Distance Protection Utility Main Protection For Transmision Lines

DISTANCE PROTECTION UTILITY MAIN TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION
(S.R. Javed Ahmed) INTRODUCTION Distance protections have been used universally as Short circuit Protection for almost all MV to UHV AC Transmission lines. In the past it was the only type of Protection used for Long EHV Overhead Transmission Lines. This Protection was introduced in early 1920s and has undergone continuous enhancement ever since. It is applicable for radial lines as well as interconnected network system of lines. Application of Differential Protection in the past was restricted due to analog technology coupled with length of the Transmission line. For Short to medium length lines, however, Distance Protection along with Differential Protection was best solution. In a classical Transmission system, the Distance Protection works by utilizing the fact that the measured Impedance from a point is directly proportional to the distance from it (which gave its name). This Protection measures the Short circuit Impedance at its location and operates by comparing it with the setting impedance. It is also used occasionally for protecting equipment with large inductive reactance like Power Transformers, Shunt Reactors, Generators, and Unit Transformers. It is also useful in systems with huge variation in fault levels from maximum to minimum where traditional Over current Protections are not quite successful. Distance relays have undergone continuous development. Distance Protections have transformed from early relays with Induction Disk elements to moving coil technology then to static relays with operation Amplifiers, static electronic PCBs to Microprocessor based static with numerous discrete static electronic PCBs to fully microprocessor based Numerical with DSPs and finally to present day digital IEDs with numerical filters, conversion, storing & computation.and near future to Distance Protection IEDs with total automation down to individual Logical node level with digital CT & VT connected to process bus of a typical total Automation system. Numerical devices with advances in digital technology (A/D converters, digital filters, storing & processing data) have become more intelligent and adaptive to system and have introduced new concepts and features like events, disturbance & fault recording along with GPS signal reference. I, like many Protection Engineers, am lucky enough (is it!!) to have worked with all types of Distance protections right from early days, over the years. Wondering with awe (during early days of my career as protection Engineer) at huge Electro-mechanical Phase distance relays, Ground distance relays in so many schemes both switched, non switched and in combined hard wired zone-based/full-zone schemes along with scores of ancillary devices associated with Power line carrier aided schemes. Distance Protection --- JAVED 1
PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH DISTANCE PROTECTIONS From Utility Protection engineers point of view, the Distance Protection is the most dreaded of all Protections!!! Right from the day of its birth, Distance Protection never stopped giving surprise problems. No matter how hard you worked, calculated meticulously, something or the other goes wrong. Different types of faults need different voltage & current inputs and measures different loop impedances, uses different principles, meaning more components. Problems associated with fault resistance, transients in VT circuits (CVTs), power swings, load encroachment, in-feeds, current reversals etc It often puts the Utility Protection Engineers in highly embarrassing situations by tripping when it should not and failing to trip when it is required to trip. More often it leads to huge hours spent in testing, fault analysis, sequence of events analysis and not to mention preparing disturbance/fault & problem-solution reports to satisfy the guys above ...bear in mind it shall not repeat such an incident after a solution proposed by the Protection Engineer is implemented!!!..to avoid a wrath....There are baddie Guys (non-technical sort of guys with loud mouth and well paid!!!) who just keep statistical records of mal-operation, reason, date by date, line by line.will promptly come with a listafter another event!!! .ok, ok, just joking(psstit is a fact more often) Worst scenario like Total Blackouts and multiple events create havoc in the Utility and everybody right from a shift Power Dispatcher to a BIG Customer breaths firebut Protection Engineer is often protected by his sound technical knowledge.he..heand often has last laugh. Occasionally, it also puts the Protection Manufacturers Product design Engineers under constant demand of improvement..sometimes leads to Utilities blacklisting his productuntil revised product comes outonly to be caught again by another different incident..it is a cycle. Thats why Distance Protection has undergone most developments over the years compared with other protections. A real distance protection setting nightmare problem for you..a newly constructed Substation with about 19 (EHV & HV) lines connecting to it (major substation with two large Power Plants as main feed and heavy interconnection from other two major power plants)due to right of way and terrain, all lines were running parallel for few 10s of kilometers. .. some lines were also JUST Parallel unrelated with the new substation but interconnecting some existing EHV substations (some weak, some strong, different positive sequence sources and zero sequence sources, with different direction of currents during fault and different level of coupling some positive some negative)no communication aided scheme due to terminal MUX not ready. When the substation & Power plant was ready, most of the remote EHV Substations were not ready yet.The big guys issued ultimatum to energize some of the lines which were ready and run the power plant...you guessed ityes, thats it most of the parallel lines were open and grounded at both ends.... now go and set the Distance protection with optimum zero-sequence mutual impedanceand must cover at least half line length.EHV lines with four bundle conductors.no impedance calculation software can solve so many parallel lines with bundle conductors.remember, no false operation is allowed!!!!!..to top it all, humid & saline atmosphere in desert.high resistivity grounds.. Well thats challenging Distance Protection --- JAVED 2
SOLUTION AT LAST? Fault loop impedances often fall in many zone reaches of Distance protection. To facilitate positive operation of communication aided schemes, it is sometimes essential to set over-reaching zone considerable larger than the line. Such settings with parallel lines, carrying huge power may cause un-faulted loop impedances to fall within reach of a healthy parallel line at one end and correct faulted impedance loop reach at other end of healthy line. In such a case, when common non-segregated phase communication is used, may result in tripping of healthy line and faulted line. In the past, due to analog technology, Protection Engineers were bound by the limitation of Line Differential Protection. Finally there is relief to Protection Engineer With the Numerical Technology in Protection coupled with High-density, high-speed digital Telecommunication, and GPS clock signaling for public use, finally Line Differential has become most suitable protection with Distance as a back-up (line length is no more a limitation for Differential Protection).Or is it? Distance Protection is still indispensible, no matter what, is still complex as it was it has to deal with many zones and has to calculate impedances for each phase-phase & phase-earth loop on per zone basis and produce its final output as fast as a cycle in a phase selective manner. Large parallel Processors are required to perform measurement and all tasks within the required speed limit. This requires more demand on processing. Software, it is. Unlike, earlier generation Protection Product Designers, new generation Protection Product designers are with more software based knowledge compared with electrical technology based knowledge. Thereby, keep adding feature after feature to the Protection to solve all known problems. Well, their job is done happy lot.they are.software guys. Now the product lands with Utility Protection Engineer to set the protection. Each and every setting value is with selectable value and huge range!!! and hundreds of parameters per protection.and tens of different functions!!! Earlier generation product design engineers were limited by static components and hence scheme settings were more or less fixed. Product manufacturer was solely responsible for the proper operation of Protection. Now the table has turned around, Protection Engineer has to set few hundreds of parameters each selectable in a huge range. Again Protection Engineer is under stress. He must deal with Electrical system knowledge as well as every manufacturers relay manual (to make matter worse every manufacturer has own algorithm and way of approach). A single setting error out of thousand setting parameter might cause embarrassment to him
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GENERAL AREAS OF INTERST IN REGARD TO A DISTANCE PROTECTION: Distance Protection has some disadvantages when compared with a Line Differential Protection. Following points list out some points of interest in regard to a Distance Protection. 1. NEED FOR VOLTAGE INPUT: Distance Protection requires Voltage inputs (e.g. CVT, EMVT etc) in addition to the Current inputs. 2. Fuses failed or removed: Loss of VT input or VT secondary fuses removed causes Distance Protection to get blocked or false operate. Mho type Distance protection with no offset finds the impedance locus at the origin of R-X plane (non-operative). Line energized without VT fuses will leave the relay without any reference pre-fault voltage. Fuse/VT circuit supervision schemes are almost always applied in all Distance Protection based on different principles (often dedicated external relays/high-speed auxiliary contacts of MCB/Fuse are used additionally). 3. LOSS DIRECTIONALITY or FAILURE TO OPERATE: Distance Protection determines the direction of fault based on the Voltage as well as current inputs (which is dependent on the phase angle between the two). A close-in 3-phase fault removes the reference voltage which is required for directionality. This aspect is a major drawback since a close-in fault (with small voltage signal and large noise signal superimposed) may cause it to become non-operative or lose direction discriminating ability (to determine a fault whether forward or backward). Most relays or schemes are provided for detection of these Zero-Volt faults. 4. REACH ERROR (OVER/UNDER REACHING): Distance Protection is non-unit type protection with its boundary depends on system dynamics. Where as a Line Differential Protection is a Unit type Protection with fixed boundary. Pre-fault load flow, errors in inputs (CTs, VTs), errors in impedance values, errors due to earth fault loop impedance, condition of parallel line (open at at least one end or grounded at both ends), zero-sequence mutual coupling, taps on the line etc cause the relay to measure wrong impedance compared to actual with respect to location. 5. POWER SWINGS: With sources at both ends of a line, Distance Protections are often affected by Power swings. Being a function of Voltage, Current & the angle between the two, Power swings cause the same impedance which the Distance protection calculates to vary as a function of three parameters. During a fault the impedance changes suddenly. While during a swing it changes slowly as two ends respond based on stored energy interchange (mechanical/electrical) and associated fast acting control systems. 6. Presence of series capacitor in compensated EHV line: Capacitive reactance being opposite in sign to an Inductive reactance on which a distance relay reach is normally set. Thereby, the voltage & currents measured by the relay depends on the amount of involved L & C up to the fault makes the relay measure incorrect distance (impedance of line). 7. HIGH-SPEED DISTANCE Protection: As the distance Protection of EHV line (due to system stability requirement) needs to be very fast, it is called up on to operate when the transients & dc components in the primary system are at highest level. Most Distance relays require fundamental frequency voltage & currents for determination of direction as well as impedance. When the fundamental component is small compared to the dc & harmonic component, relay measures incorrect impedance &/or direction. Distance Protection --- JAVED 4
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Electromechanical relays, being slower were not as much affected as numerical relays (due to speed at which the decision is to be made is well inside initial transient period for high-speed numerical relays). This imposes increased demand on performances of CTs and VTs. CVTs (or CCVTs), due to the involved L-C circuit introduces additional transients in the secondary signals (causing secondary voltages different from actual primary system voltage). IEC60044 introduced additional accuracy classes for CTs & CVTs transient performances for high-speed relays. In case of Auto-reclosing, unidirectional flux in CT due to fault before auto-reclosing and its decay over the dead time (due to decaying secondary current) introduces additional requirement on the CT performance. Fault Resistance: Fault loops normally involve a component of resistance unless it is solid fault. That component is most times difficult to predict. Even though a distance protection is set on the basis of reactance, fault resistance will have an effect on overall characteristics of the distance protection as the load impedance in parallel to the fault impedance or source impedance parallel to the fault resistance causes the reactance line to tilt causing some under/over reaching problem depending on the location of load (in the direction of line or reverse as seen by the relay). Residual compensation: Distance relay reaches are set based on positive sequence impedances. However, a fault with earth involved will bring the zero sequence component of impedance. More often the residual current obtained by adding phase currents (Ia, Ib & Ic) are not same as actual 3I0 (earth fault current) at the relay location. This mismatch is due to the source of zero sequence current may be from different equipment (example a Y-grounded /D transformer or a Zig-Zag Transformer. Secondly, the earth fault loop zero sequence impedances may not be linear all along the length. This component is necessary to be considered. Again, based on the parallel line current & or depending on whether parallel line is grounded at both ends or not makes this zero sequence component to either increase or decrease. Distance relay measures incorrectly in such cases. Cables are not welcome: For the same reason as the zero sequence compensation, an EHV cable being designed with armor, sheath etc which always provide a metallic return path unlike an Overhead line. Thus the zero sequence impedance becomes lesser than the positive sequence impedance. This calls for negative compensation for earth faults, which becomes non practical. Measured Impedances: Most often line impedances used for relay setting are not accurate. Most of the times are assumed based on existing similar circuit. These assumed parameters of R, X (positive=sequence, zero-sequence & and mutual) are not accurate. Self impedance of line will be symmetrical & correct, but all other components are unsymmetrical (depends on the location of phases with each other & above the earth). Settings are made only based on symmetrical values. For more accurate impedances, each phase and each line is required to be measured (considered with/without ground) to accurately estimate down to small percentage error of 3-4% of total error. Again, 5% error for 300km line is like 15km error in fault location. To find a permanent fault in rough/uninhibited/hostile area over huge distance of uncertainty is definitely not acceptable in many cases. Measuring loops: Faults in power systems generally fall in to two categories namely Short circuits (Shunt faults) or Open circuits (Series faults). Short circuit themselves are with or without ground involved. In all eleven types of faults occurphase-phase (three..AB, BC & CA), phase-Earth (threeA-G, B-G & C-G). Phase-phase-earth (threeAB-G, BC-G, CA-G), 3phase-G and solid 3-phase. Most common Distance Protection --- JAVED 5
are Ph-G type in HV/EHV overhead systems. 3-phase faults are rarest in EHV systems due to large clearances. Distance relay measures six measuring loops (three phase-phase & three phase-earth loops). A Solid Three phase fault involves straight forward symmetrical calculation and fastest of all in terms of computation time. Most complex is phase-phase-earth. Most Distance protections face problems in these fault computation. 13. Characteristics: Distance Protection characteristics come in all shapes. Earliest electro-mechanical ones were with simple circle (center at the origin) & straight line. These were easiest to construct with the use of electromagnetic. Inherently they were non-directional (all working either as under or over a setting value). With slight modification to the operating & restraining inputs, Mho circle came into existence and has been the most common and easiest to achieve. Mho characteristics are fastest as require one computation only. As the line length increases, Mho circle became quite large to reach to heavy loads. This lead to clipping it with another characteristic. With static technology, a resistance characteristic was used as it needs a solution of straight line in addition to a mho circle. With Numerical relays, some manufacturers developed special characteristics which is applicable to a particular load power factor limit. Each characteristic has its own merits and demerits. 14. Short line-Long line: There are two points on the Distance protection characteristics which are of extreme importance and all distance protections are judged based on its performance at these two points. One of them is the origin in R-X plane (relay location) and other one is the Zone-1 reach point. These two points represent the Distance protection boundaries for instantaneous trip. The point at the origin is close-in fault (either forward or reverse). A close in fault is important as an instantaneous distance protection has to be stable on a reverse fault but must operate for a forward fault. The currents could be quite large in a close-in but the voltage is zero (in extreme case of solid fault). Without voltage signal it is not possible to determine the fault direction (whether forward or reverse). Secondly, fault at zone-1 reach is very critical in terms of stability. Zone-1 reach is definite point on the protected line (even if errors added like CT/VT errors and impedance error, zone-1 reach point never go to next line/equipment at remote substation). As the line length decreases the voltage at the relay location during a zone-1 reach fault gets smaller. In extremely short line, the voltage becomes significantly short to allow distance protection to operate accurately. As per standards (ANSI), the Transmission line is categorized as short, medium or long based on the system impedance ratio (SIR). SIR is the ratio of source impedance (Zs) to line impedance (Zl) at the relay location *i.e. SIR = Zs/Zl+. A Short line is a line with SIR 4. Medium line is a line with SIR value which lies between 0.5 & 4. A long line is with SIR 0.5. Thus, a short line may be a considerable longer in actual length but has weak source (large Zs) making Zs/Zl larger than 4. The voltage signal available at the relay location during a fault decreases as the source gets weaker (within time shorter than exciter response). A limit will be reached for any distance protection with reduced voltage at relay location for a zone-1 fault to be reliable as a function of SIR. In these extreme short line cases, distance protection becomes non operative. Further, the CT needs to be of higher quality for preventing harmonics introduced in the secondary current (harmonic components are filtered out by the filters making lesser fundamental current signal for relay measurement.causing the relay to incorrectly measure the distance as larger than zone reach---under reaching occurs). Distance Protection --- JAVED 6
Well, some sources of trouble for a Distance protection are seen as above. There are lots more based on the communication schemes. Most of the problems mentioned above are not applicable to Line differential Protection. Line Differential Protection, however, has more serious problem associated with it than the Distance protection. It is the requirement of phase current from remote end without addition of time delay to the local measured current. If communication fails, differential protection totally fails unlike a distance protection (which can work as a plain step distance protection as a backup). Some form of backup is always essential in a differential protection. As the line length becomes significant, the demand on the communication system speed becomes critical in a differential protection. And some communication media like a Power line carrier (PLC) is never applied to a line protection (since the signal loss or distortion is due to the loss/problem with wave guide (the faulted line itself!)so when it is really required to operate it is distorted!!!! Lastly, charging current flowing into line but not leaving it (this can happen at one end or both endsbased on where there is source) will conflict with fundamental of line differential protection which is based on principle that current always enters and leaves the line when not faulted. This becomes enormous value in long EHV systems and long cables. Sometimes, steady state charging current (sine) is larger than minimum fault current, making the line differential insensitive to faults. To compensate for the charging current, a VT signal is required (at one or both ends based on the source) and knowledge of positive & zero sequence capacitance of the protected circuit. Thanks to Numerical software guy.he puts Differential protection with built in distance protection in itwithout much addition to hardware (other than VT input).
TRADITIONAL DISTANCE PROTECTIONS Different principles were adopted for making distance protection based on the operating philosophies. Historically, Static Distance protections were two types. These are Full scheme & switched schemes. A Full scheme generally had six measuring loops for each zone. A switched scheme consists of one measuring element per zone with inputs switched (based on type of fault as detected by some means of fault detection scheme). Phase to earth faults require faulted phase voltage and phase current for computation. Phase to phase requires delta voltages & delta currents (vector difference). Rectified Bridge comparator was used by German manufacturers with Isc (short circuit current in secondary at relay location) as operating input and Usc/R as restraining input (where Usc is short circuit loop voltage at relay location & R is set replica impedance reach in secondary ohms). The relay operates when operating quantity exceeds the restraining quantity. Relay boundary at zone reach is where two quantities are equal and origin is where Usc is zero [Operation occurs when Isc > Usc/R] Electromechanical Distance Protections due to hard wired schemes, were built as separate units one for each type of fault and per zone. To achieve total protection, three phase-phase distance protections, three phaseearth distance protections were used per zone with electromagnetic operation. Thus an EHV line used to have 18 units of discrete devices mounted on the panels along with ancillary for out of step blocking, communication schemes. Ferraris Induction cup relays were used in the US for electromechanical distance protection with Isc producing the operating flux, Usc producing the restraining flux and a polarizing flux produced by shifted Usc. Since the torque due to interaction of operating & restraining fluxes act on opposition on the induction cup, polarizing flux is essential to cause rotation of cup. *operation occurs when (Usc x Isc x cos ( -)) is (Usc/R) In some analog static distance measurement, angle comparison (phase) was most commonly used. Mho circle is produced by measuring the angle between two quantities.angle between differential voltage (Isc x R Usc) and Usc. Various Distance Tele-protection schemes were commonly used like Permissive (over & under reaching) schemes, blocking schemes and accelerating schemes. Choice of scheme was based on available communication system, most of the time and was hard wired for a particular scheme including the communication system interfaces, channels, frequency, band width etc. Various media like Microwave, PLC, audio-tone/voice etc were used. There was distance related errors involved. With the advancement in cheaper optical fiber technology for digital signaling, high-speed communications become reality. Overhead metallic ground wires are gradually replaced with metallic ground wires with optical fibers within the core (OPGW, optical ground wire). Optical fiber communication opened up newer areas due to Higher band width and speed and technology. Synchronous digital communication with higher bit rates like gigabits made possible extremely reliable communication system (in addition features like packet based add/drop, ring topography made system Distance Protection --- JAVED 8
self heal in event of loss of signals). Distance protection unlike differential protection requires only GO/NO-GO status transmission and extreme accuracy is possible (line differential requires phase currents each with specific time stamp).
NUMERICAL DISTANCE PROTECTION Modern Numerical Distance protections are multifunction devices with discreet signal processing and numerical computation. These have numerical filter algorithm to reject non-fundamental components in signal inputs. Furthermore, three single-phase communication aided schemes become reality which fundamentally removed errors due to incorrect fault loops used in direction comparison at two ends. Selectivity, speed, sensitivity and reliability increased. Definition of Numerical Distance Protection: A Numerical Distance Protection is a Distance Protection which utilizes microprocessor technology and analog to digital conversion of measured currents & voltages and computes the distance. Most Numerical distance protections have additional time domain based calculations (high-speed) to complement frequency domain calculations.
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DISTANCE MEASUREMENT DEVICE NUMBER: Distance Protections, like most other relays are secondary system connected devices. ANSI/IEEE device number 21 is assigned for it. Additional letter may be added to it to distinguish a phase & ground distance protection such as 21P & 21N respectively. There is no hard and fast rule as to which letter is added after 21 as long as it is mentioned as abbreviation in respective drawings/documents where it is used. SECONDARY IMPEDANCES: Most Distance Protections require settings in terms of Secondary impedances (Zsec). Secondary impedance (Zsec) can be calculated from primary impedance (Zprim) as below: Zsec = Zprim x (CTR/PTR) = Zprim x k Where; CTR is CT ratio used (= Iprim/Isec); Iprim & Isec are CT rated primary & secondary currents at used tap PTR is PT ratio used (Uprim/Usec); Uprim & Usec are PT rated primary & secondary voltages at used tap Example: A system with 115/0.115kV PT Ratio and 1000/1A CT ratio returns k as = (115/0.115)/(1000/1) = 1000/1000 = 1 And hence Zsec = Zprim in this case
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Impedance diagram: An impedance diagram is a graphical tool used to evaluate a distance protection. It has R & X axis (resistance & reactance) with zero at the origin and four quadrants. First quadrant with R, X positive and so on. This diagram indicates the relay location as at the origin (reference) source impedance below and line impedance above R- axis. Figure below shows a Distance protection (GE-D60) with three zones in R-X plane. R-axis is horizontal & X is vertical axis). A Load region is also seen on the same plot. Various phase & earth Faults are marked in the diagram also. The points within the circles indicate the zone which operates. Zone-1 in this case is smallest circle, next larger is zone-2 followed by largest zone-3. It can be seen that a point within zone-1 also happens to be in zone-2 & zone-3 (meaning all three zones pickup for that fault)
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120 Rabai-Galu 21N Type=D60G__ CTR=600 PTR=1200 Zone 1: Z=8.38 sec Ohm @ 80.0 deg. T=0.0s Zone 2: Z=15.61 sec Ohm @ 80.0 deg. T=0.3s Zone 3: Z=29.24 sec Ohm @ 80.0 deg. T=1.0s Line Z= 10.48@ 80.0 sec Ohm ( 20.96 Ohm) More details in TTY w indow . Rabai-Galu 21P Type=D60P__ CTR=600 PTR=1200 Zone 1: Z=8.38 sec Ohm @ 80.0 deg. T=0.0s Zone 2: Z=15.61 sec Ohm @ 80.0 deg. T=0.3s Zone 3: Z=29.24 sec Ohm @ 80.0 deg. T=1.0s Line Z= 10.48@ 80.0 sec Ohm ( 20.96 Ohm)
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Basically, two types are characteristics are used In a modern Distance protection. They are Mho circle and a polygon (quadrilateral). Mho circle is a circle with diameter same as the setting reach. Two ends of a Mho circle diameter being the origin & zone reach. Since the close-in fault happens to be at the origin, Mho circle is non-operative at that point (zero voltage at the fault). In order to cover that point, healthy phase voltage is used in some relays (which is rotated to the faulted phase angle) as polarizing voltage. These are called cross polarized mho circles. Advantage of cross polarization is additional resistance coverage as the diameter increases with origin shifted in to third quadrant. There are partial cross polarized and fully cross polarized Mho circles. These are helpful for faults other than 3-phase solid faults. In case of 3-phase solid faults all three phase voltages becomes zero and hence makes distance protection non-operative. Some means of pre-fault voltage (from stored memory) is normally used. In static relays, the amount of memory was limited to few cycles.
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Most of modern Pilot schemes use digital technology and Fiber optic media Traditional PLC scheme is as below:
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CRITICAL SETTINGS: Two Zone reaches are of important for protecting a Transmission line. These are Zone-1 & Zone-2. Setting both zone-1 & zone-2 reach is a critical item for a Protection Engineer. Once these two zones are set correctly, the line is protected. It is important to see that in case of lines with sources at both ends Zone-1 shall overlap. This means at least more than half line is covered in zone-1 at both ends to have instantaneous tripping at both ends. In case of radial line, without any parallel line, zone-1 can be longer if it feeds single line or equipment at remote end. Zone-1 is usually set somewhere between 80 & 85 % of the line impedance. Balance of line must be covered in Zone-2. Thus Zone-2 must cover at least 120% in all cases. It works well for phase faults. But with earth fault, the loop impedance comprises of all three sequence impedances in series with Zero sequence impedance affected by the mutual coupling with parallel line. With parallel line grounded at both ends, the net zero sequence impedance gets reduced due to mutual coupling as: Z0act = Z0act (Z0m/Z0act); where Z0act is actual zero sequence impedance and Z0m is zero-sequence mutual impedance.
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ZONE-1: It turns out that sometimes Z0act gets so small that zone-1 becomes too short to overlap the remote end zone-1. For a phase to ground fault the loop impedance is = (Z1+Z2+Z0)/3; where Z1=Z2 for a Transmission line]. A Distance relay set based on Z1 (positive sequence impedance) will measure phase to ground fault the loop impedance as = Z1 + (kn xZ1); where Kn is earth fault compensation factor given by kn = (Z0-Z1)/(3 x Z1) From the phase to ground faulted voltage e.g. Va (in case of phase A fault to ground) and phase A current Ia, the relay compares quantity Va/Ia with set reach of [Z1set x (1+kn)]. Relay operates if Va/Ia is less than [Z1set x (1+kn)] To avoid over reaching zone-1, kn is set smaller based on Z0act (affected due to Z0m; mutual). It is required therefore, to have Z1set x (1+kn) always more than 50% of total line [(Z1+Z2+Z0)/3] If this becomes less than 50%, it is preferred to have line differential protection or another scheme based distance protection like pilot scheme to cover all points on the line. ZONE-2: When used as backup zone for line must cover 120% in the worst case. If next line happens to be too short, then Zone-2 with 120% setting may over reach zone-2 of the next line at the remote end. Zone-2 in this case will mis-coordinate with second line zone-2 at remote end substation. Additional time delay may become necessary to discriminate between two Zone-2 reaches. When the line has a tap load, and sources at both ends, the infeed current from remote end causes the reach to become under reaching.
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SOME LITERATURES ON DISTANCE PROTECTION
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FUNDAMENTALS OF LINE PROTECTION- LITERATURE
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Distance Protection Utility Main Protection For Transmision Lines

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Distance Protection Utility Main Protection For Transmision Lines

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Formats disponibles

DISTANCE PROTECTION UTILITY MAIN TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

60 FAULT DESCRIPTION: See table in TTY w indow . 50

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

SOME LITERATURES ON DISTANCE PROTECTION

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

FUNDAMENTALS OF LINE PROTECTION- LITERATURE

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED

Distance Protection --- JAVED