'lEN-AT-ARMS SERIES 58

THE LANDSKNECHTS
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MIUTARY
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DOLGI .. \S \lILLER G.\ E\lBLETO:\"
EDITOR: MARTIN WINDROW
MEN-AT-ARMS SERIES
58
THE LANDSKNECHTS
rillm1
HIUTARY
Text by
DOUGLAS MILLER
Colour plates by
GAEMBLETON
First publisht::d in Cn'at Britain in 1976 hy
Osprt::}', an imprint of Rt'ro Consumt'r Books Ltd.
;\Iichdin Hou:.e. 81 Fulham Road,
London SW3 6Rll
and .\uckland, and Toronto
e Copyrighll9;6 Rttd Internalional Books ud.
Rt'printl. 1980. 1981. IgB2. 198.J, IgB5. 1986, IgB7. 1988,
1990 1991. 199
2
, 1993 1995, 1996
All righb rescn ed.\pan from any r.'lir for tht'
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Tht' author would like to thank Messrs O. & M. Hausser,J. Tonn,
P. Kaus and?>.lr A. V. S. de Reuck for their most valuablt' assistance':
in providing research material.
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Illfrorlllrtioll
The word 'Londsknteht' first appeared in the
German language around 1470. 11 is said to have
been coined by Peler von Hagcnbach, who records
ha\'ing commissioned such troops for the service of
Charles the Bold of Burgundy. Landsknecht
literally means 'servant of the country' yel as early
as 1500 me word had already transfonnt"d into
Lan;:;knht as the pike became the trademark or the
footsOldicr. No\\ ada)'s, howeYer, the term
knecht is usually associated wilh the type of
Gem131l merccnal) originating from what is ((:>day
Alsace, Baden Wiirtlcmberg and the Austrian
T)roJ and who served during the reigns of .\Iax-
imilian I (1493 1;19) and his grandson Charles V
ISI!rS
6
).
When these troops were first employed, warfare
was in a state of transition. The Burgundian Wars
(1476-7) had shown that cavalry was virtually
helpless against well drilled pike formations and the
new handgun. The fifteen Burgundian 'Com-
pagnies d'Ordonnanccs' had outlived their useful-
ness and wcre considered as nothing morc than an
army of redundant knights. Moreover the cost of
raising such a force of mounted lroops had
increased considerably due to lhe rise in the
economic and political status of the European
nobility. Those who stood to gain therefore were
those 'gentlemen of war' or Kriegsherren, as lhey
were called in Germany, who could supply large
bodies of mobile infantry, usually pikemen, able to
follow in the tradition ofthc now famous and feared
Swiss.
It was against this background that Maximilian,
hcir to the Holy Roman Empire, had to raise a force
capable of upholding his claim to the Burgundian
legacy of the Netherlands and of controlling his
future tcrritories in the cast. To this lattcr end the
Swabian alliance was fanned in 1487---a, which set
up an arm) to keep the po\\ erful princes of
Bohemia and Bavaria at bay. This initial forcc of
12,000 foot and 1,200 horse is described by many as
the first anny of Landsknechts to be recruited on
Cennan soil. In 1+87, in the same year thaI the last
national joust look place in Cennan) al Worms,
the first units ofCennan Landsknechts wcre being
trained in the strccts of Bruges b) Maximilian's
commander Craf Eitclfritz \"on Hohenzollem.
However, the campaigns in the ;\1"ctherJands and
Mn;milj*n I (1459'"'5'9) know.. as th.. 't.S( of dl.. kJUghls',
lIuc:ceeded 10 lh.. thro..., in '4'nand b), virt".. ofth., marriage- of
hi...n, and his , .....d..n, pioed Ih., N.,thu....d".ad
Spain, HW>pry and Bob.,mia, lh... c:reating. v..1 for
his ...ec.'...r Charl.,s V and f .. rtb.,rmembe
dr-"Iy, Hi" mareb UIlO CoIOSft., in ISOS> ed with. balbc:o;d
allb., bead ofa c:ol" b.,raIded ....w.,......
Gennany, Apart fro th., erealio.. of Lb., 10., i.
aI..c:red.iled with th.,d.,,,,elop....,..1of110., finl.dV&llc:ed "yst.,m
of ord. .,... Both wer., 10 prov., vital ... lois ..m.,whal
nlloro l)' c:ond :led fortip policy,
(P."mtotryD.m. A t.\u........ ,11..-. r,......!
1H.......ter pa.rade (Mut"ru.acl was Croon lh.e S....'4.
and was u_tia1U. tile dlicieacyoCt.ia.......1to tM:
The prK'OOdilio.. for Lato tile I'Jlks was
thai ...Idien sloovJd po5Hl1. thei.. 0_ weapo.... It was the
tat;k oCtile p-ytnaliler. wbo DOrm.al.Iy stood al f_t arm..
arch, 10 _s1lre that thOH recruiu f*s.i.al!: throo&f;:h we.... of
....UDd mind and body. It oft .... ocaa.rred thai the paym.uter
."Oped 10 _tinStile recru.iIJi 'double-eowued' for tloe .....e
offiaancial' i.e. 10 .windle the Kriq;_hltrT.
, 11"wt/M.,jlUl.l_ft_'Dn'tII/"''' LuJJ!;.u,f. ...
G6t11t.: /8821
lalCT in Bohemia, although successful. were to
p,'o\'e that the nucleus of the 'German' anny
consisted of nothing Illore than bands of ill-
organi.sed mercenaries.
It was not until after the storming of the fonn.'SS
of Stllhlweisscnbcrg in Bohemia in 1490, where-
upon Ma.ximilian ordered his men to swear an
oath of allegiance, thal the 'father of the Lands-
kncchls' succeeded in instilling his troops with a
sense of discipline and csprit dr corps. Onl) by
emulating the Swiss, howcver, by adopung their
customs and tactics, would the Cennan Lands
kneeht be abk' to hold his (Mn and to this end
modelled his whoit' milital) system on
the amlics of the S\\ iss Confederation.
The Muster
According to S\\'iss tradition, if a lord required an
arm) to scHlc a dispute he nOlmall} contracted a
gentleman ofwar b} means of the BtslaJlungsbriLfor
letter of appointment. This contained a recruiting
commission and the letler ofartidcs, .lrtiI.Asbriife.
whieh set out th(' legal conditions under which the
Landsknechts werc to sel"\'e, Having accepted the
appointment and secured the means of finance, the
colonel, or Obrist as he \\'as called, then began
appointing in tum his sceondincolllmand and the
captains in charge of thc Fa/mtein or companies
which were to make lip the regiment. This done,
drummers would be scnt out to beat for recruits,
The muster \\as seldom a difficult task; colonels
with great reputations such as Frulldsberg and "011
Sid:ingen \\ere capable of raising annics of 20,000
foot in a mat tel' of \\ ecks. The problem in fact often
lay in rejccting those who ,\ere either incapable or
tOO ill-equipped to be accepled into the ranks. In
spite of lhe selection process, \\ hich depended on
whcther the recruit brought his 0\\11 \\eapons or
not, the regiment must havc been a motle} crew of
joume) men, (X'asalllS and students all inspired b)
lhe chance of adHnture and. of course. pay and
loot. and the sons of wealth) patricians, there for
the sake off."lmil} honour.
Ha\"ingsigned up, the recruits \\ere instructed to
meet at a certain time and place for the muster
parade. Here the} \\ ere ordered inlo two columns
facing each other and al the end of the gap between
them an arch consisting of twO halberds and a pike
was erected. Jtwas throul;"h this that each man had
to pass befon" being acceptcd into the ranks. I twas
the task of the recruiling officer losland at the arch
and check lhat those mcn who passed through were
of sound mind and body, At this stage the regiment
was divided up into FiiJmfein of 400 men, each
Fiihllltin having 100 experienced soldiers, or DQppet
soldner as they wen' called. since lhey recei\'ed
double the pay of the ordinal)' fOOlsoldicr.
As soon as the Landskncchts had been paid one
month's wage the) assembled in a circle surround-
ing the Ghrist whose duty it then was to read them
their rights, duties and restrictions in the form orthe
'Lctter of Articles'. The artides consisted or a \'el)'
dctailed code of conduct laying out all the
punishable oflcnecs such as mutiny, unwarranted
plunder, drunkennc"S on dllty, more than
one woman follo\\ ing in the baggage train, and so
forth. This \\ as followed b} an oath.taking cen"
mall) in which e\"Cl') Landsknecht swore his
allegiance to his cause, his Emperor and his officers,
and promisl-d to abide b) the la\\s set Ollt in the
'Letter of Articlcs'.
..,
For the enforcement and administration of these
laws the Obrist appoinled a Prot-osl and a &hulthtiss
respectively. During this ceremony the standards
were handed over to the ensigns who were obliged
to swear an oath never to allow the standards to
leavc their hands in battlc. The ensigns in tum
joined their \\ here thc captain would be
introducing the appointed adjutant, chaplain,
doctor and quartermaster to his men. The remain-
ing formality was the formation of the Rollen or
platoons, each being rcsponsible for electing ilSown
Rottmtista.
(9/;r{flllisotioll
Each Regiment normally consisted of len Fiilmleill
or companics-Fahnlein is the German word for a
small flag or standard carried within thc unit. The
Fahnlein, as already stated, was divided up inlo
Rottm or platOons. Each Rottt had ten common
Landsknechts or six Doppe/siildlltr. A regiment
thercrorc, usually numbcring about 4,000 mcn, was
divided into ten units of400, each unit having forty
platoons often men. It must be noted here that this
4,000 was by no means a standard number-the
complement often depending on the number of
men who presented themselves at the muster
The mUSl" p-rwde was followm by llte..-diAs of!.h., leu" of
anid... (Verles_S). Hertupon the Laad....... we.... or--
dend 10 tonn a riDS uwI the colonel (Obrilft) Wonned !.hemof
their rip'" and 1"8&1 r...trairtt.lf. ne lett.... of amd... which
always accompanied the letter of conun.i..io.. waS read every
s;" months and was invoked immediately hO"'tilitiu bega.n.
(It'llIIodtwl bJ' JDII A_..... )
parade. Commanding the rcgimelll was of course
the Ftldobrist or colonel. Sometimes the Obrisl was
in command of several regimclHs at a time, in
which case he received the rank of Obtrster
FeldlwllplmmJ1l. The task of leading the Feldobrist's
regiment in this case would fall to the
lAcoltntnl- lieutenaOl-coloncl the second in
command who onl) held the rank of captain while
the Obrist was present.
The colonel, as laid down in the Imperial Diet at
\VOllns in 1507, was enutled to a staff or S/(1o/ of
twellly-two officials. This included a chaplain. a
scribe, a doctor, a scout, a quartcnnastcr, an
ensign, drummer and fifer, and a bocIyguard of
eight trustworth) men. ,Sec Tablt A.
Each Fahn/eill had in turn its own complement of
officials. The captain had the privilege of his own
personal cook and servant and a bodyguard OflWO
DopptlsOidna. There \\ erc also an interpreter, a
chaplain, a scout, a fourier, and the usual colour
party with musicians. The sergeant majors, Ftld-
lltibel, wcre given the responsibility of carrying
out drill and formation. There was normally
a regimental sergeant major the
\\ as responsible for battle for-
malion. General discipline and liaison between
officers and men was largely the task of the It'tibtl
(sergeants) and the Gtmtinwtibtl, the latter being
elected on a monthly basis as spokesmcn for the
Landsknechts. (Sec Table n.)
In addition to lhe above there was an inde-
pendent group ofofficials who were responsible for
ma.intaining discipline and ensllring that the
Landsknechts conformed with the Articles. The
most feared 9fTiciat of all was the Provost who
remained unimpeachable during his period of
office. His retinue consisted ofajailer, a bailiff and
an executioner called the Frtimann, recognisablc by
his blood-red cloak. The red feather in his berct and
the 100is of his trade, name!) the e.xecutioner's
sword and the hangman's rope which hung from his
belt, acted as suitable deterrents for the Lands-
knt-chts, who gcncrall) regarded him as an
untrustworthy character.
Each Regiment had a full complement of
mililal) police and judges, including Ihe Schul-
theiss, the Profoss PrO\ost) and the
The total pay for these oflicials came to 236 guilders
per month.
5
Table A
Rank
Regiments Staat (ColoneLJs Staff)
FeLdobrist
LorotirlLnt
Kaplan
Scnreibn
Wadltmeistn
Quartinmeisler
PrOl:iantmmln
F,ldKhn-
F e l d a r ~ 1
Trommelschlagn
Pfeifer
Dolmet$cher
Koch
Trabant (8)
Hurenweibel
Fuhrknuhl
Table B
Rank
Ead/ Foot Fannlein
1 Hauptmann
1 LLutnanl
1 Fiihndrich
1 Chaplain
I FeLdwehel
I Filkrn
I Fourin
2 JVebeL
2 TromfrlLlschliign
2 Pftifu
2 Trabantm
I DolmelsCntr
I HauptmlJnllJ Junge
I Fiihndriclu Junge
HauptmanllS Koch
Reisiger Knecht
Colonel
Lieutenant-Colonel
Chaplain .
Adjutant ..
Officer of the Watch.
Quartcrmaster
Storekeeper
Doctor ..
Field Doctor
Drummer.
Fifer
Interpreter.
Cook
Bodrguard.
Sgt of the Train
Seout
Captain.
Subaltern
Ensign
Chaplajn
Sgt Major.
Scout
Fourier ..
Sergeants .
Drummers.
Fifers
Bodyguards
Interprcter.
Captain's boy
Ensign's boy
Captain's cook
Horseman
Pay
400 Guilders
'00
..
02
"
24
..
4
..
4
..
4
..
4
"
4
..
8
..
8
..
8
..
8
..
4 ..
each
02
..
4 ..
Pay
40 Guildm
20
..
20
..
8
..
12
..
4
"
4
"
4
"
each
4
"
cach
4 ..
each
4 ..
each
4 ..
4 ..
4 ..
4 ..
4 ..
(From: Kriegsbildn dn drolschLn Landsknechle by \'on Zwiedeneck.Siidcnhorst.)
The pay for the whole force of foot-soldiers
numbering 4,000 (10 x 400) amountcd (0 32,000
guilders pcr month, DopptlsQldner receiving 8
guilders per month as opposed to 4 guilders for the
ordinary Landsknechl. Thus the total cost of a
6
regiment for a month was 34,624 guilders. Each
La.ndsknccht was normally contractcd to serve for a
minimum period of six momhs.
At the Imperial Diet at Worms in 1521 the
reforms of the military brought about are
organisation of the war finance system, to assist
Charles in his Italian campaigns. TIle Imperial
army was set initially at 20,000 foot-soldiers and
4,000 mounted, each Reichstand being obliged to
offer a contingent. This force cost 128,000 guilders
per month and although a new tax unit was
invented-the Simplum, equalling the above
amount-the problem of financing a lengthy
campaign could never be resolved.
In 1526, Frundsberg, for example, was obliged to
pawn his estate and treasures (MindcJheim) for
30,000 guilders in order 10 finance a campaign in
Italy for Charles V. This sum, however, only
covered haifa month's pay and his troops mutinied
on him. Similarly, the Spanish general Leyva had
to melt down the chalices from the church in Pavia
and even the gold chain from around his neck to
prevent his garrison ofCcrman Landsknechts from
defecting to the French.
CJjf{tics {file!qorlll{ftioll
In the Burgundian Wan the Swiss had shown the
TIoe oado-takiDs ctremOOlY (oU_cd tbe reuii..q
o( doe articles -....d __ .... 10 ....til dUeiplUoe -....d
aUepa..ce into ... otberwUie wakDowa baad o(.....m... inlnot
OQ mooey ...d .dvnoRlre. The remo..y, which _. held by
the Scloultheiu the official rflpoQ.ible (or .dmil1i.terUtl
junice, boWHI doe Lau<t.uechl 10 doe articl ... by forci>o.S hi..m
10 swear ... _do to doe Ea1peror, or _ ....ord as
the e:a- Dli&hl be. AI doe _etime the __ip-...,re .wardcd
tIoeit staada.rd.s, _ whida tItey 100 had 10 pve .. oath.
(JfJIA_J
tactical superiority that could be achie\'ed by a well
lTained lxxIy of pikemen. This superiority was soon
to be challenged by the arquebus (although in lhe
first quarter of the sixteenth century it was still used
with some restraint). Despite the 'miracle of
Creazzo' where Frundsberg's arquebusiers, with-
drawing from earthwork to earthwork, wreaked
havacon theoncoming Venetian fOOl, skirmishers in
open order were considered to be tOO vulnerable.
The upshot of this was that different generals
tended to adopt various sets of taChes at these times
largely depending on the composition of their
forces and the type of terrain. The Swiss, for
instance, anxious to shorten their campaigns as
much as possible and being largely dependent on
the strength of their pikemen and halberdiers,
preferred a short swift encounter and were there-
fore inclined towards a pike charge in echelon
formation of Vornut (van), Gewallhul (centre), and
NMhhut (rear). This of course was in lum de-
termined by the lay of the land. The Germans and
Spanish, later relying heavily on the strength of
their arquebusiers, tended towards a more de-
fensive position, if possible on uneven ground to
upset the impetus of a pike charge. As a result of
these diverse tactics the general of the day was
always at pains to outmanoeuvre his enemy so that
when il finally came to a confrontation his forces
would have the advantage of terrain.
The German Landsknechts who often adopted
defensive positions required a new formation which
would ensure maximum tactical efficiency from
both pike and arquebus. This formation adopted
from the Swiss system was called thegmerle Ordnung
and is the forerunner of the infantry square. In this
formation the pikemen and the halberdiers formed
a solid square in the centre with the two-handed
swordsmen in the front and rear ranks. Behind the
first two ranks of Dop/Nlso!dur stood the ensigns in
the centre of the first three FiiJmlein. Then came a
virtual fon:sl of pikes, in the middle of which were
to be found the ensigns of the four centre compan-
ies. At the rear came the final three ensigns amongst
the most experienced troops in the regiment. These
were positioned at the back to add impetus to the
anack and also to discourage the faint hearted from
deserting the ranks in front. Around this block
stood a wall of arquebusien affording protection
from the pikemen and occupying the most effective
7
:
,: '
___ \1,'
..... ,'"
. . ---
- .-
The obe...te.. Fe&dhaupUDaaD (...prelDl! coan...Ddcor) was
dirutly I"6poDlI'ible 10 the EmpeO"O.. or pri.n who load
co.......i ..ioned hi.... Despite t.hU be load free baad the
compMitioo anny and the IHlectiOD "fJU. office The
Obri who c:onunanded the rqimedl waa On , ...... re1Ipo ible
to the obe...IU FeJdhauptnlanD. The of rflpon5ibility
was rewarded accordingly with ooe bWldredfold the pay of.
common The pay WlUl a.eeI in muh.iplea of"
guilde... per month at the In>perial Di..t al CoruU.ance in 1507-
The Obnll thu. 400 pild..... per month phi. an
add.ilional600 Su.ildr.rs for the upkeep of hi. 'Staat',
(11'.,00"1 b) THrlllg, 'K"'IJbud' Grqf NmmiI.Td qf $olmJ /545',
SllJIJub,blllillvk, MUllullj
poSitiOn in attack. Towards the middle of the
sixteenth century the arquebus became more
important and it was customary for a regiment in
squared fonnation to have four wings of arquc
busiers \\ ho were trained to advance and fire and
then drop back to mc rear to reload, SO mat me
momCllIum of the ad,-ance could be maintained.
To complete the defensi,'c position the artillery
pieces werc drawn up in front of the square where
they commanded a good sweep of the baulefield.
8
Because of this it was necessary to position
experienced troops in the from ranks of the square
to protect the artillery.
If the order was gi"cn to advance, a line of foot
was normally strung out in front of the square.
Kno,,'n as the tIO/OurU HaJift (forlom hope it was
composed of either volunteers, prisoners hoping to
redeem themselves or mose unfortunates who had
been picked by lot. It was their task to advance in
front of the square wim their pikes and two-handed
swords to stave off the oncoming enemy and hack
his pike to pieces so that their comrades would be
able to penetrate the gaps they had made. To
remind these mJants pndlu of the perilous life and
death situation they were in, the plain red 'blood
flag' was always carried lnlhis somewhallhin rank.
The verlore11t Nmife, olien distinguished by the while
feathers which the Landskncchts wore in their
berets, was sometimes used as a dccoy to lure the
enemy into thinking Ihal they were being charged,
whereupon Iheir countercharge would be met wiLh
a hail of bullets from the arquebusicrs placed
behind them.
In defensive situations the order " as given for the
regiment to form an 19t1 or 'hedgehog'. This was
carried out in either square or circle. In this ploy
the arquebusiers moved to the third rank while the
pikemen moved to the front, levelling their
weapons at an angle to take the oncoming cavalry.
The DopptlsOidner wilh halberds and lwohanders
plugged the gaps in the front and second ranks al
the same time, allowing space for Ihe arquebusiers
to fire.
Before the batlle commenced the commanding
officer, who usually stood in lhe front rank, would
call for his Landskncchts to kneel down and give
grace to God. This cuslom was complelely miscon-
strued by the Italian historian Paul Jovius who
claims that il was Ollt of fear of Ihe cannonbaJls
which were flying around during the early Slages of
Ihe baltic lhal the Landsknechts 'took to Ihe
ground', \\'hale\'er the case a virtue was made of
necessity.
Sir Charles Oman refers 10 battles in lhe
renaissance era as 'games of chess in which
checkmate \\'as accepted with little acrimony and
still less bloodshed', It came therefore as a shock to
the Italians when the French, Swiss and Cermans
crossed lhe AJps wilh the intention of laking towns
r
and slaughtering prisoners. In fact gcmlemanly
conduct soon began to disappear from the
battlefield as devious tactics wcre introduced.
Fronsbergcr in his masterly work of 15561isLS fifteen
ploys which the Ohrist of the day considered when
drawing up his anny for battle:
l. The strength of the enemy. his number of
horse, and his ty{>(= of annour should be
determined in advance and the lay of the
land, the weather, the time of day. all laken
into consideration before deciding on the type
of battle formation to be adopted.
'2. Prisoners should be taken before lhe battle
and subjected to torture to extract the desired
information.
3 A suitable body of men be picked to
form thc 'forlorn hope'. This should advance
in column at the side oflhe square. off
and before back to reload.
4 The regiment should always be organised in
such a way that the heavily armed men are
drawn up on the plain while those nOI so well
equipped should be placed at the rear or
drawn up on the slopes of a hill. The \\eakcst
troops should be facing the left flank of the
enemy.
5 The infalHI) should keep together and avoid
extending imo a thin line.
6. Advantage should be taken of both the sun
and the wind and the Landsknecht should be
reminded of the more sllbtle ways ofrlndcr

",
- -
- ,
--,,- -
II was 1I---n)' the quartum.asler'. task 10 .d....... ahead Dr
1Jo... anQ)' and tak.. can of the .0............ 00.. ror dI.. troopL
n... woodC1&t, apia by depictll. quartenna.ter iD full
nn-.. whic.ll by thU rtoll)' articulaled, wilJo.
doe 'tobll'ter' laS...... a.ad .....1.. pi.,.,... n .............., .im.ilar to
lilat _ ... by FnaadJlbnJ;, show diniacc Roonaa iDfI......
lIGUT: SiDce it -.. c:u.llornary ror 1Jo... Uadllkaecbt to tak.. 1IU
wir.. -.ad chiJd...... widl IWn On aunpaip 1Jo...n: oft....
.........11 a U'aiD of .. size uod clUarTa)'. It w.s
th ro eceuary to !lave _ .. Co...... of pollee to kiEep tioe
<w..o ', dI.." were called, iD d>eck- n .. of tM
t (above) was 1.... iD lJo.is Non_"'t dern hus: .......
by doe Ru..mo te.r, wh_duty it -.. to ...,. t .. qooarTt!l-
la, '00'0 b)' m of a tnuocheoo 1Jo... <v......
teidter' ( tlw).
(II'..../s.., 'A-,.",hcll, ," ....11)
9
ing the enemy pike ineffecti\'e by using sand
or dust to blind them. (At Bicocca, for
instance, the Swiss used Stones to disable the
Gennan pikemen at a distance.)
7. The light horse should be used to create a dust
screen thus enabling a well ordered troop to
get behind the enemy lines. Ahernauvely
other Falm/Lin can be employed to draw the
enemy out of his position by faking a roul. As
the enemy breaks his ranks in charging after
this Fiilm/tin the opening gaps can be penet-
rated by a well-timed cavalry charge.
8. A further ploy should be the drawing up of
several squads of horse, foot and members of
the train at some concealed. spot at the rear of
the army. These are to hide until a crucial
stage in the battle whereupon they arc to
It wal Kfl.elltUll for the eaplain (above) 10 wear annOur al h.e
norm.al.ly foughl in the fronl rank .longlide the DoppelllOldner
and was often cluI.UeDged to .. duel by h..i. eowUerparl. in the
eDeDlY rlUI.k.JI. II il inleretlting 10 Qote th.at the dagger wal
fuler>ed 10 the right teg by Dleana of a thiD Mlh_almost in
'PJUllia.g:er' fadoion. The _poD he is ea""""'g il a boar-
~ ~ t)' H.-J o..lJII}
10
appear seemingly as reinforcements.
g. In close combat situations shorter weapons
were to be used at all times, i.e. halberds,
Ka1zha/gtr, two-handed swords and axes.
10. The use of nets to trap the fieeing enemy was
also effecuvc on occasion.
II. Disguising oncself as the encmy (which was
never a difficult task) was a practice which
also was to be exploited. By sending impostors
inlo the cnemy camp rumouT'Scould bequickly
spread that the Ohrisl had been murdered by
his subordinate officers.
12. The rear of the geritrtL Ordnung was always to
be composed ofsturdy experienced fighlcrs 10
'discourage' those cowards wishing 10 retreat,
and to give impetus to the attack.
13. Rotten were always to be placed at the disposal
of thc commander to replace thc wounded.
14. Above all it should be the duty of the Ohrisl to
maintain moraJe. Those contemplating de-
sertion from the field of battle. for instance,
were to be warned that to do so would be
tantamount to killing their comrades stand
ing next to them. It was, howcver, the
punishment of immediate death which de
terred such cowards.
15. Before the order was given for a pike charge
the Obrisl was to call up a squad oflancers to
advance in front ofthe pikemen and charge at
the right momcnt with the aim of 'jousting'
the pikes out of the enemy's hands.
Towards the middle of the sixtcenth century, as
the arqucbusier and mounted pistoleer grew in
importance, somc ofthe morcdanng ploys began to
disappear as movemenl became restricted by
firepower.
"Weapolls
The major weapon of the Landsknecht was of
course initially the pike. The ash stave was one and
a half inclIes thick and usually between 14 feCI
and 18 feet in lc:nglh. The steel head was iO
inches long and the tip had the shape of a 'frog's
mouth'. Adopting the customs of the mOlllHed
knighl, the Landsknecht would sometimes tie a
fox's brush or animal's tail to the tOp of the pike,
II
Fo..a .."..;.... OrdaI&Dfl) of ...- "'-' c.1540- If
squared fonnatioa _. auaeked by cavalry. the fonnaUOD
____ily adaptable 10 a d..fensiye ploy. The pikanea facias
in the respectiye dlrectio... with the erwI. of!JIeir pikK du
inlo !JIe .,..-th would _till fOnD tlae ......... wall while tlae
arquebu.ie... !IUl'TOundinS the... would advaac:e oul in liae to
face the onoo....u.g bo....e. Afler their 6 ....1 yoUey. they would
..elura 10 the front raak. of pike to reload.
(F,rwrr. ..."

.-
.,-
-.._.
. :..:x.:.::
,--
._-
_._-
..-
,
,
,

, , , , , , , ,

I
i

,
There were two main types ofsword designed for
different types of combat. In the case of the
both were carried. The smaller
'Roman' styled thruSting sword, known as the
'mangler' had a short metal hilt which
joined a broad double-edged blade about 28 inches
long and had a guard of two S-curved quillons
forming rings, It was carried in a leather or metal
scabbard, and the weapon was usually worn
horizontaJly over the stomach at the belt. TheZwti-
!Iandtr, the enormous battle sword about 66 inches
long, also had a double-edged blade, sometimes
undulating in design with a long grip co,'ered in
leather or cloth. The hilt was reinforced with two
curved quilJons and two nng-guards on each side.
The lugs at the heel oCthe blade served as a second
guard, to parry blows as well as to enable the user to
grasp the weapon at a lower point, as prescribed in
the drill movements. This was facilitated by a
leather ricasso between the ring guards and the
lugs. On the march it was sometimes slung over the
back crosswise by means of a strap,
The other weapon brandished by the Dop-
was of course the arquebus. This was a
hand gun fined with the matchlock, which con-
sisted of a lighted fuse or match attached to an S-
shaped hook trigger which swung over to ignite the
touch powder when the trigger was pulled. This
because of an aJlcgcd magic healing property and
the power of protection.
The haJberd, which was relegated to a 'secon-
dary' position, was carried by the NCO'S and
and used to dress the ranks. It too had
a shaft one and a halfinchcs thick but was only six
to seven and a half feel in length. There were of
course variations of the halberd, notably the
Voulge, the Glaivc, the Partisan, the Spctum, and
a type of Fouchard which was used by Charles V's
boc.l}'guards and borc the emblem oCtile two pillars
of Hercules and the Burgundian cross on the blade.
twiee tloe pooy of CO_OIl tloe Dop-
ptl.oklaol:r ao.-...al.ly "",Id the (roat aM rear posiliocu iD the
'sevtu1e Onbl-l'.11 was !heir taP. to ad........ee iD (nJQl otlhe
cornlJlll'y swi..pc tIttir rwo-iaaadftlliWO...u. 10 ","I doWlllO tile
pike uafb: oftlte -iDA: <!:ann,! tad establish aloclf;ftDnll
by pn>dratiDJ chit CrocIl ra.ab of tloe lio.. of battle
while doe ........-.iaiaS roUoWfll them up, co....
solidatiDS thm posilioa i.a the pp. Tbrir prisb .-
became. boue of COIlleuUcn> with the nobility, who dema.nded
tloe iDtroduetioD. or....uorm so WI ....... would be dUtiAsuiu-
lObi... M_ximiJi.n, bowevor.r. overruled their dem....d. 00 the
Jrounds that the f..aQddtaecht .....ed at Ie ollelwrury in
hi, miserable lif... Thul frefliom of d,..,.. _s S..... ted al the
Imperial Diet at Ua 1503.
had a range of up to 400 yards but was inaccurate
and often rendered useless by a shower of rain.
Although lhese guns must have had a considerable
weighl lhere is lillie evidence from contemporary
prints that the arquebusiers used a rest to support
their weapons. The arrival of lhe longerbarrelled
musket around 1520 necessitated the useofa rest. It
was not umil the middle of the sixteemh celllury
that the first major development was made in firing
mechanisms. The wheellock pistol made its first
appearance at the Battle of Muhlbcrg in '547.
Invented by the gunsmiths of Nuremberg, this gun
worked like a cigarcuc lighter. When the trigger
was pulled, a milled wheel driven by a spring SlTUck
a spark from a piece of pyrites or flint which in tum
lit the touch powder. Although used mainly by the
famous &hU!or{,t Rnkr these pistols also found their
way imo the belts of officers and DopptlsiJfdntr.
The crossbow, which had originally been the
forerunner of the hand gun, gradually became
obsolete as the arquebus bcc....me accepted as the
standard weapon. Yet at Marignano there were
still 200 mounted crossbowmen in Francis' royal
guard, and Gascon foot brandishing crossbows.
The later crossbows were fitted with a cranequin,
which consisted of a small iron drum filled with
hooks \."hich were actuated by a crank handle thus
drawing the bowstring back and selting it in
Huaprian Ordinanc.... In wb..... Chart.... V ....rc::bed
.sain5t th... Turlo5, who wue be51"'llnS Vi_,.t th" bead 0(.
buge armoy ftumbering 90,000 (oot and 300000 ho......., h... d...viud
ba,ll" (onnatiaft wbic::b would re.i51 any TurlWi.b
uuult.Jovius d....cribes this (onn.doft.s haviBS. (remt ',000
paces to""S. It co_isted o( three uaiu o( ..... _c:b 'J,f,ooo
fDnl strollS (a, b, &r. c). The... were .utably spaced apan to
aUow twO muses o(cavalry, Ncb c:ontaiaiftg 'n,GOO borH(A'"
B), to take up potIitio... Surrow:u1inS tbU nw>n:nous (onnatiOIl
wall a five ...... deep 'I:oed,e' o( arqueb.... ie... spaced :JO yanh
(rom the pike aDd the bo There were IWO Pi'll in Ibis
'I:oed(..... 10 allow th... ho to ch,....lIe th.rou&b at the edeIDY
Outside this bloc Ibe artillery was spaced at .utable u.lervab
aDd the whole (ormati_ was a......ed by IWO wiDJs o(
H_priaa bo.......-(D .. C).. Kftowa a. Ibe Huapriaa 0rdiD-
-oe. this sq..-re _s (ar (rom c:u.mbenorne aDd ...... Turks
were tuaI.ly repulsed by drec:tiv... c:ha'll" o(th" Imperial
lao aDd (oot.
(F,.. R....IaI!. hif..umr 18141
12
posilion. The quarrel or bolt usually had a wooden
night which o'eated a rotary action in flight
thereby increasing its penetrating effect. The
crossbowmen normally carried a shield which in
defensive situations was propped up with a stake or
sword so that a wall could be formed.
The Fiihnftin were normally subdivided accord
ing to the type of weapon. Since the main weapon
was the pike, the core of the unit was formed from
pikemen. This nucleus numbered 300, the remain-
ing 100 comprising Dop/Nlsofdntr, 50 of whom were
armed with arquebuses and a further 50 with two
handed swords and/or halberds. Later records show
that the number of pikemcn began to diminish as
the firearm became more popular. Thus, according
to Wilhdm Fronsbcrger, by 1596 only 200-220
pikemen were required.
u1i1i//ery(/lideqllipJllent
In Emperor Maximilian's Wtiss Kunig,
menlion is made of the talented young prince who
was capable of handling artillery pieces with
greater precision than any of the more experienced
master gunners of the day. Weiss Kunig also
records how the young Emperor achieved a new
technical superiority in one of the firstever
organised systems of ordnance.
Thc new pieces which Maximilian ordered to be
made at thc factOries of Beck at Augsberg, and of
Sattler at Nuremberg incorporatcd several new
developments. Firstly they were lighter, being cast
in bronze, their calibres being bored out. For the
firsl time the barrels were carried on carriages
whereas earlier they had been carried on separate
wagons. Trunnions and elevating mechanisms
began to appear and there were also developments
in the type ofshot, which incidentally was now iron
instead of stone. Freysleben, the keeper of the
Imperial arsenal, records the major types ofcannon
which the Emperor had constructed:
I. The Hauptbiithstn or heavy siegcguns were
nothing morc than huge gun barrels mounted
at an angle 011 wooden supports with numerous
rows of shoring behind the barrel to take the
shock from the recoil. Often such cannon were
so cumbersome that the) took days to set up
first uHd as tactical ploy u. the HUliliite W do", ....
fon' oaIy reaUydea.in lfthe anDy
by -...,idet-abl", artillny uaia. To add ..u..tIlp aad lire
power to dae O1Ir-rd 'w1llJ.,', La.rJe ana....ba.... o(tna
and hours to load. As a result a protective
shield pivoted on a frame would be placed in
rrOllt of the cannon and only raised on firing.
The greatest example of such a monster was
'Mad Meg ofChent'. Her barrel was eighteen
feet long, had a 33 inch bore and a weight of
firtecll lOns and required a span or 30 horses to
pull it.
'2. Thc hcavy arullery, comprising the Schaif-
mtl<.t. Nachligalf, the long and short KOTtaunt
(cannon royale) and the ROlhbiichst, were
longer pieces and had a smaller calibre than
the Hauptbuchsm. As a rule the barrels had a
length 6"e to eight and a half times their
calibre, and a reinforcement abo\-e the firing
chamber.
3. The morc mobile medium artillcl) was com-
posed largely of &hlallgtn eukerins-both
long: and short, and Basilisks. The length of tile
kNld.ed _to _11:_ with .... necoUUDaDder.. lnat
was u._riably fOOUld iQ the C'e'Dl", of dae _p and ado
..taadard ..toed al the iwa.d. of ",ny,roup or l ....ttI or datil"'"
bdoasialllO dae fihaln.o.. (..t-. c.'UrJ 8nllJl.\I_
barrel was usually twenty to fort}' times its width.
4. also ordered the construction of
siege Illortars, organ gUlls and grape guns, the
details orwhich are for the most part unknown
because artillery makers or the day were
pledged to secrecy in case the ellemy should
equip himse1fwith similar weapons.
Concerning the colour schemes of the artillery.
the carriage was invariably painted black and the
metal fittings rcd. The wheels wcrc Icft in natural
colours. A wooden box was oftcn placed over the
firillgchambcr to it dl)'durillg transport and a
small flag or pennant denoling thc colours of thc
regiment was attached to the traillcK, on
the left hand side. Because of the e.xtraordinal) sizc
of somc cannon, notably the siegc pieces. a
considerabl) largc train was required. Fronsbcrger
(1566' estimates that a train of 130 artillery pie<:es
13
including 100 field guns needed the following
complement:
2,675 Horses
891 Carters
5 Geshimneister (Officers in charge of Ihe trans-
port of the pieces).
124 Master gunners (Biichsmmtister).
63 Ammunition carriers.
4 Fiihnlein sappers (often taken from the train, i.e.
women and children).
200 Schneller (loaders), usually artisans.
gun barrels. The SChan{Pltister or engineers who
held the equivalent rank of a captain were in
command of the sappers or SchanzbautT, whose task
it was to strip the houses of wood foJ' future
earthworks. The remaining important offices
belonged to the Gescltirrmrisler responsible for
transporting the artillery, and the Zeugwart who
commanded the train and the arsenal.
The artillerymen, being regarded as a special
breed ofLandsknechlS, were paid accordingly. The
fully skilled master gunner usually received be-
tween eight and sixteen guildcrs; his services werc,
however, only demanded when a battle was
imminent. Even the Schneller-the loaders-were
paid six guilders per month (two more than the
nonnal Landsknechts). Fronsbergcl' writes that the
artillerymen were rewarded with both extra pay
and privileges because they had to keep their
positions during the battle and consequently were
not allowed to lake part in the ensuing plunder.
Such privileges included immunity from the
Prowsi, the cannon as a place of asylum for fugitives
from justice, and the freedom of gunners' wives to
form their own train. Due to their immobility on
the baulefic1d artillerymen were normally clad in
A 1lCl"D." taken from MIlXimi1illn'. bi"graphy 'd".. WeiSIl Kunilt'
depictiDg th" battle "f Utrht. n" main battl" lItandanf.
displayOld are th" 'Haing"rna.hJ', incorporatiDg th" CI"Ou "fSt
ADdrew, and the l:I"nnal battle Rag bearing. whit" CI'OSS on
..Old backgl"Ow>d.
(C<iUtltJ.J ~ f l h t Stili#! M_wn)
10 fl
2 fl
1,080 fl
NACHnCALL
60 hundredweight of metal including
wage for the caster
The cradle inclusive of wood, metal
attachmellls and wage for the construction
The carriage
The limber
The limber spike
Chains
Two sets ofwhecls for lhe limber
and the carriage
Ladle, sponge, matchlock, etc
Because of the enormous running costs the
artillery always had first preference when it came to
plundering besieged cities. The Oberster Zeugmeisltr
(Master General of the Ordnance), who had the
same rank as a field marshal, had the sole right to all
the artillery and ammunition that was still intact
and was also allowed to appropriate any remaining
arms and armour. He was, however, obliged to
hand over one third of the booty to the Kriegsherr.
The master gunners were emitled to all the powder
and shot. It was customary to seize the church bells
since they provided a valuable source of metal for
Apart from this a further 100 wagons were
required for ammunition and equipment, with an
additional 400 horses and 150 men. I f one could
keep running costs down to a quarter of a guilder
per man and horse one still had to scrape together
some 42,839 guilders a month !O prevent a mutiny!
Added to this came the costs for the actual
construction of the cannon. Fronsbergcr gives an
example of such a bill:
14
greens and browns, otherwise they would have
been obvious targels for enemy sharpshootcrs, The
artillerymen were subject to their own Articles and
normally came under thejurisdictian afthe master
general of the ordnancc,
Table of Ordnance under Maximilian
7jpe Weight Slwt JVagollJ Horses
Artill"Jmm
(tons) (kg.)
Srknrfmtlze
5
50
3'
16
3 48
Basiliew
3i 35
17 119
3
0
,N(Uhtigall
3 '5
13
88 ,6
Singtrin
,
<0
7 4
1
I'
Large KartauM I, 8 6
'7
8
Small Karlaum
1* 5
,
16
5
RothschLange
"
21
Dmli RotJuchLange
3'5
,
13
Sau (Bautt, Delise) I 10
,
17
Falkaum
1*
2-5
5
FaJl.end
i
I
3
&harffdinnle
I,
*
Hauptbiichsm, &karfmetz.en, Basilisks, Singtrinnm and Kartaunen were the larger siege pieces,
the remaining types made up the field artillery. There seems to have been a rationalisation oflhe
artillery under Charles V:
Table of Ordnance under Charles V
Type Weight/Shot Weight/Baml Calibre Length oj BamL
(kg.) (kg.) (mi.)
(metres)
Cannon Royale 18'7
',goo
18
3'5
Mcdium Piece 11'2
2,3
00
15
3"4
Culverin
5"6 1,380
I' 3"9
Demi Culvcrin
,8
1,230 9'1 3'5
Saker 3'0 1,235
10 2'9
Falconct 1'4
795 7
,8
Mortar
4
6
'7
',600
35'5
1'5
CjJie {!tll/poiglls
Upon the death ofCharles the Bold ofBurgundy on
the batt.lefield of Nancy, the French King, Louis
XI, laid claim to the Burgundian legacy, which
included the Netherlands. Maximilian, by vinueof
his marriage in the same ycar to Mary, the
daughtcr of the Duke of Burgundy, regarded Ihese
territories as his rightful inheritance. AI the ensuing
Battle of Guingate in 1479 foot
regislered thcir first success in defeating Louis, In
'493 when Maximilian became Hoi} Roman
Emperor, this somewhal personal conflict between
the French court and himself o\'er Burgundy was
IS
ne army on the D1.II.rdo DOrrnally adopted a Connauon wbido
would be ea.ily adaptable libould it liuddenly corne under
auad.. nu. the onu",I<eteerl were placed on the flank. Cor
proteclio... a1oDJI:.ide the and the artillery at the front
now raised to an international level, thus destroy-
ing the hundred-ycars' peace iliat had existed
between Gennan) and France.
Although he had secured the Nethcrl:lnds and
Austria, Maximilian soon found himselflhreatencd
in the southern reaches of his Empire. In [494-
Charles VIII, the successor to Louis XI, crossed the
Alps and invaded haly with the intention of
conquering the Kingdom of Naples to which
France had a centuT)'-old claim. Facing no
resistancc whatsoevcr, Charles VI JI entered
Naples in May 1495 with standing
helplessly in the wings. Yet this bold move by the
French set loose a countcrreaetion throughout
Europe. When Charles finall) reached Naples he
found thai a great coalition had been formed
behind his back. TIlC League of Venice, concluded
in March '495, had brough! Spain, the Pope,
16
and rea.r. nea..m.onuoition and provilion. were protected by a
.e.-.eD oCpi.ke in the centre. h i. interntin! to Ii" the method
of tl'1l.Dliport employed for the huse arqueb....eli in the
immediate foresround. (A_p. Co.tltJ.J oj IN BnfUA .If_I
i\lilan, "enice, and the Hal) Roman Emperor
together in a military alliance against France.
immediately despatched a force of
several thousand Landsknechts to hah lhe retreat of
the French over the Alps, but they could nOI
prevent thc withdrawal at FornUQvo. The
Emperor's plan was for the League to launch a
concentric altack on France with the aim of
splitting the French terri tOT)' into pieces. The plan
\\as never rcalised. The League, which had been
concluded on a 25 year basis, began to crumblc as
signatory after signatory abandoned the agrecment
when France withdrew from their territory. There
were, howcvcr, twO important developments in the
wake ofthis. First!). \la.ximilian struck an c\-erlast-
ing alliance with Spain through the marriagesofhis
daughter to Don Juan, the heir to the
Spanish throne, and his son, the Archduke I>hilip,
....
+
10 Donna Juana, thc daughtcr of Fcrdinand and
Isabella. Secondl)', he summoned the princes of
German) to the Imperial Diel at Worms in April
1495 in which he laid out plans for other
things) a general war levy. The scheme remained
on paper, !t.laximilian having to rely on the rich
Venctian and !t.lilancsc families for financing his
campaigns.
In 1499 hostilities ,\cre rcsumed when a French
army crossed the Alps again in a second attcmpt 10
take The new King of Francc, Louis XI I,
succeeded in holding the cil) until the spring of
1500, the Duke of Lodovico Sforza, having
been bctra) ed by his own Swiss mercenaries. The
next prize was :\aples and an alliance with Spain
soon made its capture a fonnality. However the
allies then began to quarrel and at the battle of
Garigliano October 1503 the Spanish swordand
buckler troops won a resounding "ictory o"er the
French, who were forced to withdraw from the
Kingdom of Naples.
!t.laximilian now called for a new Imperial Dict
which met in Augsburg. The invasion was
the pretexlthe Emperor had needed to com'ince his
princes of the imminence of the French threat. Yet
he was still unable to stir his nobility into providing
him with the financial support necessary to mount a
campaign against France. !t.laximilian was so
desperale that he allowed the formation of a
R,ichsrtgimtfll a council oftile leading princes who
were prepared to buy their share in the running of
the Empire.
In the following years Maximilian transfonncd
his stratcgy and adopted a marc peaceful policy
towards France, hoping to presclve his prize so that
he might inherit her a\ a later date. In 1504 and
1505 rcspeclively, tbe Treaties of Blois and Hag-
cnau werc signed, in which thc daughter of the
French king was bctrothed to thc Archduke
Charles. Thc accord lasted only a year. In 1506
Louis proclaimcd that his daughter Claudia would
marry thc crown prince, Francis of Angouleme.
This was fclt as a great }X>litical blow against
Howcver, due to domestic conflict he
was obliged to post}X>ne any plans for re,enge.
After the dealh of the Duke of Landshut, George
'the Rich', in 1504, the Wittclsbach family began to
quarrel ovcr Ihe legacy. Thc Palatinate Ruprecht
allied with Vladislav, King of Bohemia, whiJe
Albrecht IV of (urned to his
brother.in.law and thc Swabian
Alliance for assistance. Th(' Swabian Alliance was a
political and milital) organi<;ation which had been
fOlmed in 1488 betwcen the Emperor and the
leading princes, among them Dukc Sigmund of
Tirol and Eberhard, Dukc of Wurltembcrg with
the main aim of preserving peace in Ba\aria.
The opposing forccs met at the village of
WenZCllsbach ncar Regcnsburg. This was the first
major test for Georg von Frundsbcrg later to be
nicknamed the father of the Landsknechts in
command ofa regimcllI from
imilian commanded the anny of his brotherin-
law, Albrccht, which outnumbered the
quite considerably. Ruprechl's men had taken up a
defensive position on a hillock behind a wall of
shields. Thc battle was decided, however, b) the
devious tactics of 's Landsknechts \\ ho
advanced to meet Ruprechl's horse. The latter
Early WoodCUI& &UUKI thai the arqu"bus wa& ..-ed wilhout
the aid of& relit. ney w"re raLber primiliweaad
afFai"> c:c: I1" _d wiLb & 1"Il-IlJ" of appro..-ately 4
00
yard&. ne dew"lopme," towards Lbe .,......t:! look place
La the "s- wlM:a the rul wa& Ualroduced, .. baadpas
bec:a.m" er .... Ilad wid" calibre.
(F,..; <nlJ MIII.Il-./i-. r. ..u."Iwt/ld.lJtatid,
17
charged the Imperial 'forlorn hope' only to be lured.
into a thick \\'all of pike behind them. Some 1,600
men were slaughtered. The victory at Regensburg
and subsequent succ(..'SSful siege of the fortress of
Kufstcin did much to enhance the military re
pUlation of the Emperor and al the Impel"ial Diet at
Constance which was held in 1505 all his demands,
particularly for his militaI) budget, were met. It
was at this Diet that an organised system of
payment was for the LandskncchtS.
In 1508 dre\\ up plans to rene\\
imperial control in Italy. At thc Imperial Dict at
Constance he had demanded financial support for
his Rome campaign, promising knighthoods for
those princes who would follow. His desired ann)
of 20,000 LandsknechtS was never realised. Of the
12,000 men that were placed at his disposal only a
fraction e\'entualJ) took the field. It was obvious
that r>.laximilian was intent on war \\ith Venice
and not the French. The Venetian Republic barred
the way to Rome. This barrier proved to bc tOO
strong, for in February that year the Emperor's
anny ground to a hah at Trient. Without adequate
militaf) suppon was obliged to sign a
three year truce with the Venetian Republic.
The Pope, who had meanwhile become fearful of
the growing po\\'er of Venice, now sought a
protectivc alliance with :-'Iaximilian. The resulting
League ofCambrai formed in IS08 included Spain
and France. In Ihe following year lvlaximilian
commissioned Frundsberg 10 march down the
River ElSCh via Trient and recruit a regiment for
the Alliance ",hich was now preparing to atlack the
Venetian positions. Realising that their strength
lay in their diplomatic ralher than their militaI)
cunning the Venetians tried to manoeuvre each
member of the League into a position whereby
quarrel and ultimale dissolution would become
inevitable. Thus Pope Julius II and me Spanish
King Ferdinand the Calholic were persuaded that
their interestS did not lie in the Habsburg camp.
The League was dissol\ed, Germany finding itSelf
on the same from as I-ranee. Fnllldsbcrg, who had
meanwhile held the fortress city of Verona, was
relieved joined the french force commanded
by AlessuJ1Cl.ro Trivulzio. In May 1511 they
succeeded in defeating the PapalVenetian forces
between Imola and Bologna and then pushed
StaB" w",poa. or aDd ....teeaLh. can..tie.: .)
Military rork;".) Ahlforsdo ; 3) RaJuo,o.. r or RunkaHI) Co.-que;
18
S It 6) h.ll.... la.are. de boeu.f; "'2) Partisans; I:J-Isl
ConeqlO"116) RWIb; '1) h.liaa Bill; ") Glaive.
II
basic belWftft Swi5lll and German pikedrill ....s
lhal the German the pike al ",houlder
Ioel&bt wbenali the Swi",. prefft'Tftl to bold their wcapo... at an
a.a.s1e or.bove the bead. TbiIi phoforapb mo_ the nllietItial
north-east, thus forcing the \enetians to \\ ithdra\\
from their foru'csses in the Friuli dislricl. It is said
that with only I,Boo men Frundsberg succeeded in
defeating 9,000 Venetians and laking the fortresses
of Scala, Covelo and the 'impregnable' Cadore in
the Dolomites. The strategic importance of this
viclory was that il secured the main crossing points
in north-eastern Italy for fUlure Imperial armies.
This was to be me only gain from Frundsbcrg's
viclory, for ne\\ political developments had upsel
the international scene once again.
In 15" the Pope fanned a Hal) League with
Spain and Venice and Henry VIII of England
against France. Maximilian, secing this as a great
opportunity to seal the fatc of France and al the
same time secure haly once and for all, joined the
League.
poliihonli of the drill, ...... y of which we.... adoplM by the
Germanli. The armour shown I. Iypical Maximilian lityle,
cbaracreriRd by the llw:nel'O'" HUM!li On the brea"t plat.. aDd
the cuili..... ....... ,11_. ;:'_ndj
It was at this stage mal a ne\\ power began 10
make itself felt-Switzerland. The cnmil) between
the Swiss Confederation and Germany had arisen
largely due 10 the desire on the parl of i\laximilian
10 bring the Swiss under his political wing. The
n.'Suh had been a succession of border clashes me
'Swabian Wars' in 1499 in which a three pronged
Imperial assault froOl Alsace, Constance and lht'
Tyrol had failed miserably at the Baltle ofDomach
on 22 July. From lhat day onwards the Swm
Confcderation bccame an independent political
cmity. This break ",ilh Gemlany had strengmened
Swiss sympathy for the French. Vel surprisingh the
finest troops in Europe had now entered the scr\ict'
of Pope Julius II, thus helping to the
Holy League which was no\\ intent on dri\ing
France out of Italy.
19
Medium artillery p;e5, probably Kartaune... In general the
rate "ffiring WIIS ..low. Thi. was ..... part due 10 the Dessity 10
cool IlDd dean the bon: each time to p...,venl prem.ature
e"'plOt;io.... wben reloading; vinegar __ ....ed to cool the
barrels.
Creazzo and Novara
In the summer of 1513 a new army 7,000 strong
commanded by Frundsberg and Ulrich von Hlitlen
crossed the Alps and was joined by the veterans of
Ravenna. Uncertain of the political situation,
which was in a SlalC of pcrpclllal fllIX, the Imperial
army marched on Padua whcre a large Venelian
army was reported 10 be assembling. Reinforced
with Spanish and Italian contingentS, Frundsberg,
after severa] minor skirmis.hes with local units,
turned nonhwcst towards Creazzo wherc the
commander of[Jle Venetian forces, d'Alviano, had
confidcntly invitcd thc gentry of Padua to observe
the resounding victory which he was about to
commandcr his life. Ravenna was one of the
bloodiest ballies of thai era. Over 10,000 bodies lay
strewn on the bauleficld with double losses for the
League. According 10 Machiavelli the French
victory was gained solely due to the stubborn
resistance and fierce c1osequaner fighting or the
German Landsknechts.
Several days after Ravenna Maximilian ordered
all the German Landsknechts in the pay of the
French to return home. All except 800 obeyed their
Emperor; and these Soo wcre to form the nucleus of
the infamous 'Black Legion'. In the following year
the Holy League broke up on the death orthe Pope
Julius II. The Venetian Republic, seeing that its
real enemies were lhe Germans and the Spanish,
struck an alliance with France; and the Pope, a
Medici, had other interests.
o : : : ; : : : : : : . ~ = " ...
------
.._--
..__...-- _ .... _M__ The Battle of Ravenna
f\t Ravenna in '5[2 tbe opportunity arose for the
new allies to show their strength. The Papal.
Spanish army under the command of Raimund
Cardona made a stand three miles from the city,
which the Frcnch commander Gaston de Foi" had
deliberately besieged in an effort to draw the army
of the League into a confrontation with his own
force, which numbered 22,000 and included a
contingent of 5,000 German LandsknechtS. Draw
ing up his forces barely 30 yards away from the
banks of the River Ronco, Cardona ordered
earthworks to be erected across his front. With his
horse on both flanks and his infantry arranged in
echelon formation similar lO the Swiss tactic, the
Spanish commander ordered wagons to be drawn
up in front of the forward infantry square. On these
wagons were placed large arquebuses, while lhe
heavy artillery was positioned in front of the left
wing of cavalry.
As the French advanced towards Cardona's
front a heavy cannonade bcgan. De Foix, noticing
that the enemy had placed mOSI of his strength on
the left flank, ordcred his artillery to be drawn up
and for twO hours bombarded Cardona's weak
right (lank. The effort proved succcssful, for he
brought the enemy out of a strong defensive
position on to the field. Colonna, the commander of
the Italian horse, threw his troops against the
French right wing. Outnumbered twO to one the
French were forced back, bllt the advance of the
Leaguc was soon checked by a counter-chargc from
the French lancers in the rearguard and, thrown
illlo confusion, the League was put to roul.
In the centre the Spanish and Italian infantl)'
began their advance towards the German Lands
kncchtS who stood in typical squared formation.
At this poilll the lauer, breaking into a great
charge, swooped into the ranks of the Spanish and
precipitated biller handto-hand figlaing. Seeing
that the Spanish were gaining the upper hand
Caslon ordered his horsc to attack the Spanish foot,
causing the latter to take up a defensive instead of
an offensive formation. Surrounded on all sides, tbe
Spaniards tried to keep together and reach the
banks of the Ronco where lhey could make a
retreat between the earthworks and the river.
Furious ,hat the Spaniards were retreating, Caston
ordered a final charge which cost the French
20
f
!
,
f
1
j
"
c
j
c
,
Th.. cul".. ria was on.... charact..riHd by th.. shan .....
the Joooe: U"Ili1 Th.. l-rn:1 _ elevated by meaas of.
register against the Imperial forces. Yet Frunds
berg and his Locolcllt!1l1 Jakob VOll Landau, selling
their men up in squared formation, converted what
seemed a certain victol1' for the Venctians into a
humiliating defeat. Some 8,000 mercenaries of the
Republic met their death against only minor losses
for Frundsbcrg's men.
the French had been forced to
withdraw from Italian soil after suffering defeat at
the hands of the Swiss at the BatLie
1513. The French amly, encamped some 28 miles
west of Milan were taken by surprise by a '3,000-
strong Swiss force. In Ihe deadly battle which
ensued, the German LandsknechlS of the Black
Legion and the French Gascon foot were thrown
back and hacked to pieces by the Swiss halberdiers.
Out of 10,000 men thc French suffered 50 per ccnt
losses. Those Landsknechts in the pay of the French
who surrendered were e.xecuted wilhout mercy by
the Swiss. Novara was the highwatcrmark of Swiss
military achicvcment.
By the end of '514 most of northeastcm Italy
wascomrolled by Imperial troops until in 1515 the
Curtain began to rise on a new act in the Italian
tragedy.
Marignano
who had juggled about with France
and the Venctian Republic in an attempt to secure
--
--
.i.mpl.....ed:uuUsm al the ofl.h.. lraiI The 1"'D!th of
the _aonnaUy 110 to 40 limo... its width. (Dnu)
his imperial claim on Italy, was faced with a new
problem. The young and impetuous successor to
the French duone, Francis I, was intent on
rccovering the lost Dukedom of Milan. In August
1515 a French army, 30,000 strong with a train of
72 guns crossed the Alps and surprised their
encmies in the rear, pitching camp at Marignano
ten miles southeast of
Francis had takcll the trouble to recruit 9,000
German Landsknechts under the command of the
Duke ofGucldres, having lillic rcgard for his own
Gascon infantry. II is said that man} of the
Landsknechts belonged to lhe infamous Black
Bands, so-called because of the black uniform and
armour which lhey wore. The Swiss, 25,000 Slrong,
had withdrawn to Milan where they received a
considerable bribe from Francis to turn against
their hosts. Howe\'er, careful persuasion b}' their
leaders made them realise that the French meant to
destroy them.
The opposing forces met at Marignano on
Septcmber 13. Whilc the Swiss hesitatcd over the
bribe from Fmncis, lhe French king took up a
defensi\'e position. making dfcCli\'c U5C of the
ditches which broke up the terrain in frolll of his
ranks. Having ordcred some of these to be built up
illlo eanhworks Francis placed his artillery, ar
quebusicrs and Gascon crossbowm('n in the front
line. Behind this came the Gemlan Landskncchb in
21
w .. flll'tbu esampl.. of _ wiu aD onoat..
twisted barrtt IUld wa...,..,J .truu 10 add ...bill.,. l& U .. wIoole
carriat.. U"Ul$pan.
(lkw; .. s.u.udwj')
squared formation, Ranked by the French
Somewhat confused but anxious to get at their
treacherous enemy, the Swiss had meanwhile left
Milan and drawn themselves up in typical echelon
fonnation with a forlorn hope well ahead of the
main Cru.'a/tltut. Pressing forward, the 'forlorn hope'
reached a small fannhouse where, under cover
from enemy fire, the Swiss were able to SCt up the
fourculverins which !.hey had taken from the Milan
arsenal. Francis immediately ordered a troop of
horse to approach the farmhouse with the illlention
of setting it on fire. This they succeeded in doing,
rendering the cannon useless.
Pressing on, the 'forlorn hope' crossed the
ditches, wading through waleI' in some places, and
traversed the walls built by the French engineers.
Complctely overpowering the Gascon archers and
arquebusiers the Swiss van, now closely followed by
the main body of foot, reached the last ditch
protecting the Frcnch position and crashed illlo the
German Landskncchts. In thc ensuing melee the
Swiss captured several guns and for a while the two
forces were locked together 'at push of pike'.
Fortunately the Germans rallied and at their
second assault the Swiss were checked by a Ranking
charge from the French horse and salvoes from the
French artillery, which ripped holes in their ranks.
By midnight the battle had reached stalemate. It is
said that both Swiss and Germans slcpttogether on
the battlefield until fighting was resumed the
folJowing morning. Finally, after 28 hours of
22
fighting, the Swiss withdrew from the field with
only 3,000 men left. The French were thus able 10
recover Milan, while Maximilian could only offer
token opposition.
When in 1516 the Emperor organised a cam-
paign from the Tyrol against Venice and his
military bankruptcy was exposed. One half of his
troops were Swiss mercenaries in the pay of the
English, man} of whose comrades "'ere still in the
pay of the French (lhe Confederation had been
divided). l\loreovcr l\1a.ximilian was not e\cn
commander of the whole arnly. In spite of this his
anny had managed to reach the gates of Milan, yet
when he hesitated over the assault of the city in
favour of a more stratcgic manoeuvre, his troops
grew impatient and demanded their Sturmsold.
When this moncy was nOI forthcoming they
mutinied, some defecting, some returning home,
leaving the Emperorwi!.h no choice but to abandon
his campaign and make a hasty retreat to the T)TOI.
This marked the end of Maximilian's military
engagements. Forced to adopt a more peaceful
policy towards France, he concluded the Peace of
Brussels with France in December '516, by which
he delivered up his last prize of the Venetian
Th.. So or Sow _. _l4bt fidd piece wiu_ 8TftIteT trajcory
thaa u .. mvuiD. The equlpm....t to rna.inu.in Lb..
anillery ... load onieT ova. quit.. COG.id.. .. , -.idtl" and
.cyth" for deariDl th.. uad"rvowtll, -.boyd. IUld KoOpS for
th.. ean.bworks, boo.1a.a_ aDd wti.pt. for m....urinJ out u ..
doarJ" or papawd , I er buekeu for carT')'iD U ..
powder Cram d p to u tadletl for cha.rJin&: uem,
ad.. lP'ftHfor ue wb_1s, plIO. barrel. of......ns, _po c:aadI....
and thO! .ecunr')' tool..
., ,
.0-
J, HO;:r1'-;I,,'iN MiirtC'I'1U1
If. Landknecht had committed. crime ....d lJuftCIed ...
e....di.ng the ProvOill by reaching one oCthe pna in the artillery
par'" he autom.atiCll.1ly had the ris"bt of .....<:mary for
dar-. As lcml .. the Cgptiv" remaUo.ed wit.hia nuii... of 2f
Wars-the CityofVerona to Francis. In the same
year Charles, Duke of Burgundy, the grandson of
Maximilian, inherited the Kingdom ofSpain from
Ferdinand. This suddenly posed a military threat
nOt only for France but for the Pope too, for the
whole of soulhem Italy belonged to Spain. Thus
when Maximilian died in 1519 Pope Leo X allied
with Francis I, seeing this as the only move capable
of countering a possible pincer movement which
any future Gennan emperor could mounl.
The eJection ofCharles as Hoi) Roman Emperor
was no clear cut malleI'. Francis I, w;th consider-
able financial resources at his disposal, set about
wooing the German princes who were responsible
for the election. His challenge was shortlived.
Charles succeeded in securing the necessary
financial supporl from the rich Fuggcr and Welser
families of Augsburg, thus enabling him to
influence several of the more importam princes. At
the same time Maximilian's grandson arranged for
an army to be despatched to Frankfurt the venue
for the election). This showofforce commanded by
Frundsberg and Franz von Sickingen was 3.
sufficient deterrent for Francis and his prospective
voters amongst the German Electors. This con-
frontation meant a revival of the Habsburg-Valois
struggle which was to be intensified by Charles's

..
pIlC:" fro... the p.n the ProVOll( _llld IlOt .........1 .b.i.m.. If I.bU
law wa. broke. thea the Ulalltft'1lftle,,1 of the orda.a.nc:e had
the ritl:btto withdraw hi. artillery train from the ..nny.
( Dtis,: 'DIU dnl/MItI SMJ4Ino&w" )
pronounced aim ofa 'A!onorchia L'nivtrsaliJ' which
posed a great threat to France.
Ancr several minor engagements in northern
Spain (Villalar, 1521) and thc Netherlands
(Bouchain) hostilities resumed in northern Italy.
Francis had renewed his alliance with the Venetian
Republic and Genoa and had recruited an anny of
16,000 Swiss mcrccnal;es under the command of
Albrecht von Stein and his uco/rnent Arnold von
Winkelried. The French forces under the supreme
command of Lautrec had occupied most of the
kingdom of Lombardy.
Frundsberg, commander of the Imperial forces,
was approached by several Italian princes to raise
an army and hah the French advance, With the
help of hundreds of peasants he cleared a way for
his Landsknechts through the snowed-up Bergam
askian Alps and joined the Imperial-Papal forces
under the command of Prospero Colonna at Milan
in February 1522. The French Army, which had
meanwhile been forced back cast decided
to make a stand at La Bicocca in April 1522. This
was a decisive baule not for any strategic reasons
but because for the first time Swiss and German
mercenaries faced each othel" in considerable
numbers.
23
Q 10 SO
'-'-I miles
020 80km
SWISS
CONFEDERATION
Salzburg.
AUSTRIA
10
0
elnnsbruck
T Y R 0 L
Pieve de Cadore
Castel Roncolo

o
Florence
Trient. v
o
<:)
Genoa
La Bicocca

Milane
Novara
Map oftbe North Italian and theuret of war during
tbe fint quarter of Ihe .Ui:1e..ntb century.
24
I hnperial Herald, 15'15
:I Georg von Frund1bers
:J GOI:! von Berlichingen (1481 15&:z)
J
-.
. .
0
A
B
The Em.peror Manmilian I
"

c.ptaio:l, '520
'lI c"52i!
3 Standard Be-ftl'. '500S
./
c
(
lsao
2 .. Wi.llibald Rq;u...nu. ':>29
3 Pikeman, "'5'10

t .

.: ....
o
LocoU'''ezll,1>45
, .
'-...
- - - - - ~
... E>,I!lll Te)'"
F
~ - - - - 4
I DoppelHklau ohhe Black ~ 'po
~ SutJererl.
3 Pr0v051
,
~ ~ ~ . - - - - - - - ~
5
,
\

.'-3.il ..

\
(
,
H
. Rrichntunnfi.h.ae (hnperial MltI" Raldi Suuodanl of friedrida of
Bavaria. 15:P; 3- Standard oCOuo..les Viol_ Sta.Qdard o(Mi_ili...
i.ncorporatinJ the cron of 51. Andrew; So SULadard ofGeo"l
VO" fna.ndsb..'l;1 6. ero.. oCSI. Andrew; 7- Standard orthe fuge" an>i1Yi
8. Standard of 1\.1"... mi"8""1 9. Slandard of the Geor."cbild Rin"rgell"lIl'<'hafl
(Ln8"'e of Swabian Knigbl.); 10. Reichsrennfahn...
Bicocca and Pavia
Colonna, the Italian commander in chargc of the
Spanish cOlllingent, had realised that the hunting
lodge at La Bicocca presellled a considerable
defensive position. A sunken lane ran between the
bottom of a garden and the fields which separated
Ihe two armies. He ordered the bank to be built up
on the garden side illlo a rampan, and positioned
hjs arquebusierson it in ranks four deep, aJong with
several heavy cannon. The German pikemen took
up the rear of the rampart. As the Swiss advanced
across the fields (with roeks and sand in their hands
ready to throw at their enemy) their ranks were
decimated by the murderous fire from the Spanish
arquebusiers and artilleT). Those who succeeded in
reaching the lane found themselves in a deathtrap
and were slaughtercd by the arquebusiers, who
were so high that the Swiss pikemen could not even
louch them. Frundsberg, adopting the Spanish
'tercio' method, had deployed his pike in chequer-
board formation behind the arquebusiers. This
proved to be unnecessary, as his pike rushed down
into the lane (0 finish olfthe Swiss. In the ensuing
melee Albrecht von Stein and Arnold von Winkel-
ried were killed at the hands of Frundsbcrg. Some
5,000 Swiss, including 2'2 of their officers, were
killed in theonslaughl. La Bicocca was a disaster for
the Swiss. Lautrec ,,as forced to withdraw from
Lombard)- and in the following months Genoa
surrendered. La Bicocca proved once and for all the
supcriority of the Spanish and German arquc-
busiers and the Landsknecht pikemen.
a new domestic conflict had broken
out between the German princes and the knights.
The latter, led by Ulrich von Hutten and Franz von
Sickingen, felt themselves threatened by the
increasing influence of the nobility which had been
manifest in the formation ofa RtiduTtgimtnl. Franz
von Sickingen had planned to align the knights
with the eities in an allempt to seize the political
power from the princes. In August 15'2'2 he began
his campaign at Trier, bcseiging the Archbishop
Prince, Richard von Greiffenblau. Immediatel)
the princes united against him and a large force
under the Prince Louis of the Palatinate and Duke
Philip of Hcssen engaged him throughout the year
until finally in the spring of 15'23 their flags were
flying on the Landstuhl-Sickingen's castle.
....... .. w."-
.......s."iItlI. , ..,d:oSlm
.................-r..
&eo... von Fl"WId.sbe..., Ifn-1sa'. Lord of MiJodoeUoeioa, is
reprcled by m_y.a Lbe true 'C.Lbn- ofthe LaacbJutecbu'. He
bec:arne Iiupreme corornauder of the Imperial forc:eli IlJlIdn-
Charleli V portly afler the latter Lbe throoe.
Fn&Ddabe"l! fougbl hili finl _g.g",,_1 .pinal !he Swi in
1499 aDd in the same year wu amo,,& the Imperial 11'00I"'
de.paldoed 10 ..sis, the Du.l<e of Milaa, Ladovico Sfora,
.pia Lbe rreocl>.. FnuMI.be......i.ted Mnimm iB
o........ia&: the Laads.kDechl. and in lsog, 1513 -...d 15'f
owne...... '''Cc:elises .pil"l the V_etiamI aad the
Frellcl>.. Throush hi. victory.l Bicocc:a in 15'1:1 be bro"plw
grealer pari oCLombardy ....der!.he iDftuftlce oCCharl" V,.I
!.he _e time d"U'oyiDg Lbe oC the Swiss as Lbe
besl Cool_ldie"' .... Europe. He also played. onajor role in the
ofthe F.......cl>..I PII.viso in '5"" He died in Aups. ,p:8.1
uloa...ud nuo loi.ezt....he_paicIu: iBltaly.
(PM/wI "...t........tn .u""'W"" __.
The internal weakness of the Empire had in fact
been o\'ershado\\ed by polilical ructions on the
international scene. In haly the Habsburg ally,
Duke Francesco Sforza, had taken conlrol of
Milan, long regarded as the rightful inheritanc(' of
France. Henry VIII of England had landed in
Northern France, as had been planned \\ ith
Charles V. Yet Francis was to suffer an ('\cn greater
setback. Charles, Duke of Bourbon and Constable
of France, had quarrelled with his king and taken
service wi III the Emperor, who had promised him
both the hand of his sister Eleonora, the wido" of
the KingofPortugal, and a kingdom in the south of
25
'fhilI pamlinS by Titi.lul. depict. Charles V a' the B.nle of
Miihlbers. 1547, we-riDS a .Wl of b.lf...-mo.........de by hQ
penon.al DHideri... HehDKbmied.. It .. of bhoe
.IHI deco.....ted .n wi'" baacb: ....t. c:urved dericR etdaed
ia Sold. He .. we-riDS the red or pinkconlln ...:ler'. sash which
w" the field .ip for the ea"'olia at MiiJdbe"!:.
(PrDde\fadnJ/)
France. ntis was a gl"eat diplomatic move, fOI" by
cl"cating an ally in southem France, a front from
Italy to Spain could be established against Francis.
There was only one drnwback and that was the
successful invasion of Provence. Joining the 1m
perial army in Northem Ilaly, the Duke of Bourbon
setoffon his in the South ofFrnnce. After
six \\cells of inconclusive campaigning he was
fOl"ced to make a hasty withdrawal. Francis, instead
of pursuing Bourbon, had crossed the Alps in the
meantime with an ann) of 40,000 men. Suddenl)
the tables had tumed. B) October '524- Francis was
at Ihe gates ofMilan with only a handful offortified
cities I"emaining under Imperial conlrol. On
hearing the news that Milan had fallen, the anny of
Gel"man Landsknechts undel" the command of
Kaspar \'on Frundsberg, the son of the famous
commander, and GrnfEiteifritz von Hohenzollcm,
which had been marching on was forced to
rctum to Pavia where Ihey joined the old Spanish
general Don Antonio de Leyn. On the same da)
that Ihe French entered J\lilan the firsl assault
began on the southcm walls of the city of Pavia.
26
The situation was becoming quite serious for
Charles. Pope Clement VII had tumed his back on
the Empin: and entered into an alliance with
France and the Venetian Republic, allowing a
French anny under the command of the Duke of
AJban) through the Papal Stale to attack Naples.
Charles, in response 10 the call for help from Leyva,
hadlo throw new troops into the Italian arena.
Bourbon, afler a disastrous retreat from Pro-
vence, entered Gennany and began recruiting a
new anny inJanuary 1525. Together with Lannoy
he approached the ailing Georg von Frundsberg,
\\ ho obliged and promptly raised eleven Fiilmltin.
At Lodi, northeast of Pa\;a, he joined Marx
Sinich von Ems, who had brought a further
eighteen eompanies with him. Along with the
Spanish troops of Pescara, a considerable anny
numbering some 17,000 infantry and 1,000 horse
was ready to relieve lhe garrison at Pavia.
Meanwhile attempts by the French to diven the
River Tissino had proved a failure and a thrce
pronged assault on the city had been equally
unsuccessful. Realising that the Imperial relief
force would soon be aniving, Francis had moved
his headquarters to the park of Mirabello, securing
a strong position bel ween Pavia and the oncoming
Imperialist ann)'. Frundsberg, ordel"ing pontoons
10 be built across the Po, dl"ew up his forces facing
tht' French artiUery. There foHowed three weeks of
trench warfare and intennitlenl sonies.
Frundsberg's men succeeded in making contact
with Leyva in the city, supplying him with
ammunition and provisions and co.ardinating
plans fOI" the oncoming baule.
Drenched by rain and decimated by sickness, the
French soon began to lose morale. On '20 February,
6,000 French troops insisled on returning home. At
the same time 2,000 Cennans deserted the French
camp, thus reducing Francis's army to less than
20,000 men. Of this total 9,000 were Italian, 5,000
Swiss, 4.500 Cennans and 1,300 Gendannerie. His
generals advised Francis to withdraw, while Leyva,
in a similarly desperate situation, warned Lammy
thai he could no longer hold the cil)'. At this point
Bourbon begged for an attack.
At midnight '23/'24 February the Imperialist
anny, under cover of an artillel) barrage and a
nois), dcco) cl"eated by three companies of Lands-
kncchts remaining in the camp, moved nonh-
wards up the River Vernavola to a fordable strctch
and proceeded to cross it, thus outflanking the
French. Having crossed the ford they reached the
wali of thc park. Without drawing the attention of
the enemy the Spanish engin(..ocrs succeeded b}
daybreak in making a breach 50 yards wide.
Frundsberg now formed a van of seven Fahnltin,
ordering them to put on their white shins over their
armour (those who did not have shirts wercordered
to use paper) so that they could easily recognise
comrades in the darkness. B} da}break the Im-
perial forces had advanced in column on Mir-
abello, Lannoy and Bourbon commanding the
horse in front, with the artillery and thc main body
ofinfamry under Pcscara behind them. With three
blasts from a cannon Frundsberg signalled to Leyva
that it was time to attack.
The French, now having to reverse their front,
were brought into confusion. Since most of his
troops were guarding the lower banks of the
Vcrna\'ola, Francis was forced to deploy the
remainder (the more doubtful units of the Black
Legion) to the right and the Swiss to the left. Leyva,
seeing the time was right, now swept out of the city,
thus cUlling offAlcm;on, in command ofthe Frcnch
forces on the western nank, from his king. Francis,
ordering the attack, sent his horse against the
breach in the park wall where several companies of
Italians wcre persevering with the remainder of the
artillery which was bogged down in the mud. The
French had lillie trouble in forcing the Italians [0
withdraw to a near-by wood. On seeing this,
Pescara ordered Lannoy to throw his horse against
the French lines, but they were met wilh such a
hea\'} fusilade from the French artillery that they
too had to seek shelter, this time behind a group of
fannhouses. Francis now took the offensive and
ordered his horse to charge, with the Swiss and
Gcmlan [OOtIO follow. The salvo which Galiot, the
French military commander, had fued at the
Gennan horse was his first and last, for the French
were now charging across his line of fire. In spite of
this situation the French had rallied well and were
attacking in good order. However, the infantry
were too slow in following up the charge and were
checked by the Imperialists. The Gennan Lands
knee-hts of the Black Band now found themselves
facing their own kinsmen in the ranks of Frunds
berg and Ems. In the violent melee which ensued
the mercenaries in the pay of lhe French were
surrounded on three sides by the Imperial foot and
hacked to pieces.
Meanwhile the Swiss, facing Pcscara's arquc
busiers positioned in the trees of the park, suffered
grievously as swift vollies from 1,500 muskets began
decimating their ranks. With his fOOL in rout
Francis now threw his mounted Gendannes into
the fray in a lastditch attempt to break the
Imperial assault. However, with their lances useless
amidst the trees in the park, they were gunned
down at point-blank range by the no\\ well.
positioned arquebusiers. Francis was one of the
victims. His horse shot from beneath him, he "'as
only barely s.1.Vecl from a mob of vicious Spaniards
b}' sevcral of his entourage and the speed}
Fruu;:itI t, 14!H-1547, wu KiDS of FI'UlCe fl"On> '515 _til biI
death. A.uDou.s 10 ..-lUe the Valois d.a.iDu 0.. Milan aJId
lie pursued an agrn,pve fomp poliq wllidt.
"'vulved IWn i .. a Rriu of wan willi Charles V oCGern>a.ay
By iii. victory at MaripaJ>o lie WOD the rqn.tatio.o oCth.....oa
powerful aad I:l0riou. prince ... E...-ope. Ia 15'9 be
....-cc:es..fv.I .. c:aadidate Corllle dectioD DC...... Holy Ro
Emperor. Ia '50 F......cis failed to tJl.e .uppa" 0
Henry vm at ...... Fidd of th.. Cloth oC Gald, and
fu......er Ht-backs al Mila.o. ... '50 and with the dd"_ 0
Charles Duke OfBo.rboD iI:t 1,5ll3o Ia retaliario.. for Bourbon'
....ali 0.. M.anftlln F......cis ODce more ...vaded Italy, ....
was ddn.led resowulirtslyat lIIe Bani.. oCPavia .... 'S-50
biI death, F.....w ud IDOU-llled further e:am.pups .,....
Charles aided Illy Dew allin_the Turtt. and th.. Protes
Priac.on ofGerrna.ay.
(P.,.tutt 0.-1, M_; c.ru.ryStJ.)
2
intervention of Lannoy, who granted him safe
conduct from the field of battle.
The battle had been equally disastrous for the
French on the right flank. Kaspar von Frundsberg,
leading the charge from the cit) against Alem;on's
troops, had succeeded in dri\-ing hundreds of the
French into the Tissino \\here man) drowned in
their hea\') annour.
In less than twO hours 8,000 Frenchmen had
fallen at the expense of only 700 Imperialists. The
defeat of the French at Pavia left Ital) at the mercy
of Charles, and proved that the Spanish and the
Gennan Landskneehts were the best shock troops
in Europe.
Francis, exiled to Spain, had to suller the
humiliation of complying with Charles's terms
before he could return to his kingdom. Thus he
pledged to renounce his claims on Burgundy, Italy
and Flanders. However, no sooner was he rem
stated at his court than he declared the temlS of
peace invalid and sct about cstablishing a nC\\I ami-
Habsburg alliance. On '2'2 .1\la) 15'26 in Cognac,
Frands fonned the Holy League with the Pope,
Francesco Sforza of Milan, and the princes of the
Venetian Republic and Florence.
Italian Cantpaigns 1526 29
.1\lcanwhile Charles had been faced with internal
problems. The Gennan peasants had sought to venL
their political frustration by means of revolt, but
this had been speedily crushed by the Swabian
Alliance. Furious at the defiance shown by the
French court Charles approached Frundsbcrg once
again. The forces of the League had already begun
to consolidate their positions in Lombardy. "',lith
Loc:oc_1., or ........ I.........I-Coloaft.
11 .....1 AmpMlt-lli,-.!RnrJt.J.js.L.s'.
..d
RlOIfT:
TIle UlIilp WlUI a1.....ys haDd-picl<ed rrom the I"IlDlu. He WlUI
co.u.... ...uyaccornJl"li'ied by the drununer ...d fifer,....l CUi a
28
fine &pre: a. the Ioead of doe or FiJ:mJeiD. II ...... _
IUllCOlllU:llOa .0 6Dd the eou;ip ia do.. L1Uclo: ofthe &.o.y
lIIQ: .raadard Iiteno.Uy wido toodo ....l Bail. Jori..... doe halia..
hiJiu.ria.a, tP\"eS ... aCCOlPlI or a dead eo:uip fowod Da doe
h.llJdi",td with bedo aTDUI Iuocl<ed ID piec:u ....lloit::a.adard
cletlldoed ia lois teeth.
an army of 12,000 Landsknechts, poorly equipped
and without adequate financial resources, the
Imperial commander succeeded in avoiding an
engagement at Trient and reached Brescia by mid-
Xovcmber 1526. However, Frundsberg and Bour-
oon were divided and unable (0 join together.
commanding the Papal forces, had
planned to ambush the Imperial almy under
Frundsberg south of Mantua at the Po crossing by
Bargofone. Frundsbcrg rightly hesitated to cross,
hoping to hear news of the conclusion of a peace
treaty, but on seeing that the Papal Venetian army
was about to take the offensive he ordered a small
falconet to be brought up: loading it himself, he hit
the commander of Lhe enemy's forces, smashing
Medici's leg 10 pieces with only his second shot. The
Italians withdrew in confusion.
Although the Imperial troops were now able to
cross the Po and enter Papal territory their strategic
position was not strong, as provisions and finances
were veT)' low. \\'hat Frundsberg must have been
fearing had already happened to Bourbon-his
Spanish troops had mutinied and were now
running riot in the Italian Countryside.
By the end ofthc year Bourbon had succeeded in
assembling an army again and in February 1527.
with some 20,000 men, he left Milan and joined
Frundsberg near Piaccnza. A march on Rome now
secmed inevitable, for only by forcing Clcment to
recognise the Impcrial claim to Italy cOllld Charles
succeed in splitting the League down the middle.
At the same time the Imperial anny was thirsting
for plunder and to deny the Landsknechts such an
opponuniry would have been an open invitation to
mutiny. On the march to Romc news came that the
Pope had signed a peace treat)' with Lannoy and
had offered 60,000 ducats to appease the Lands
knechts. Enraged at the off"er of only twO ducats
pcr man, the Spanish and Italian contingents
mlltinied on Bourbon. The news soon spread to
Frundsberg's camp, where his men demanded
immediate payment on Lheir AlonatssoJd. In a great
speech the veteran commander tried to placate his
troops, who seemed to be on the verge of mutiny.
His attempt was in vain, yet JUSt when il seemed
that total rebellion was incvitablc, the situation was
saved by an odd twist of fate. Frundsberg, exhaus
ted b)' his cxtensi\'e campaigning and no\\ in ill
health. collapsed in front ofhis men. Their reaction
BlocIdl.oodt al ADlwftJ>' nu. woodCUI l;akea from 'WN.
KlUliC (CCMU'tn)' ofthe BriIiAb M_)depiru. _er.......

1111 wllea Mimjlian __ ID&I'do.iag ... ADlwftJ> be __
lI.hed by a btockhouH which Charm VD.I .!lad erected to
d.f.nd the city. Altho..gh o..cn...... bered, Maxirni1.ia.n. avoided
the blO(:lo.ho..... and charged the eaemy al hi. Darrow..t froat
to m,.l,,: ..B'ed;v....At: of hi. Land.bedu. After takUtg th..
bloekJoo..se lie ordered it to be n>ced ...... the occu.....,.
ba....ro-Iy ""eo;>Ited by aDd the 'wllet:l'.
was one of immediate sympathy for their com
mander and all thoughts of mutiny soon disap
pcared.
Frundsberg was taken to Ferrara and Konrad
\00 Borneburg took o\cr his command. Disciplint',
in spite of the incidcnt in the German camp. \\
now virtuall) nonexistent. I t was only the thouKht
of rich plunder which drove the Imperial arm) on
towards Rome. By April, Bourbon and
had reached Florence, and by decoy. passed an
army of the League which stood in their way By
they had reached Rome. Bouroon, who had
been forced to leave his artilleT)' behind and was
withollt any siege equipment, asked the Pope for
provisions for his men and free access to Naples.
Clement. hoping for relief from the Duke of
l:rbino, refused. The Constabk. now
desperate, had to make a quick decision. The amty
of the League which he had c1e\'erly by-passed was
now in his rear and his own troops wcre for
an assault.
On the morning of6 1527 the first German
29
Landskncchts broke through the walls of Rome.
Bourbon, who had insisted on leading the first
assault, was killed climbing the city wall. As soon as
the first cannons had been captured lhey were
aimed at the fortress of San Angelo. The Pope
followed by his cardinals only just managed to
escape to the Castel San Angelo, while his Swiss
bodyguard fought a fateful rearguard action in the
Vatican. Within lhree hours lhe whole Vatican had
been taken. Von Boyneburg made an attempt to
restrain his troops from plunder, but predictably, it
was in vain. Although they had assembled in
squared formalion, expecting an attack from
Urbina's oncoming relief force, the) soon dispersed
on sight oflheir Spanish and Italian comrades who
began a wild rampage through the city, looting and
murdering. The 'Sacco di Roma' outraged the
sentjment of lhe whole civilised world.
Charles, now with the whole Papal State in his
power. was to declare himself 'The
Supreme Head of the Christian Church'; but he
refrained from doing so, seeing that he needed the
Pope to maintain his hold on ltaJ). Not until
February 1528 did the last units of Landsknechts
leave Rome. For the march on Naples a final
muster-parade was arranged. Of lhe 1'2,000 men
who had crossed the Alps with Frundsberg scarcely
5,000 remained, the ranks having been decimated
by the plague which had mcamvhilc broken out in
Rome.
The war in Italy did nOl end until the summer of
1529. Atlhe Peace of Cambrai Francis renounced
his claims on Italy for the second lime at the
Imperial expense of the Duchy of Burgundy.
Charles had to promise to overthrow the Medicis of
Florence in return for the Papal recognition of
Habsburg sovereignty in Italy and Europe.
In February 1530 Charles V was cro\.. noo
Empcrorofthe Holy Roman Empire by the Pope in
Bologna. The' MonorchiD UnilNTsalis' thus seemed to
have been achieved at last. However, external
pressures were soon to change this. In the East the
Turkish Emperor Suleiman 11 had been extending
his innuence. In 1532 the Turks, having swept
_.
J
/
\
Tak... (renD Ihot 'ScbwfturKhlacht' by Ha.oo. Holbela, this ....
vivid po""'raJ or Wto.al 'bad war-i.e. a coftf"rOIlt.atiOIt
betwee:a $wi.. and Germ.... mercenaries_m...l hit.... beftl
30
like. Tbe more KaabaJer ...osl al do.e
qllltrters apia.sl Ihot cumbersome halbercltl aad plkes.
rc..kVIN 10 BIU/t)
through Hungary, had arrived at the gates of
Vienna. Charles, who had bttn involved in re-
ligious conflict wiLh factions within the Empire, was
forced to concede to the Protestant princes once
again in order to acquire arms and money at the
Imperial Diet at Augsburg in 1530. In 1532 he
ad\'anced on the Turks at the head ofa huge army
and repulsed them in the woods of Vienna. Despite
their defeat the Turks maimained their aggressive
policy. [n the ).,Iediterranean Barbarossa, the
much-feared pirate, became the scourge of Spanish
and Italian shipping and in 1534 crowned himself
'King of Algiers and Tunis'. In the same year he
approached Genoa with his f1cct as an open gesture
of challenge to Charles. The lattcr promptly
relaliated and with an army of 30,000 and an
armada of some 364 ships and galleys attacked
Barbarossa at Tunis, uttcrly defeating the Turkish
commander both on land and at sea. Francis, who
had In pan instigated the aggressive Turkish
policy, was unable toolfer the Turks any dircct hclp
since thc Imperial campaign had the aura of a
crusade for '-Veslcrn civilisation. He did, however,
hastily conclude the socalJed 'Capitulations' with
Suleiman, strengthening their alliance III an
attempt to restore the balance of power.
Campaigns of 1536 54
In the meantime the war in Italy had flared up
again. Francesco Maria Sforza, the last Duke of
died in 1535 without an heir. The Duchy of
Milan therefore fell to Charles V. Francis promptly
claimed the Ouch)' for his son Charles Ill, Duke of
Orleans and occupied Turin in 1536. As a result the
German Emperor crossed the Alps once again, this
time entering his opponent's tcrrito')-. With an
army 50,000 strong he devastated Provence and
began besieging He was soon forced to
beat a retreat as his ranks were decimated by the
plague, and he retumed to Germany with his
objectives unachieved. The Turks had meanwhile
renewed their threat-Barbarossa conquering
Naples and Suleiman I I inflicting a heavy dcfeat on
Ferdinand of Bavaria, the brother of Charles V, at
the Batue of Esscg. The Emperor realised that he
was incapable of fighting a war on two fronts and
agreed to a meeting with Francis at AiguesMones
in 1538. Francis thereby agreed 10 abandon further
Map of me Battle ofRav_l.) CoIOJUla with800beavy bOrM
b) 6,woSpamsh ialuatry. c)600 b_vy cavalry. d) ,,-WlUlt";
m Iquan< uader Carda-. e) 400 bnvy borM. f)..- (__ ,)
PHcanl. whh .,_ l.if!:;bl bof'ft_ .J Duke of Fern... with 7SO
be.vy ca... try from me Compllpn d'Ordoroaaaee.) 1,000
Gee....... LandslulKhu u.ader MoUard and Jaoob von Ern 3)
,,- e.- aDd Picard)' U'y m .uppo.....tJ La l'ali ..
with s80 beavy cavalry. s) 00 WaJlU'y, rnaiaJ)' h..l 6)
],000 liS11i bol'M.
(1-;_ R...IIN.. f.... Ij
alliances with the Turks and Charles promised to
yield Sa\'o) and two-thirds of the territory of
Piedmont to the French. Milan \\as not discussed.
The Turkish pressure was soon to gather fresh
momenlUm. In 1538 Corfu fell to Barbarossa and
Ferdinand was dealt a second blow b} Turkish
forces at PCSI in Hungary. Charles was obliged to
undertake a second expedition, Ihis time against
Algicl'S. His flcet ravaged by the clements and his
arm) drenched b} rainstorms, the expedition
proved abortive. In the light of these defeats
Francis decided to declare war on Charles once
again, using the murders of his diplomats as a
pretext. Aftcr a succession of inconclusive cam-
paigns the French lost Luxemburg and much of
their southern from around Piedmont. In February
1543 Charles entered illlo an aJliance with Henn.
VI I I of England and inJune the same} ear the (1('\\
Imperial ally declared waron France. The idea W<ti
an obvious pincer movement-Hen')' \'ia Calai.
and Charles from the Lo\\ Countries. Charles \\-as
delayed by further Turkish aj.{gression III the
In Piedmont. the French had alS(
becn successful. Francois d'Enghicn, a cousin of the
French king, had laid scige to the Imperialis
fortress of Carignano. The del VasIO. i
command of the Imperial forces, decided 10 fore
3
TILi. detailed pba of ....e Balde of P.via .hoWl' b_ ....e
m.pnialU;I ......y OUtJnaBoeavrM FraIII<U' anny, .... u. fon:iDK
him 10 I1Ino his liae 10 c:harte Ibroup the trefl of the
park ofMirabdlo. n.e trefl pro"ed 10 '"' .. V-1 adVLauo&e 10
tile Gn-uoaa aad Spa.Uaia who _ ..urably
co"ued apio.1 the cowne.-..d:I.a.rJea of the F dl borlle.
aad ....e h.li... con.tiasenla failed 10 _e to the
..ll.I.taDce of FI'"AIlCU., piomed dowD by .. -.DoWned
....wt &O.......e pni_tnIoOps ill Pavia umlu ....e comDUUMl
ofKaapar "on Fnmd.berz:, ....e aon of the f.an:lou. m.periaJi.t
seneral.
(Photo uu,1tsy &l>'lt RomJmd LJd)
refused to accept the authority of this Council and
were consequently outla\\ed by Charles. The
electors had fonned thc Schmalkaldic League in
1546 in an attempt to defend Protestant interests
against Imperial intc[yemion. B} 1547 the)' had
mobilised a considerable army supported b)' the
cities of Vim, Augsburg, Constance and Stras-
bourg. In April lhat year Charles engaged Moritz
of Saxony at Miihlberg with t3,000 Imperialists
and 3,500 Papal troops. The battle was importam
for the introduction of a new tactic detennincd by
the increasingimponanceofthe mounted pistoleer.
This new mobile firepower proved devastating
against infantry, and the repeat<.'C! vollies fired by
each line of horse bcforedropping back demolished
ranks at a time. The Protestant ann)', numbering
9,000, was thoroughl)' defeated by the Imperialists,
who su[fered only 50 casualties. The two Protestant
leaden were taken prisoner and all fears of a
prolonged ci\'il war seemed to have been ground-
less. In France, however, the new king Henry II
had resumed his father's policy of aggression and

/
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the French into batLle in an atlempt to relieve the
fortress. The twO annies met at Ceresole d'Alba,
some 30 miles south east of Turin. Enghien had
mustered 13,000 foot, 600 light horse and goo
hea\l' cavalry while del Vasto's force comprised
18,000 fooL, 800 light horse and 200 heavy cavalry.
The battle was nOlable for the inlroduction of
new lactics by both sides. The French concealed
most of their arquebusiers immediately behind the
artilJery in the front, and on the wings between the
fonnations of horse and pike. The Imperialists
employed cxacd) the same tactic, the overall
intent.ion being to fire on impact of the two front
ranks, thus killing the officers and seasoned troops.
During the ensuing bloodbalh the Imperial horse
on the left flank registered an initial triumph
against Enghien's gendarmes, but the fooL guard-
ing the right Rank were soon repulsed and rouled
by the French 'provincial legions', and Swiss
detachments. Del Vasto managed to beat a hast)
retreat ha\'ing lost some 6,000 men and all his
art.iUery. Yet in spite ofthis victor)' the French were
recalled from Piedmont as Charles had invaded
Champagne with 30,000 Landslmechts and 9,000
Spaniards. Henry VIII had also landed and takcn
Boulogne, wilh 4-0,000 troops. By July 1544
Charles had taken Saint Dizier, Epernay, and
Chateau Thierry. Henry VIII, contenl with his
'Enterprise of &ulogne', showed no intent.ion of
advancing inland and the Dauphin, who had
successfully implemented 'scorched earth' tactics,
placed the Imperial anny in an impossible SIlU-
ation. The Cennan troops, starving and mut.inous,
began to desert and Charles was forced to sign the
Peace of Crepy on 18 September, whereby the
Emperor renounced his claims on Burgundy while
Francis acceded Naples, Artois and Flanders;
Savo)' and Piedmont were restored to their rightful
houses.
In the space of 27 rears the ValoisHabsburg
struggle had brought four wan to Europe without
either side gaining any monumental advantage.
Francis died in 1547, giving Charles the leeway he
needed to turn his attention to the religious eonAict
which was lhreatening to split the Empire from
within. In December 1545 an ecumenical council
had been held at Triel1l to solve the religious
question. The Protestant princes, notabl)- Moritz,
Elector of Saxony, and Philip, Duke ofHcsscn had
32
concluded an alliance with the PrOlcslanl princes
in Germany. In 1551 Henry met Moritz of Saxony
and Philip of Hcsscn al Friedewald, and t.hey
arranged to assist the French king in taking the
cities of Metz, Toul and Verdun. In 1553 Charles
besieged Metz but was forced to retreat and in 1554
he suffered a further defeat at the hands of the
French king at Reuly. had been
pressing south towards Innsbruck, the Emperor'S
place ofrcsidence. In 1552 Ferdinand of Austria,
me brother of the Emperor, was forced to sign the
Treaty of Nassau with the Protcstanls. Charles was
b) now no longer in a position to govern his Empire
and handed Ferdinand this responsibility.
In 1554 Charlt'S, in a last attempt to weaken the
French threat, organised a marriage between his
son Philip ofSpain and Tudor of England. In
January 1566 Charles abdicated in favour of his
son, who received control of all the Italian lands
and colonies. In September thai year he renounced
me Imperial tiLie in favour of his brother Fer
dinand.
Conclusion
Although the L.'tndsknechtS \\lere 10 sec service
throughout Europe, it was precisely this in
tcrnational involvcment which caused their ul
timate disappearance. Charles was continually at
pains to acquire funds and support for his cam
paigns from his Princes, who wcrc inclined to o[fer
financial aid only at a political price. The Lands
knechts, for their pan, suOered largely from a
breakdown in discipline, as the mercenaries were
prepared to renounce their allegiance to the
Emperor at a price. The ultimatum 'No
money no Landsknechts' was often beard. Many
historians are led to believe thai the decline of the
Landsknechts began upon the death ofFrundsberg.
Certainly the original conception of .Maximilian's
reign-that ofa lxxIy ofpikcmcn who would be a
malch for the S\\liss-had gradually been super-
ceded due to the progress offirearms. B}' the second
half of the sixteenth CCOllll) garish costume began
to disappear, and e\'en the word Landsknecht soon
made wa) for 'kaistrlichtr Fussknuht' (Imperial
FOOl.soldier), thus marking the end of one of the
most colourful periods in European military
history.
C]/ie'P/rlf6
Al Imperial Htrald, 1525
If several regiments were together in one army it
was customary for the commanding officer to have
a herald who could act as liaison and convey
messages to the enemy. He was normally clad in a
silk surcoat bearing the embroidered coat ofarms of
the Obrist or, as in this case, the Imperial double
headed eagle. As a symbol of his peaceful task he
carried a while baton.
A2 GnJrg ron Fnmdsbtrg
Born in Minde1heim in 1473, Georg von Frunds-
berg became a devoted servant of the Habsburgs.
He continually wore the Imperial field recognition
sign, which was a red sash, and was noted for his
Roman.st)led hclmet and the halberd which he
bore with distinction.
Aj Got-t von Btrlichingtn (1481 1562)
Known as 'Gotz of the Iron Hand', he belonged to
the class of Imperial knights who were fast
becoming an anachronism al Ihis time of upheaval.
His iron hand was a substilute for the onc he had
lost at the Siege of Landshut in '54-. Largely
celebrated as a 'robber baron', he took part in
many campaigns in Burgundy, Lorraine, Switzer
land and for Maximilian in t497 and 14gB; his
career ended wilh the wars against the Turks in
Hungary in 1542 and the campaigns ofCharlcll V
against Ihe french in t54+ He was also prominent
in the Peasant's Revolt, in which he led L11e peasant
'Bw/dsdlUh Regiment'. (Thc standard was a red nag
with a green shoe and trailing ribbon motif.) He
was acquitted by the Imperial Chamber for his part
in the rebellion, bUI seized by the Swabian Alliance
in 1528 and kept prisoner at Augsburg until 1530.
B TIlL Emptror Maximilian I
Apart from his contribution towards the creation of
the LandsknechtS and Ihe development of a
'modern' artillel)' system, was also
responsible for the production of one of the most
important styles of renaissance armour. Known as
33
nu. rather wCc:u.nlte reprneae.tioD of P by P.tiDier
a1pCures, oevenheles.. the maio fcatvru of the nle. I... the
cop Ide ofthe piclure 0011' caD see Alenl;oD'a croops io their vain
.uempe to eacape .eros. the Tiu;ioo. I... the CftIln: the
'Maximilian armour' in referencc to the support
which lhc Emperor gave lO the amlOuring guilds in
Gcrmany and Austria, this style was dominanl in
lhc ycars between 1500 and 1530. II was character-
ised by the multiple groovcs and flutings which
affordcd both omameillation and greater
teclion. The Emperor owned IwO sets of horse
furnishings. The larger battle armour retained a
Gothicoutline and \\as festooned with the Imperial
device (the two-headed eagle). The horsc furniture
depicted here is the lightcr sct bearing the Austrian
coat of anns notc the Tyrolean eagles on the
pectoral.
CI Captain, 1520
Since they were expected to fight in the front rank it
34
lm.peria.I eroo.. are forciol their _,. thro"tl:b th", breach io
the wall of the Park of Mlnboo:Uo. I... the forqroUDd, the cla.ab
belW_ th", Fnncb 1D0Ufteed e-darrn.,. .Dd Lanno}"a
eavalry ;. cl.....ly vi.iblt:. (Au.rllm/ulMs j'ItMIJ)
was Cuslomary to find the' Hauprftutt' in armour.
This captain is wearing a lalcr fonn of 'Max-
imilian' armOlU wilh ornamenlal flulings. A laler
dcvclopment was the so-callcd Trablwmisch or
trOlling armour, which was a much lightcr form of
protection with more rounded articulations, wider
ann-guards and shoulder pieces. Hcadgear in
gencral consisted ofa felt. beret with a basin-shaped
crown and a wide brim. Often this was cuI al
regular intervals all round, and sometimes turned
back 10 fonn stiff loops. This was suitably adorned
with bright fealhers, or ruffled wool.
C2 C.1520
Since this office was usuall) taken up by a village
magistrate or somc other public dignitary, lhe
ul1ifonn Tarel)' underwent a transfonnation of any
sort. The important features arc the chain ofoffice
and the Slaff, a foml of roar spear, which was
probably the forerunner of Ihe officer's spontoon.
The skull cap he is wearing, known as a calQ/lt, was
usually made of cheesecloth or thin linen, de
corated with slashjng. The purpose of the cap was
to keep rolh hair and hal in place but in actual fact
it was originally a type of hairnel worn by the
womenfolk. The tunic, in Italian Renaissance style,
is Iypical of the dress worn b)' officers, members of
the nobility and indeed Ihe mounted troops of the
day.
C3 Standard BeaUT, 155
Hairstyles were still long at the beginning of the
sixteenth centuI) and beards were not yet in
fashion. With the advent of the Spanish trends in
fashion a reversal in slyies look place, short hair
being preferred, together wilh long, orten
gerated beards. A certain AUSlrian by the name of
Andreas von Rauber, it is recorded, let his beard
grow to the ground and whenever he fought tied it
round his waisl; and the Oberst GrafEiteifritz von
Hohenzollern plaited his beard from his chin
downwards! The red cross, which was the field sign
for Imperial troops (the other being a red sash) was
sewn all to the doublet. The Swiss mercenaries wore
a white cross on their jerkins to distinguish
themselves from Ihe foe in times of "bad war'. The
standard is the 'BlutJalm which was carried in the
'forlorn hope' to remind the Landsknechts of the
deadly situation in which they found themselves.
Dl Arquehusitr,1520
Before the early 15205, which marked the arrival of
the musket, the arquebusiers rarel) used rests. With
the introduction of the musket, incorporating a
longer barrel, rests became more common. It was
also cuStomary for arquebusiers 10 carry Ihe
powder, unmeasured against the number of bullets,
in a hal'll around thc neck. Herc, however, we see a
bandolier bearing the 'Elcven Apostles', Ihe eleven
charges equalling 1 lb. of powder. Each charge was
contained in a wooden vessel with a leather
covering, which was preferred to the somewhat
noisy copper vcsscls, and attached finnl) to the
bandolier. A leather pouch containing shot, clean
ing needle, grease, rag and clout was worn at the
waist and suspended beneath this \'0 as a small tin
phial containing olive oil for cleaning and lubricat-
ing the moving parts of the arquebus/musket.
Further accoutrcments were the small touch.
powder horn, somctimes hooked all to the butt of
the gun; the iron ramrod, which was later replaced
by a wooden version; and a four.foot.long match
which hung from the belt on the hand side. In
\'oct weather this was carried under the berel or in
the leather pouch. The invention of the cartridge
case in lhe lauer half of the sixteenth centul1'
greatly facilitated the wholc procedure ofloading.
D2 lI'illibold Pirdhelmtr Rtglment,
15
2
9
The only attempt made in these times at some fonn
of uniformity was made by the Nuremberg pat-
rician Willi bald Pirckheimer, who raised a regi-
ment in 1529, fining it out wilh red jerkins and
hose, red being Ihe heraldic colour of :'\Iurcmberg,
and also blending in well with blood! This corporal
is wearing the Donnal shin gathered at the neck,
\\;th full slecn."S which were pulled OUI through the
slashes in the puffed-out jerkin. The origin of
'slashing' probably lies in the complete un
suitability ofsixlcenth century costume for fighting.
An oversized shirt, often gathered at the neck, and
tight-fitting hose and doublet restricted movement
at the joints. Realising this the Landsknecht sel
about com'erting and adding to his unifonn'. The
first step was to slil open thejerkin at the elbows and
shqulders, the hose at the knees and hips. To create
a more striking appearance, slrips of ribbons were
tied round tbe arms and the shin was pulled
through the jerkin in bunches.
D3 Pikffllon, (.1520
It was uncommon for the nonnal foolSOldier to
wear armour. The 'true' Landsknechl never \\-ore a
backplate since he nevcr turned his back on the
enemy. It was, however, due 10 lack of resources
that Ihis cuStom was adopted. The len leg was oftcn
left bare, free of any hindrance, so that pike drill
could be carried Qut with greater de'\tcrity.
Sometimes lhis was carried to the extreme, the
bUllOCks being completely exposed. The hose were
sometimes slashed in the upper part and striped in
35
the lower. The Icgs were of different colours and
decoratcd in various ways wlth pipings, stripes and
spiral bands.
E Locolmml, 1545
Armour underwent several changes during the
sixteenth century. A complete suit of armour
usually weighed between forty and fifty pounds. it
was therefore necessary to introduce as many
articulations as possible to increase mobility in
some way. By 1530 the Maximilian-styled armour
with its multiple grooves and flutings had disap-
peared, with the breast plate and the cllisscs
revcrting to their former smooth states. The breast
plate bcgan to assume a more curved shape, taking
on the form of a peascod. The neck-piece was
replaced by a collar with a gorget which was
articulated in lobster fashion, as were the upper
arm sections and the gauntlets, which had jointed
fingers. The saddlery, which at the bcginningofthe
sixteenth century had been essentially iron with the
cantle fiued to its mountings, was now made of
wood and leather reinforced with iron, affording
greater comfon and freedom of mo\'ement. There
110e "Redu de:r .....,"'"' Spies"" or 'jud&m",",1 o(the pikes' ...... a
rOnD of n>aai.ot me p_deLAfter the priamler bad Hna tried
by jury l:Ie ...... led 10 eM plaICe O( .....ecutio... wlricll ...... aD
av",",ue O( OM pikes o( Iris c:ontndes. Aller the uecuticm, 1M
them_ICe more o(the "mela' and thoe <:os!
or Tailia& to obey them..
36
were also developments in the horse-armour, which
began to show greater articulation, notably with
the three-piece hinged 'pcytral' or pectoral buckled
to the main body-piece by means of leather straps.
The bulbous ornamentation on the pectoral,
known as the glance-knob, was designed to parry
lance blows.
Fl Drummtr, 1525
The drum was often large and cumbersome and
was usually carried on the back during the march.
Sometimes it bore the Imperial motif either the
double-headed eagle or the Burgundian crossed
staves and fiery devices.
F2 Landsknteht
l
c.1553
The origin of the CPluderhost' the huge baggy
hose dates back to 1553 when they first appeared
in the camp of Prince Moritz of Saxony who was
besieging So monstrous was their
appearance that the clergy banned them. The
court priest at Berlin, a certain in a great
treatise on the subject complained that the hose did
more to expose the anatomy than hide it since it was
divided at the hips by a huge often obscene; cod-
piece in the form of a bow of slashed material.
Before its acceptance as a fashion it was not
uneommon for Landsknechts caught wearing
Pludtrhost to be incarcerated. Essentially the hose
consisted of yards of material held up by' slasht:d
bands sllspended from the waist at the front and
rear.
F3 Ensign ofNuremberg, 155
0
By the mitl-sixteenth century costume had under-
gone a considerable transformation, being
influenced to a large extent by Spanish trends.
Beards became more pointed; and the wide slashed
beret gave way to a much smaller version, or to a
helmet ofmarion and burgonct type. The burgonet
had hinged cheek-pieces, and often an additionaJ
faee plate known as a beaHr. The marion was a
simple open helmet used particularly by the
arquebusiers. Doublets were prone to c.xtensive
vcrtical slashing, and the shirt was rurned at neck
and cuffs in typical Spanish fashion. Footwear
began to cover the whole instep at this stage. in the
earlier period an exaggerated type of shoe called
As WIIS ofteo the CII""'. jUlilice .ameli...... h.d lO be .dJniDi....
lerfll withoul lrial. Co... mon (ormJl of eseculioR were
Kuhmiiult' -cow's mouth-had been fashionablc,
but the open instep and elaborate toe section was
quite impractical on mudd) battlefields.
GI DopptlsolJntr oj tht Black Ltgion, 1520
Known as the 'Black Legion' or 'Black Bands', this
'"-M' Ixlle.-diDS auwI the 'wheel'. {Woo'(MI f .....
'Wtiu Ii. Mf"t' ,(I>M1Ul7 8111IJh ,1/Mmt1>l1
group of soldiers grew originally from a nucleus of
some 800 Landsknechts in French pay \\ ho refused
to return to Cemlan) in with
decree artcr the Imperial defeat at
Ravcnna in 1512. Cnder the command ofthe Duke
of Gueldres, this nOLOrious compan) was outfitted
37
DnunDlrr and Piper: Found invariably in th....nlouragr ofth.,
"Dsi"" thr m.usicians w ..r .. relipo.u;;bl .. fot' m.aintaiaing th..
intpetus i.D th.. aliliauh, mo".,mrnt being art a' W .... pile.... for
in black jerkins and hose, and their armour was
blackened by fire to avoid rusting. The 'Black
Legion' was finally destroyed at Pavia in 1525.
G2 Sulltms
The sutleress and her male counterpart were often
found in the train, where their goods found a
certain market. Their prices were fixed by the
&h.uJthtiss to avoid any haggling, which was often
the cause of camp brawls. In general the sutleress
provided \'inually everything a soldier might
38
r"rry 6".. beats of th.. drum. During th., march On" tnuliici.an
Dormll1ly joined th.. rear.
(1I'oodo</ oJ ]o.sl .Immutl ttl 8/(lu" Orr d,ul!.:!" ""'tldsAnnA!')
require, and was often the fil'Stto join in the plunder
of a caplUred town.
G3 Provost
The provost was responsible principally for polic-
ing the Landsknechts and enforcing the 'articles'.
After the quanennaster had selected a suitable site
for the camp, the provost immediately detennined
the location of the marketplace and ordered a
galJows to be erected. While the &huJthtus fixed the
prices of the goods to be sold, the proVOSt charged
the sutlers and sutlercsscs a small 'protection' fee.
Similarly he often demanded a sum of money from
prisoners who had finished their sentence in the
camp gaol (oftcn the provosl's own lem).
H: Standards
The Fiihnltin, which in Gcmlan is the diminutivc of
Rag, was by no means a small affair. Standards were
usuaJly anything up to ten feet in length with a
width of six feet. The staO" was nonnaJl)f slightly
longer than the width of the standard and bore a
knob at the lowcr end whieh was used 10 facilitate
the cdebratcd 'flag swinging', which still goes on in
paruofSwitzerland and Southern Gennany loday.
The standards of the Fiihnll!ln usuaJly bore the
colours and heraldic devices of the captain, or of a
city, ifit was represented. The material was usuaJly
silk and the shape and size often varied. Con-
temporary prints show rounded standards attached
to haJberds, for example. The standard was a
symbol of the april ilt corps and accordingly if a
regimen! or Fiihnltin had fallen into disrepute the
flag was nOI 10 be unfurled until the unit had re-
established ils honour. During this time the
standard was always carried with the point facing
theground. On the death ofthe ObriSl, his body was
draped in the flag and buried with it. Similarly.
when the regiment disbandccl after a campaign, me
standards were usually taken down from their
staves and tom into pieces, each soldier recei\'ing a
portion as remembrance for his service.
There were also flags designed for the train. The
leading carriage of thc Emperor or the FtJdobrist
usually carried the imperial standard or that of the
commanding officer. ThOS(' wagons carrying bread
and flour carried a white flag, and the field kitchen
a red. flag. Oftcn standards were taken aJong \.. hich
had no place in the train whatsoever. TIltse of
course belonged to unwarranted bands the so
called Aftroiltbrudtr, from which we have the word
marauder J who were to be found in most annies on
the march at that time.
HI The Reichsstunnfahne was the Imperial
batLle flag and as such always bore the double-
/
The whole _uale ' oneo derisively caJ.lecI the 'wltorn artlo_rb or ...tid, the artillery. The w.....e u-aia wu uader
aDd. ........n', wu in y retlpKU ....ul in the c:om.rnand of the HtlreDwllibd, ... offieer with lIM: raak of
Owa ..laAdard aDd. of1_ bdDti en>pJoyecl 10 ........trua c:apuiD wbo had biti _ eaa;p. ..... Rrw-t'L
39
headed cagle. When the Emperor was not present
the standard ofthe commanding officer became the
leading baule nag.
H2 In the Turkish Wars, '532, the standard of
Friedrich of Bavaria who was the supreme
commander of the Imperial forces was used instead
of the double-headed eagle. It bore the figure ofSt
on the Bavarian colours beneath the words
'DE COELO VICTORIA'.
H3 Charles V as successor to MaximiHan in-
herited an immense empire. This was mbolised
on a new Imperial flag depicting the twin pillars of
Hercules i.e. German)' and Spain and the motif
'PLUS OULTRE' or in Gcnnan ':',lOCH
WElTER'.
H4 Arter the marriage of Maximilian to
daughterofCharlcs the Bold, the Burgundian motif
of the cross of St Andrew was adopted and
appeared on all his standards until his death. The
figure of the crossed branches later appeared in
gold, blue and red. It was nOt uncommon to see the
Cross of St Andrew nanked by the twin pillars of
Hercules "ith the words 'PLUS ULTRA' above.
HS Standard of Georg von Frundsbcrg.
f/6 The Cross of St Andrew orten appeared In
simple fOlm against a yellow background.
H7 Standard oflhc Fugger family, Augsburg.
/-/8 Standard of Memmingcn,
Hg Standard of the Georgschild Rirtergesellschqfl
(league of Swabian knights). This standard was
adopted by the Swabian Alliance and ultimalely
carried by Swabian troops in the fifteenth and
sixleelllh centuries.
40
Cunp' Wil1t.in ....... was_ Cort., doe I .. Wt to
.....ft.- ........ to 6JKI or .....m ........ abdt...... Thit oCtao
lOOk tile Corm oC...impl.. leaa-co Or aD l.locI-.l>aped lau' __d..
oCb.......d>... -....d mud .upported ... aD A' &a.m... oCIoalbndL
110.. (:IlIDp Itevtr _ to 0_ be<m complet.. without
the h"l'" beer Mr"l"tl and tIM awn......... clru-. ased ..
pmbliaS tabl....
HIO RnthsrtmifoJmt. This Rag was always carried
by the arch-marshal alongside the Emperor.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Anon, Wtu.r Kun;g, Biography of Maximilian I,
1518.
Blau, Friedrich, Dtr deutsche LiIndrknecht, Garlitz
1882.
Deiss, Friedrich, Dos deutstht &ldotenhuth, Berlin
193
2
.
Doring, Hans, Kriegshuch oj GraJ Rtinhord rif Solms,
'545
Lezius, Martin, Vonviirts ... Vorwiirls ... zur
Geschichte dtr dtulschm Landskntclll, Leipzig 1935.
Nell, Martin, Zur En/sleJlUllg der deu/schen UJnds-
knechle.
Richter, Erich, Frtmdsberg, Munich 1968.
RUSfOW, Vol. I, Geschichte dtr lrifallttrie, 1884..
Scheer, Johannes, Das UJndsknechtsltben.
Zwiedeneck-Sudenhorst, Hans von, Kriegsbildtr der
deutschm LiIndsknechl
J
Stuttgart, 1884.
mmIJ
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