials in X. (iv) Quadratic programming problem A quadratic programming problem is the best behaved nonlinear programming problem with a quadratic objective function and linear constraints and is concave (for maximization problems).

Classification based on the permissible values of the decision variables Under this classification problems can be classified asintegerand realvaluedprogramming problems (i) Integer programming problem If some or all of the design variables of an optimization problem are restricted to take only integer (or discrete) values, the problem is called an integer programming problem. (ii) Real-valued programming problem A real-valued problem is that in which it is sought to minimize or maximize a real function by systematically choosing the values of real variables from within an allowed set. When the allowed set contains only real values, it is called a real-valued programming problem. Under this classification, optimization problems can be classified as deterministicandstochastic programming problems (i) Deterministic programming problem In this type of problems all the design variables are deterministic. (ii) Stochastic programming problem In this type of an optimization problem some or all the parameters (design variables and/or pre-assigned parameters) are probabilistic (non deterministic or stochastic). For example estimates of life span of structures which have probabilistic inputs of the concrete strength and load capacity. A deterministic value of the life-span is nonattainable.

Classification based on the number of objective functions Under this classification objective functions can be classified as singleand multiobjectiveprogramming problems. (i)Single-objective programming problemin which there is only a single objective. (ii) Multi-objective programming problem

Optimization Technique Selection Criteria:

We have selected the optimization of design variable of material selection criteria where it can give good results in optimization analysis. This technique comes under the category of optimization under based upon design variables. In the project the total description contains not only optimization and the comparison of the new material with generally used materials. The individual analysis also done in the total project.

CHAPTER-2 INTRODUCTION TO NEW BLADE DESIGN

2.1 MATERIALS USED TO MANFACTURE STEAM TURBINE BLADE:

The type of material used for turbine blades is based on the stage of the turbine in which the blades will operate. There are three such stages: high-pressure (HP), intermediate-pressure (IP), and low-pressure (LP), which are named according to the relative pressure of the steam in the stage. The pressures and temperatures of each stage limit the kinds of materials that may be used in them. For instance, HP and IP stage blades are generally made from 12Cr martesitic stainless steels. However, blades used in high-temperature (> 450 C) HP or IP applications may be made of austenitic stainless steels because they have better mechanical properties at high temperatures. For example, stainless steel type AISI 422 (a martensitic stainless steel) is commonly used for HP and IP turbine sections, while AISI series 300 steels (austenitic) are used for high-temperature applications. LP blades are often, but not exclusively, made from 12Cr stainless steels also. Common types of stainless steel used in LP sections include AISI types 403, 410, 410-Cb, and 630; the exact type of steel chosen for a particular LP application depends on the strength and corrosion resistance required. Since the 1960s, titanium alloys, especially Ti-6Al-4V, have also been used for LP turbine stages. These alloys are particularly suited to LP stages for a number of reasons. First, the densities of titanium alloys are generally less than the density of steels; for example, Ti-6Al-4V has a density of only 4.43 g/cc while stainless steel type AISI 410S has a density of 7.8 g/cc. This lower density makes it possible to lengthen the LP blades and thereby increase turbine efficiency without increasing stresses in the blades due to centrifugal forces. Second, titanium alloys have greater corrosion resistance than steels; this makes titanium alloys ideal for use in LP stages where there are greater levels of moisture. Finally, titanium alloys are resistant enough to water droplet erosion that they can be used without erosion protection in certain applications. Overall, it is the material properties that make a blade reliable or doomed to failure. The yield strength, tensile strength, corrosion resistance, and modulus of elasticity all play a role in determining whether or not a blade will fail under operating loads.

2.2 NEW BLADE MATERIAL INTRODUCTION AND ITS PROPERTIES:

Generally the blade will be manufactured with stainless steel, chrome steel and some other alloy steels. If the higher performance and higher efficiency is needed the blades are manufactured with titanium which is high in cost and have good properties. Due to high cost it is very difficult to maintain and the initial investment will be high. So a material need is came in front to minimize cost and to proportionate the good properties in it. We selected cast iron with zirconium coating which will give the better properties than the titanium material. The properties of the material are listed below.

Cast Iron
Material: Material Notes: Metal; Ferrous Metal; Cast Iron This property data is a summary of similar materials in the MatWeb database for the category "Cast Iron". Each property range of values reported is minimum and maximum values of appropriate MatWeb entries. The comments report the average value, and number of data points used to calculate the average. The values are not necessarily typical of any specific grade, especially less common values and those that can be most affected by additives or processing methods.

Physical Properties Density

Metric 5.54 - 7.81 g/cc

English 0.200 0.282 lb/in English 120 - 807 162 - 906 40.0 - 97.0

Comments Average value: 7.24 g/cc Grade Count:69

Mechanical Properties Hardness, Brinell Hardness, Knoop Hardness,

Metric 120 - 807 162 - 906 40.0 - 97.0

Comments Average value: 300 Grade Count:134 Average value: 288 Grade Count:78 Average value: 69.3 Grade Count:4

Rockwell B Hardness, 11.4 - 65.0 Rockwell C Hardness, 151 - 871 Vickers Tensile 118 - 1650 Strength, MPa Ultimate Tensile 65.5 - 1450 Strength, MPa Yield Elongation at 1.00 - 25.0 % Break Reduction of 2.00 - 10.0 % Area Modulus of 62.1 - 240 GPa Elasticity Flexural 248 - 655 MPa Yield Strength Compressive 331 - 2520 Yield MPa Strength Poissons 0.240 - 0.370 Ratio Fatigue 68.9 - 510 MPa Strength Fracture 44.0 - 109 Toughness MPa-m Machinability 0.000 - 125 % Shear Modulus Shear Strength Izod Impact Unnotched Charpy Impact Charpy Impact, Unnotched 27.0 - 67.6 GPa 149 - 1480 MPa 4.00 - 244 J 6.78 - 27.1 J 4.07 - 123 J

11.4 - 65.0 151 - 871 17100 240000 psi 9500 210000 psi 1.00 - 25.0 % 2.00 - 10.0 % 9000 34800 ksi 36000 95000 psi 48000 365000 psi 0.240 0.370 10000 74000 psi 40.0 - 99.2 ksi-in 0.000 - 125 % 3920 9800 ksi 21600 215000 psi 2.95 - 180 ft-lb 5.00 - 20.0 ft-lb 3.00 - 91.0 ft-lb

Average value: 29.2 Grade Count:44 Average value: 273 Grade Count:78 Average value: 516 MPa Grade Count:137

Average value: 432 MPa Grade Count:104

Average value: 8.28 % Grade Count:93 Average value: 5.38 % Grade Count:13 Average value: 147 GPa Grade Count:62 Average value: 515 MPa Grade Count:8

Average value: 1080 MPa Grade Count:28

Average value: 0.287 Grade Count:36 Average value: 260 MPa Grade Count:31 Average value: 70.0 MPa-m Grade Count:5 Average value: 39.0 % Grade Count:10 Average value: 58.1 GPa Grade Count:33 Average value: 571 MPa Grade Count:26 Average value: 65.5 J Grade Count:12 Average value: 12.9 J Grade Count:9 Average value: 70.3 J Grade Count:18

Electrical Properties Electrical Resistivity Magnetic Permeability Thermal Properties CTE, linear

Metric

English

Comments Average value: 6.11 ohm-cm Grade Count:18

0.00000500 - 0.00000500 110 ohm-cm - 110 ohmcm 100 - 750 100 - 750

Average value: 410 Grade Count:5

Metric 7.75 - 19.3 m/m-C 0.506 J/g-C

English 4.31 - 10.7 in/inF 0.121 BTU/lbF 78.4 - 370 BTU-in/hrft-F 2050 4030 F 1200 1800 F

Comments Average value: 12.7 m/m-C Grade Count:29 Average value: 0.506 J/g-C Grade Count:6

Specific Heat Capacity Thermal Conductivity Melting Point Maximum Service Temperature, Air Minimum Service Temperature, Air Shrinkage

11.3 - 53.3 W/m-K 1120 - 2220 C 649 - 982 C

Average value: 25.2 W/m-K Grade Count:23

Average value: 1210 C Grade Count:8 Average value: 720 C Grade Count:9

-59.4 - -30.0 C

-75.0 - 22.0 F

Average value: -34.9 C Grade Count:6

0.800 - 1.50 %

0.800 1.50 %

Average value: 1.19 % Grade Count:10

Zirconium, Zr
Material: Material Notes: Metal; Nonferrous Metal; Zirconium Alloy; Pure Element This entry is for pure Zr; MatWeb also has data sheets for many Zr alloys. Characteristics: Ductile Mechanical Properties similar to titanium and austenitic stainless steel Excellent corrosion resistance Transparent to thermal energy neutrons. Forms adherent, refractory double-oxide layer above 650C Highly anisotropic, undergoes allotropic transormation from hcp-structured alpha phase to bcc-structured beta phase at 870C Applications: Superalloys Alloying with Aluminium, Copper, Magnesium or Titanium Water-cooled Nuclear reactors Chemical processing equipment

Physical Properties Density Vapor Pressure

Metric 6.53 g/cc 1.013e-10 bar @Temperature 1574 C 1.013e-9 bar @Temperature 1690 C 1.013e-8 bar @Temperature 1822 C 1.013e-7 bar @Temperature 1976 C 0.000001013 bar

English 0.236 lb/in 7.598e-8 torr @Temperature 2865 F 7.598e-7 torr @Temperature 3070 F 0.000007598 torr @Temperature 3312 F 0.00007598 torr @Temperature 3589 F 0.0007598 torr

Comments

@Temperature 2156 C 0.00001013 bar @Temperature 2367 C 0.0001013 bar @Temperature 2620 C 0.001013 bar @Temperature 2926 C 0.01013 bar @Temperature 3304 C 0.1013 bar @Temperature 3783 C 1.013 bar @Temperature 4409 C

@Temperature 3913 F 0.007598 torr @Temperature 4293 F 0.07598 torr @Temperature 4750 F 0.7598 torr @Temperature 5299 F 7.598 torr @Temperature 5979 F 75.98 torr @Temperature 6841 F 759.8 torr @Temperature 7968 F English 40 0.18 barns/atom 0.68877 4.8938 5.37088 5.57374 1.33 0.790 1.09 K LI LII LIII Pauling Crystal Ionic Radius for Valence +4 Crystal Ionic Radius for Valence +1 Comments

Chemical Properties Atomic Number Thermal Neutron Cross Section X-ray Absorption Edge

Metric 40 0.18 barns/atom 0.68877 4.8938 5.37088 5.57374 1.33 0.790 1.09

Electronegativity Ionic Radius

Electrochemical Equivalent

0.844 g/A/h

0.844 g/A/h

Mechanical Properties Hardness, Brinell

Metric 145

English 145

Comments Converted from Vickers for 3000 kg load/10 mm ball. Annealed sample Converted from Vickers. annealed sample Converted from Vickers. Annealed sample annealed sample Annealed Annealed Annealed

Hardness, Rockwell A Hardness, Rockwell B Hardness, Vickers Tensile Strength, Ultimate Tensile Strength, Yield Elongation at Break Modulus of Elasticity Poissons Ratio Shear Modulus Electrical Properties Electrical Resistivity Magnetic Susceptibility Critical Magnetic Field Strength, Oersted Critical Superconducting Temperature

49

49

78

78

150 330 MPa 230 MPa 32% 94.5 GPa 0.34 35.3 GPa Metric 0.0000400 ohm-cm 0.00000134 47

150 47900 psi 33400 psi 32% 13700 ksi 0.34 5120 ksi English 0.0000400 ohmcm 0.00000134 47

Calculated Comments

cgs/g

0.610 K

0.610 K

0.15; 0.65, 0.95 K for omega Zr.

Thermal Properties Heat of Fusion CTE, linear

Metric

English

Comments

Specific Heat Capacity Thermal Conductivity Melting Point Boiling Point Optical Properties Emissivity (0-1)

251 J/g 108 BTU/lb 5.80 m/m-C 3.22 in/in-F @Temperature 20.0 - 100 @Temperature C 68.0 - 212 F 6.30 m/m-C 3.50 in/in-F @Temperature 250 C @Temperature 482 F 6.90 m/m-C 3.83 in/in-F @Temperature 500 C @Temperature 932 F 0.285 J/g-C 0.0681 BTU/lbF 16.7 W/m-K 116 BTU-in/hrft-F 1852 C 3366 F 4377 C 7911 F Metric 0.32 English 0.32 Comments 650 nm; unoxidized; total Comments cold-rolled, in vacuum hot-rolled solution annealing for forged billets Comments

Processing Properties Annealing Temperature

Metric >= 705 C >= 760 C >= 1000 C

English >= 1300 F >= 1400 F >= 1830 F

Component Elements Properties Zirconium, Zr Descriptive Properties Alpha Phase Crystal Structure Beta Phase Crystal Structure CAS Number

Metric

English

100%

100%

hcp bcc 7440-67-7

< 870C > 870C

CHAPTER-3 DESIGN OVERVIEW

3.1 CMM DATA

3.1.1. GENERATION OF PRESSURE DISTRIBUTION DATA ON THE BLADE SURFACE:
Last stage blade of steam turbine ,which is being analyzed, for stress and vibration is a highly twisted blade due to the variation if the blade speeds across the height of the blade. The deflection in the blade passage also reduces from hub to tip to vary the loading on each section. Thus the pressure distribution on the suction & pressure surface of the blade changes considerably from hub to tip to match the loading at that section.It is known fact that the area of pressure distribution curve representing the blade loading. Hence it has been decided to generate the pressure distribution at all the 17 blade sections. The following procedure allows to get the blade surface pressure distribution with the help of BladeGen & BladeGen plus package. From the blade coordinate input data file for suction/pressure surface x, y, z, coordinate of surface was generated as a loop with the following notations.

X-along the height of the blade. Y- Meridional direction. Z-along blade to blade

2. Profile curve is generated with above coordinates of all sections placed one below the other is sequence from section (1) to section (5 along the height of the blade. The coordinates between two section separated by #. 3. Hub & Shroud boundary is generated at the appropriate heights with Y negative meridional axis corresponded from LE (Leading edge). And positive distance from meridional distance from TE (Tailing Edge).

4. Hub. Curve file is generated as follows X, Y, Z 283.450000 283.450000 283.450000 0.000000000 0.000000000 0.000000000 -100.000000 0.000000000 100.0000000

In between the values Comma is compulsory. (X, Y, Z) A profile contains total 60 points for all 5 sections. 5. Profile. Curve file is generated as follows X, Y, Z # 283.45,-5.74,-22.92 283.45,-5.23,-23.25 283.45,-4.46,-23.36 283.45,-3.43,-23.22 283.45,-2.15,-22.82 283.45,-0.66,-22.12 283.45, 1.03,-21.11 283.45, 2.85,-19.72 283.45, 4.74,-17.91 283.45, 6.61,-15.62 283.45, 8.32,-12.78 283.45, 9.66,-9.39 283.45, 10.4,-5.53 283.45, 10.35,-1.43 #442.65, 15.21,-15.51 442.65, 15.64,-15.21 442.65, 15.81,-14.69 442.65, 15.74,-13.95 442.65, 15.44,-12.99 442.65, 14.91,-11.83 442.65, 14.19,-10.49

442.65, 13.26,-8.99 442.65, 12.14,-7.36 442.65, 10.79,-5.66 442.65, 9.23,-3.95

6. Shroud. Curve File is generated as follows: 442.65 0 442.65 0 442.65 0 -100 0 100

3.2 LAYER OVER VIEW:

A layer (or streamline) is defined as a meridional curve visible in the Meridional View that represents surface of revolution. Most layer types, shown below, represent curves that are automatically created and updated as the Meridional Envelope (hub and shroud curves, leading and trailing edge curves) are modified.

Fig.3.1 Single Blade

Layers serve two key purposes:

1) Layers are referenced by the working views (Angle, Thickness, and Prs/Sct Views) to provide the meridional location of the view's data sets. 2) Layers specify where streamline data sets are to be constructed for export.

MERIDIONAL PROFILES:
The meridional profile is primarily determined by a set of curve (Hub, Shroud, inlet and outlet) This data is modified with leading and trailing edge curves (and other meridional control curves) to describe an interpolation surface or grid in axial (z) and radial co-ordinates vs. stream wise (u) and span wise (v) positions. This interpolation grid is used when defining the layer that the meridional profile stores, which are reference by the angle, thickness and prs/sct curves and used to define location of o/p data sets.

ANGLE AND THICKNESS SPANWISE DISTRIBUTIONS

BladeGen offers several options for controlling the span wise distribution of angle and thickness values. These options can be displayed by clicking the right mouse button in the Angle or Thickness View and selecting Span wise Distribution Type sub-menu from the resulting popup menu. Note that it is allowable for the Angle View to have a different Span wise Distribution type than the Thickness View. The following Span wise Distribution types are available: General Ruled Element Axial Element

General
The General Distribution is the default Span wise Distribution type. The parameter of interest (angle or thickness) is defined by curves on defining layers that use various meridional coordinates from those layers. Since these layers may have arbitrary shapes that don't necessarily correspond to true streamlines, BladeGen must first convert their coordinates to "true" meridional coordinates (consistent with the meridional interpolation grid) before using them to compute the parameters to generate a blade.

 Ruled Element
The Ruled Element Span wise Distribution type is only available in the Angle View.In a ruled element blade, the angular location is defined by a straight line drawn in 3D space between points at the span location on the hub and shroud. The hub and shroud curves are the master curves. They control the generation of all other defining curves. Thus, the hub and shroud curves are the only curves that the user can modify in the Span wise Distribution type. When one of the defining curves is updated from the hub curve, it obtains its location by the intersection of the surface of revolution generated using the meridional streamline and the lines drawn between corresponding pairs of points on the hub and shroud. Once this update occurs, a conversion is made to "true"Meridional coordinates using the same method as in the general Span wise Distribution type.

Axial Element
In an axial element blade, the parameter of interest (angle or thickness) depends exclusively on radial position (R) at each span location. The hub curve is the master curve; it controls the curves for all of the other defining layers. Thus, the hub curve is the only curve that the user can modify in this Span wise Distribution type. When a defining layer curve is updated from the hub curve, it obtains its parameter (angle or thickness) at a given meridional position by using an axial projection from the hub curve. Once this update occurs, a conversion is made to "true" meridional coordinates using the same method as in the general Span wise Distribution type. When using axial element blades, it is important to specify enough defining layers to adequately describe the geometry of interest. In most cases, 5 layers are sufficient.When this distribution type is used in the Thickness View, there is a menu command in the popup menu to specify a taper angle. The taper angle, which normally defaults to zero, is limited to guarantee a minimum thickness of 10% of the specified value

Blade Settings:
This section describes parameters and functions that apply to a single blade. They are accessed using either the Blade menu or the blade toolbar. BladeGen has the ability to design with splitter blades. Splitter blades are blades Splitter blades can be

positioned between main blades for additional flow control.

dependent on the main blade for their angular and thickness definitions or have their own, independent, definitions. Like layers, BladeGen has one active blade at a time. Most views display only the data pertaining to the active blade. Only the Blade-to-Blade and 3D Views display all blades.

AUXILIARY VIEW DETAILS:

The Auxiliary View is used to display various data sets describing the model and is automatically updated when modifications are performed in a Working View. The values displayed are calculated from the same data structures and functions that are used to output geometry for other purposes.

The following view types are available.

Blade-to-Blade View 3D View Meridional Contour View.

Blade-To-Blade View:
The Blade-to-Blade view, shown below, combines the meridional, angular, and thickness descriptions of the blade along a streamline (called a layer). The blade is displayed as a function of the distance along the streamline in the meridional view and its angular position using one of three Coordinate Systems.

Fig.3.2 Blade-To-Blade View

3d View:
This view allows the user to visualize the model in three dimensions, as shown below. The model can be dynamically rotated, panned and zoomed to achieve the desired viewing perspective. With material (surface) visibility and clipping plane controls, the user can choose to view a subset of the model in greater detail. The user may also choose to view multiple blades by using the replicates controls. Like any other auxiliary view, the 3D view is automatically updated when a change is made in one of the working views.

Fig.3.3 3d-View Of A Twisted Blade

Fig.3.4 Total 3d-View Of An Axial Turbine RotorFront View Of An Axial Turbine

Fig.3.5 Unstructured Mesh Model Of Rotor

Meridional Contour View: BladeGen allows the user to plot contours of Theta, Beta, Lean, or Thickness on the meridional profile, as shown below. This view can be displayed using the View | Auxiliary View Content | Meridional Contour View menu command or by pressing the toolbar button (located by default on the right edge of the main window). The Contour view can display the following values: Theta (Blade Location); Beta (Blade Angle); Blade Lean Angle; Normal Thickness; and Modified Thickness (Includes Over/Under-Filing). The user can select from several grid densities: Very Fine; Fine; Medium; and Course. These settings use predetermined point counts, which are distributed using the lengths of the four edges of the blade.

3.3 INTRODUCTION TO CAD

Computer-aided design (CAD), also known as computer-aided design and drafting (CADD), is the use of computer technology for the process of design and designdocumentation. Computer Aided Drafting describes the process of drafting with a computer. CADD software, or environments, provide the user with input-tools for the purpose of streamlining design processes; drafting, documentation, and manufacturing processes. CADD output is often in the form of electronic files for print or machining operations. The development of CADD-based software is in direct correlation with the processes it seeks to economize; industry-based software (construction, manufacturing, etc.) typically uses vector-based (linear) environments whereas graphic-based software utilizes raster-based (pixilated) environments. CADD environments often involve more than just shapes. As in the manual drafting of technical and engineering drawings, the output of CAD must convey information, such as materials, processes, dimensions, and tolerances, according to application-specific conventions. CAD may be used to design curves and figures in two-dimensional (2D) space; or curves, surfaces, and solids in three-dimensional (3D) objects. CAD is an important industrial art extensively used in many applications, including automotive, shipbuilding, and aerospace industries, industrial and architectural design, prosthetics, and many more. CAD is also widely used to produce computer animation for special effects in movies, advertising and technical manuals. The modern ubiquity and power of computers means that even perfume bottles and shampoo dispensers are designed using techniques unheard of by engineers of the 1960s. Because of its enormous economic importance, CAD has been a major driving force for research in computational geometry, computer graphics (both hardware and software), and discrete differential geometry. Current computer-aided design software packages range from 2D vector-based drafting systems to 3D solid and surfacemodelers. Modern CAD packages can also frequently

allow rotations in three dimensions, allowing viewing of a designed object from any desired angle, even from the inside looking out. Some CAD software is capable of dynamic mathematic modeling, in which case it may be marketed as CADD computer-aided design and drafting. CAD is used in the design of tools and machinery and in the drafting and design of all types of buildings, from small residential types (houses) to the largest commercial and industrial structures (hospitals and factories). CAD is mainly used for detailed engineering of 3D models and/or 2D drawings of physical components, but it is also used throughout the engineering process from conceptual design and layout of products, through strength and dynamic analysis of assemblies to definition of manufacturing methods of components. It can also be used to design objects. CAD has become an especially important technology within the scope of computer-aided technologies, with benefits such as lower product development costs and a greatly shortened design cycle. CAD enables designers to lay out and develop work on screen, print it out and save it for future editing, saving time on their drawings. Types of CAD Software 2D CAD Two-dimensional, or 2D, CAD is used to create flat drawings of products and structures. Objects created in 2D CAD are made up of lines, circles, ovals, slots and curves. 2D CAD programs usually include a library of geometric images; the ability to create Bezier curves, splines and polylines; the ability to define hatching patterns; and the ability to provide a bill of materials generation. Among the most popular 2D CAD programs are AutoCAD, CADkey, CADDS 5, and Medusa.

3D CAD Three-dimensional (3D) CAD programs come in a wide variety of types, intended for different applications and levels of detail. Overall, 3D CAD programs create a realistic model of what the design object will look like, allowing designers to solve potential problems earlier and with lower production costs. Some 3D CAD programs include Autodesk Inventor, CoCreate Solid Designer, Pro/Engineer SolidEdge, SolidWorks, Unigraphics NX and VX CAD, PRO/ENGINEER V5. 3D Wireframe and Surface Modeling CAD programs that feature 3D wireframe and surface modeling create a skeleton-like inner structure of the object being modeled. A surface is added on later. These types of CAD models are difficult to translate into other software and are therefore rarely used anymore. Solid Modeling Solid modeling in general is useful because the program is often able to calculate the dimensions of the object it is creating. Many sub-types of this exist. Constructive Solid Geometry (CSG) CAD uses the same basic logic as 2D CAD, that is, it uses prepared solid geometric objects to create an object. However, these types of CAD software often cannot be adjusted once they are created. Boundary Representation (Brep) solid modeling takes CSG images and links them together. Hybrid systems mix CSG and Brep to achieve desired designs.

3.4 INTRODUCTION TO PRO/ENGINEER

Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire is the standard in 3D product design, featuring industry-leading productivity tools that promote best practices in design while ensuring compliance with your industry and company standards. Integrated Pro/ENGINEER CAD/CAM/CAE solutions allow you to design faster than ever, while maximizing innovation and quality to ultimately create exceptional products.

Customer requirements may change and time pressures may continue to mount, but your product design needs remain the same - regardless of your project's scope, you need the powerful, easy-to-use, affordable solution that Pro/ENGINEER provides.

Pro/ENGINEER Wildfire Benefits: Unsurpassed geometry creation capabilities allow superior product differentiation and manufacturability Fully integrated applications allow you to develop everything from concept to manufacturing within one application Automatic propagation of design changes to all downstream deliverables allows you to design with confidence Complete virtual simulation capabilities enable you to improve product performance and exceed product quality goals Automated generation of associative tooling design, assembly instructions, and machine code allow for maximum production efficiency Pro ENGINEER can be packaged in different versions to suit your needs, from Pro/ENGINEER Foundation XE, to Advanced XE Package and Enterprise XE Package, Pro/ENGINEER Foundation XE Package brings together a broad base of functionality. From robust part modeling to advanced surfacing, powerful assembly modeling and simulation, your needs will be met with this scalable solution. Flex3C and Flex Advantage Build on this base offering extended functionality of your choosing.

DIFFERENT MODULES IN PRO/ENGINEER PART DESIGN ASSEMBLY DRAWING SKETCHER

3.5 DESIGN OVERVIEW

3.5.1 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Design will be created by considering the main consideration i.e. failures of the turbine blade. The break down and failures of turbo machineries have been influencing such as consequential damages, hazards to public life and most importantly the cost to repairs .To avoid these, it is obvious that the balding of turbo machinery must be made structurally stronger, that means not in dimensions and/or use of materials of construction, but keeping the operating stresses well within the limits. Turbo machinery blades are classified into two categories depending on their manner of operation as either impulse or reaction blades. Impulse blades function by redirecting the passing fluid (steam or gas) flow, through a specified angle. A work producing force is developed by resulting change of momentum of passing fluid flow. Reaction blades function as airfoils by developing a gas dynamic lift from the pressure difference, which the airfoil causes, between the blades upper and lower surfaces. High-pressure stages are generally impulse stages and low-pressure stages are reaction stages. Thus, a single free standing blade can be considered as pre-twisted continuous beam with an asymmetric airfoil cross-section mounted at a stagger angle on a rotating disc.

Failure of bladed disc: Excessive stresses Resonance due to vibration Operating environmental effects. Ever increasing demands of high performance together with reliability of operation, long life and lightweight necessitate consistent development of almost every part of steam turbine blades from a vital part of a turbo machine. Apart from their shape and geometry, on which the performance characteristics of the machine largely depend, their dynamic strength is of considerable importance as far as the reliability operation and life of the engine are concerned. High cycle fatigue plays a significant role in many turbine blade failures. During operation, periodic fluctuations in the steam force occur at frequencies Corresponding to the operating speed and harmonics and cause the bladed disk to vibrate. The amplitude of these vibrations depends in part of the natural frequencies of the bladed disk to the forcing frequency. Large amplitude vibration can occur when the forcing frequency approaches or becomes resonant with the natural frequency of the blades. Dynamic stresses associated with near resonant or resonant vibration produce high cycle fatigue damage and can initiate and propagate cracks very quickly. Steam turbine manufacturers typically design and manufacture blades with adequate margins between the forcing frequencies and the fundamental natural frequencies to avoid resonance.

REASONS FOR FAILURES IN STEAM TURBINE BLADES:

In the following paragraphs various failure modes of the turbine blade are discussed along with different kinds of stresses in the blade and the nature of aerodynamic excitation. A brief discussion of each of the above failure mechanisms follows in order to understand their significance.

Excessive stress:
The total stress at any location of the blade is, sum of the centrifugal tension, centrifugal bending, steady steam bending and the alternating bending. The amplitude of alternating bending depends on the dynamic bending force, damping factor and the resonant frequency. importance. Each of these is briefly discussed below to highlight their

Centrifugal stress: In steam turbine, centrifugal stress is never the main cause of a blade failure, except in the rare cases of turbine run-away or due to low cycle fatigue caused by frequent start ups/shut downs. However, centrifugal stress is an important contributing factor with fatigue failure, corrosion fatigue failure and stress corrosion failures. The level of centrifugal stress is kept at such a level so as to have enough margins for alternating stress. The blade configuration is designed so as to keep the center of gravity of shroud, airfoil and root attachments, on a common radial axis. This prevents

centrifugal induced torsion stresses. Using any of the standard FEM packages can best carry out analysis of centrifugal stress. Steam induced stress steady state: Steam being the driving force, exerts loads on the blade due to steam pressure from the pressure side of the blade profile thereby inducing bending stresses. This bending stress is superimposed on the centrifugal tension. Although the net value of steady bending load and centrifugal stress alone is not normally a cause of blade failure, this is the basis for the majority of failures arising due to vibratory stresses superimposed upon them. Steam induced stress Alternating: Steam induced alternating stress can be induced by interrupted arc of admission, nozzle wake at nozzle passing frequency, mismatch of diaphragm nozzle at horizontal split and/or missing diaphragm blades, nozzle pitch variation, poor nozzle profile etc. Estimation of the vibratory stress caused by these requires the analysis of the response of the blade to the excitation forces caused by these. Obviously the inputs to such an analysis are the excitation levels, the damping, natural frequency and the mode shape of the blade vibration. Disk vibrations, which can get excited due to variety of reasons, can also cause high stresses in the blade roots leading to failure. This aspect of blade stressing is quite involved and many a time difficult to compute correctly.

Impact stress: Impact stress arises due to entrapment of a foreign body such as broken valve spindles, strainers etc. This may result in a chain reaction and can cause failure in many downstream rotating and stationary blades. Impact stress also results due to water ingress and at times due to steam hammer and from rubbing of blades in the event of failure of the thrust bearing. Low cycle fatigue: Low cycle fatigue is caused by frequent start/stop operations, thermal cycling and frequent water slugging or water washing, due to inadequate water drainage in the casing and can cause failures within few hundreds to a few thousands stress cycle. Thermal fatigue: Thermal fatigues is a low cycle fatigue process as a result of thermal stress caused due to quick starting, rapid and frequent load changing, steam temperature cycling and water slugging. Considerable thermal stresses are generated due to the temperature differential since blade foil is in direct contact with the nozzle upstream temperature whereas much cooler spent steam cools shroud, root and disk. Creep stress: Creep stress failures are rare but cracking at locations with high stress concentrations may take place, if design is inadequate. Hence high temperature stages should have larger fillet radii at the root.

Resonant vibration:
Vibration is important in designing turbine blades/disk since resonant vibratory stresses, sustained over a period of time, can cause fatigue failures. The period of time need not be large since a 500Hz vibration accumulates 2 million cycles in an hour and 108 cycles in 2 days. Bladed disk poses a worst vibratory fatigue problem since it is directly exposed to a wide range of aerodynamic excitation and failure can result when any of the following matching takes place. A rotating turbine blade (bucket) is the components, which converts the energy of flowing fluid into mechanical energy. Thus the reliability of these blades is very important for successful operation of turbine. Metallurgical examinations of failed blades

show that almost all the failures can be attributed to the fatigue of metal. Fluctuating forces in combination with the steady forces cause fatigue failure. Turbo machine experience fluctuating forces when they pass through non-uniform fluid from stationary vanes (nozzle). The basic design consideration is to avoid or to minimize the dynamic stresses due to fluctuating force. Based on the vibration of the mechanical structures, the dynamic behavior of turbine blade, blades or the bladed disc assembly can be predicted. The present work presents an approach for modeling of blades, bladed disc & for its vibration analysis. Generally turbo machine low-pressure stage blades are long, twisted & tapered, so it needs lot of input data to accurately define the complete geometry. Blade geometry is defined by giving different profile data at Different heights. To reduce the pains for creation of solid model of this type of blades, a program file called as macro, was developed in ansys command. From these macros solid model was created. Finite element method for the single blade solid model was created with eight nodded quadrilateral brick element in ansys. Two types of analysis was done for this present work Free standing blade static analysis Free standing blade model analysis.

The maximum number of nodal diameters in bladed disc assembly is half the number of blades (for an even number of blades). For the disc having an odd number of the blades, the maximum nodal diameter is (number of blades-1)/2 For free standing blade root supports stiffness effect was studied and frequency at different rotating speeds also calculated Analytical work to determine the blade characteristics calls for accurately modeling the geometry. Results obtained through analytical work makes quite closely with experimental work confirming the accuracy of the model and the adequacy of assumed boundary conditions.

3.5.2 DESIGN PROCEDURE

A turbo machine blade is usually a cantilever beam or plate is tapered and twisted with an airfoil cross-section. Typically a turbo machine has several stages, each stage with a stator and rotor. In the stator, they are all inserted as diaphragms or nozzles in a ring to guide the flow medium at an appropriate entry angle into rotor blades. The rotor blades are mounted on a disc at a stagger angle to the machine axis and they convert the thermal energy into mechanical energy in turbine. In turbine steam enters at high pressure and temperature in the first stage and expands while passing through the several stages before it is let out from the last Stage with low temperature and pressure after extracting as much as thermal energy as possible. Hence, the short blades in high pressure have high frequency of the order of 1000Hz, which becomes progressively lower about 100Hz in the last stage long blades. In the compressor stage, the operation principle is reversed to compress the gases utilizing the supplied mechanical power. A typical rotor blades sees upstream disturbances from the stator row and as it rotates, receives a corresponding number of increasing and decreasing lift and moment alternating periodically depending on the number of stator blades/nozzles/guide vanes. A stator blade can also be imagined to rotate in an opposite direction to the rotor relative to the moving row and thus receives a corresponding number of periodic forces and moments equal to the rotor blades. An ideal placement of blades in the stator is not feasible in practice. Firstly, the blades are not all identical in their cross section along the length, their pitch distance from blade to blade varies, and the axial and angular locations will have some errors in mounting them in the stator housing. Because of these errors in the stator, mechanical excitation at rotational speed and its harmonics occurs on the rotor blades.

Natural frequency and mode shape:

Natural frequency is the frequency at which an object vibrates when excited by a force, such as a sharp blow from a hammer. At this frequency, the structure offers the least resistance to a force and if left uncontrolled, failure can occur. Mode shape is the way in which the object deflects at this frequency. An example of natural frequency and mode

shape is given in the case of a guitar string. When struck, the string vibrates at a certain frequency and attains deflection shape. The frequency can be noted by the pitch coming from the string. Different string geometries lead to different natural frequencies or notes. By nature of its structure, a turbine blade has many natural frequencies and mode shapes. These frequencies and mode shapes are somewhat further complicated by the use of shroud to connect group of blades together. MODEL PREPARATION AND FORMATION Solid modeling is the first step for doing any analysis and testing and it gives physical picture for new products. FEM models can easily create from solid models, by the process of meshing. FEM models can be made manually, but it is for simple cases only. If the model is of complex shape, only way for preparing FEM model is meshing the solid model. While dealing with complex blade structures such as blades with root or blades with coupling from disc or shroud, development of special purpose finite element packages becomes too involved. In those cases it becomes handy to adopt some wellestablished finite element codes and couple them with information from aerodynamics and damping models. Some of the important commercial codes available are:

NASTRAN, ANSYS, NISA, SDRC, I-DEAS etc. here we will consider the application of ANSYS software to model a Low Pressure last stage turbine blade with its root.

Fig.3.6 Assembly of CMM data by a curve

Fig.3.7 CMM data free curves (3D CURVES)

Fig.3.8 solid blade view

Fig.3.9 final model in 3D

Fig.3.10 final model in 2D

CHAPTER-4 ANALYSIS OF STEAM TURBINE BLADE

INTRODUCTION TO FEA:
Finite Element Analysis (FEA) was first developed in 1943 by R. Courant, who utilized the Ritz method of numerical analysis and minimization of variational calculus to obtain approximate solutions to vibration systems. Shortly thereafter, a paper published in 1956 by M. J. Turner, R. W. Clough, H. C. Martin, and L. J. Topp established a broader definition of numerical analysis. The paper centered on the "stiffness and deflection of complex structures". By the early 70's, FEA was limited to expensive mainframe computers generally owned by the aeronautics, automotive, defense, and nuclear industries. Since the rapid decline in the cost of computers and the phenomenal increase in computing power, FEA has been developed to an incredible precision. Present day supercomputers are now able to produce accurate results for all kinds of parameters. FEA consists of a computer model of a material or design that is stressed and analyzed for specific results. It is used in new product design, and existing product refinement. A company is able to verify a proposed design will be able to perform to the client's specifications prior to manufacturing or construction. Modifying an existing product or structure is utilized to qualify the product or structure for a new service condition.In case of structural failure, FEA may be used to help determine the design modifications to meet the new condition. There are generally two types of analysis that are used in industry: 2-D modeling, and 3D modeling. While 2-D modeling conserves simplicity and allows the analysis to be run on a relatively normal computer, it tends to yield less accurate results. 3-D modeling, however, produces more accurate results while sacrificing the ability to run on all but the fastest computers effectively. Within each of these modeling schemes, the programmer can insert numerous algorithms (functions) which may make the system behave linearly or non-linearly. Linear systems are far less complex and generally do not take into account plastic deformation. Non-linear systems do account for plastic deformation, and many also are capable of testing a material all the way to fracture.

FEA uses a complex system of points called nodes which make a grid called a mesh. This mesh is programmed to contain the material and structural properties which define how the structure will react to certain loading conditions. Nodes are assigned at a certain density throughout the material depending on the anticipated stress levels of a particular area. Regions which will receive large amounts of stress usually have a higher node density than those which experience little or no stress. Points of interest may consist of: fracture point of previously tested material, fillets, corners, complex detail, and high stress areas. The mesh acts like a spider web in that from each node, there extends a mesh element to each of the adjacent nodes. This web of vectors is what carries the material properties to the object, creating many elements. A wide range of objective functions (variables within the system) are available for minimization or maximization:

Mass, volume, temperature Strain energy, stress strain Force, displacement, velocity, acceleration Synthetic (User defined)

There are multiple loading conditions which may be applied to a system. Some examples are shown:

Point, pressure, thermal, gravity, and centrifugal static loads Thermal loads from solution of heat transfer analysis Enforced displacements Heat flux and convection Point, pressure and gravity dynamic loads

Each FEA program may come with an element library, or one is constructed over time. Some sample elements are:

Rod elements Beam elements

Plate/Shell/Composite elements Shear panel Solid elements Spring elements Mass elements Rigid elements Viscous damping elements

Many FEA programs also are equipped with the capability to use multiple materials within the structure such as:

Isotropic, identical throughout Orthotropic, identical at 90 degrees General anisotropic, different throughout

Types of Engineering Analysis Structuralanalysis consists of linear and non-linear models. Linear models use simple parameters and assume that the material is not plastically deformed. Non-linear models consist of stressing the material past its elastic capabilities. The stresses in the material then vary with the amount of deformation as in. Vibrationalanalysis is used to test a material against random vibrations, shock, and impact. Each of these incidences may act on the natural vibrational frequency of the material which, in turn, may cause resonance and subsequent failure. Fatigueanalysis helps designers to predict the life of a material or structure by showing the effects of cyclic loading on the specimen. Such analysis can show the areas where crack propagation is most likely to occur. Failure due to fatigue may also show the damage tolerance of the material.

Heat Transfer analysis models the conductivity or thermal fluid dynamics of the material or structure. This may consist of a steady-state or transient transfer. Steady-state transfer refers to constant thermo properties in the material that yield linear heat diffusion.

4.1 INTRODUCTION TO ANSYS

ANSYS is general-purpose finite element analysis (FEA) software package. Finite Element Analysis is a numerical method of deconstructing a complex system into very small pieces (of user-designated size) called elements. The software implements equations that govern the behaviour of these elements and solves them all; creating a comprehensive explanation of how the system acts as a whole. These results then can be presented in tabulated, or graphical forms. This type of analysis is typically used for the design and optimization of a system far too complex to analyze by hand. Systems that may fit into this category are too complex due to their geometry, scale, or governing equations. ANSYS is the standard FEA teaching tool within the Mechanical Engineering Department at many colleges. ANSYS is also used in Civil and Electrical Engineering, as well as the Physics and Chemistry departments. ANSYS provides a cost-effective way to explore the performance of products or processes in a virtual environment. This type of product development is termed virtual prototyping. With virtual prototyping techniques, users can iterate various scenarios to optimize the product long before the manufacturing is started. This enables a reduction in the level of risk, and in the cost of ineffective designs. The multifaceted nature of ANSYS also provides a means to ensure that users are able to see the effect of a design on the whole behavior of the product, be it electromagnetic, thermal, mechanical etc.

4.2 ANALYSIS OF BLADES WITH DIFFERENT MATERIALS Static analysis Chrome steel:

Fig.4.1 The above image is imported from Pro-e to Ansys using IGES (Initial Graphical Exchange Specification) format.

Fig.4.2 The above image is showing meshing is used to divide the problem into number of small problems and also to apply the material and element properties.

Fig.4.3 The above image showing loads acting on spring

Fig.4.4 The above image is showing distributed shape or variation of geometry shape after applying loads. The maximum displacement is 0.147608 mm.

Fig.4.5 The above image is showing vonmises stress value. Vonmises stress depends on vonmises theory of failure.

Fig.4.6 The above image is first mode shape of turbine blade having 11.174 and also the first mode is considered as natural frequency of object.

Fig.4.7 The above image is the second mode shape having frequency 23.56

Fig.4.8 The above image is the third mode shape having frequency 66.537

Fig.4.9 The above image is the fourth mode shape having frequency 68.111

Fig.4.10 The above image is the fifth mode shape having frequency 120.03

Static analysisTitanium:

Fig.4.11The above image is showing distributed shape or variation of geometry shape after applying loads. The maximum displacement is 0.256561 mm.

Fig.4.12 The above image is showing von-misses stress value. Von-misses stress depends on von-misses theory of failure.

Fig.4.13 The above image is first mode shape of turbine blade having 11.154 and also the first mode is considered as natural frequency of object.

Fig.4.14 The above image is the second mode shape having frequency 23.247

Fig.4.15 The above image is the third mode shape having frequency 64.855

Fig.4.16 The above image is the fourth mode shape having frequency 67.216

Fig.4.17 The above image is the fifth mode shape having 118.454 Thermal Analysis Chrome steel

: Fig.4.18 The above image is showing thermal loads.

Fig.4.19 The above image showing the Temperature Distribution.

Fig.4.20 The above image is showing the Thermal Gradient sum.

Fig.4.21The above image is showing the Thermal Flux sum. Thermal Analysis Titanium:

Fig.4.22 The above image is showing thermal loads.

Fig.4.23 The above image showing the Temperature Distribution.

Fig.4.24 The above image is showing the Thermal Gradient sum.

Fig.4.25 The above image is showing the Thermal Flux sum.

Ceramic coating: Static analysis

Fig.4.26 The above image is imported from Pro-E to Ansys using IGES (Initial Graphical Exchange Specification) format.

Fig.4.27 The above image is showing distributed shape or variation of geometry shape after applying loads. The maximum displacement is 0.430927 mm.

Fig.4.28 The above image is showing von-misses stress value. Von-misses stress depends on von-misses theory of failure.

Fig.4.29 The above image is first mode shape of turbine blade having 10.522 and also the first mode is considered as natural frequency of object.

Fig.4.30 The above image is the second mode shape having frequency 22.31

Fig.4.31 The above image is the third mode shape having frequency 60.367

Fig.4.32 The above image is the fourth mode shape having frequency 52.926

Fig.4.33 The above image is the fifth mode shape having mode shape 116.057

Thermal analysis of ceramic coating:

Fig.4.34 The above image is showing the thermal loads

Fig.4.35 The above image showing the Temperature Distribution.

Fig.4.36 The above image is showing the thermal flux

Fig.4.37 The above image is showing the thermal gradient sum

CHAPTER-5 RESULTS OF THE ANALYSIS ON BLADES

RESULTS TABLE

chrome steel

Titanium

Stress(N/

339.07 0.147608 533 715.055 11.727

327.817 0.256561 533 605.119 10.287

Cast Iron With Zirconium coating 258.892 .0430927 533 72.591 15.97

Displacement(mm) Temperature(c) Thermal gradient(c/mm) Thermal flux(W/ )

The results table is explained in the below graphs by comparing with each other. The values shown in the above table are taken from the thermal and structural analysis of the blade using ansys software. The materials are shown in the graphs are listed as like mentioned below.

1. Chrome Steel 2. Titanium

3. Cast Iron coated with Zirconium

Stress(N/

): Stress(N/mm^2)

339.07 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 0 1

327.817 258.892

Stress(N/mm^2)

The maximum stress applied on the blade is represented on the graph which will give a brief explanation that relatively it is low on the applied new material.

Displacement(mm): Displacement(mm)
0.3 0.25 0.2 0.15 0.1 0.05 0 1 2 3 0.0430927 0.147608 Displacement(mm) 0.256561

The above chart explains that the displacement due to the stresses is less compared to generally used materials for the applied new material.

Temperature(c): Temperature(c)
600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 Temperature(c) 533 533 533

Comparatively the temperature on the surface of the blade is same for all materials. So this shows that there is nothing changed and no loss by introducing new material

Thermal gradient(c/mm): Thermal gradient(c/mm)

800 700 600 500 400 300 200 100 0 1 2 3 72.591 Thermal gradient(c/mm) 715.055 605.119

Relatively thermal gradient is less for the new applied material. So it is an advantage for intro of zirconium coated cast iron. .

Thermal flux(W/

):

Thermal flux(W/mm^2)
15.97 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 1 2 3 Thermal flux(W/mm^2) 11.727 10.287

Relatively the thermal flux is high compared to other general materials. So it is an advantage.

CHAPTER-6 CONCLUSION

CONCLUSION
In this project we have analyzed previous designs and generals of turbine blade to do further optimization, Finite element results for free standing blades give a complete picture of structural characteristics, which can utilized for the improvement in the design and optimization of the operating conditions. In the first step we have designed turbine blade using CMM data from existing model. In the second step we have done the study on different materials which are suitable for the improvement of turbine blade. In the third step we have validated our design using existing materials. In the next step we have applied different materials for turbine blade to suggest best material. From the above results we can conclude that using cast iron with partially stabilized zirconium coating is more beneficial than previous materials, due to low stress displacement, good thermal strength, low cost and easy to manufacture.

CHAPTER-7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

References
1. Rao.J.S; application of variational principle to shrouded turbine blades, Proceedings of 19th cong. ISTAM, 1974, pp: 93-97. 2. Leissa.A.W, Macbain.J.C and Keilb.R.E, Vibration of twisted cantilever plates summary of provisions: current studies, Journal of Sound and Vibration, 1984, Vol-96 (20), pp: 159-167. 3. Tsuneo Tsuiji, Teisuke Sueoka, Vibrational analysis of twisted thin cylindrical panels by using Raleigh-Ritz method, JSME International Journal, Series iii, 1990, volume 33, pp: 501-505. 4. Le-Chung Shiau, Teng-Yuan Wu, Free vibration of buckled laminated plates by finite element method, Transactions of the ASME, Journal of Vibrations and Accoustics, October 1997, volume 111, pp: 635-644. 5. Hu, XX and T.Tsuiji free vibrational analysis of curved and twisted cylindrical thin panels, Journal of sound and vibration, Jan7, 1999,vol-219 (1), pp: 63-68. 6. Yoo.H.H, J.Y.kwak and J.Chung, Vibrational analysis of rotating pre twisted blades with a concentrated mass, Journal of sound and vibration, Mar 2001, Vol 240(5), pp: 891-908. 7. Park, Jung-Yong; Jung, Yong-Keun; Park, Jong-Jin; Kang, Yong-Ho, Dynamic analysis method for prevention of failure in the 1st stage low pressure turbine blade with 2 fingers root, Proceedings of SPIE - The International Society for Optical Engineering, 2001, vol. 4537, pp: 209-212. 8. A.H.Shah, G.S.Ramsekhar and Y.M.Desai, Natural vibrations of laminated composite beams by using fixed finite element modeling, Journal of sound and vibration, 2002, Vol: 257, pp: 635-651. 9. J.S.Rao, R.Bahree, A.M.Sharan, The design of rotor blades taking into account the combined effects of vibratory and thermal loads, transactions of the ASME, Journal of Engineering gas Turbines and Power, oct-1989, vol111, pp 610-618. 10. W.j.kearton,steam turbine theory and practice,1992 7th edition pp:423-450