Granular Filter Design

PIERO M.
ARMENANTE
NJIT
Depth (or Deep-Bed)
Filtration
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Depth (or Deep-Bed) Filtration
Depth filtration consists of passing a liquid,
typically containing only a small amount of
solids, through a porous bed where the solids
become trapped
Solid entrapment occurs within the entire filter
bed or a significant part of it
Different bed materials are used in the
industrial practice
Depth filtration is typically a batch process
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Slow Sand Filters vs. Rapid Filters
In slow sand filters, water flows downwards
trough a sand bed. This is one of the oldest
methods to remove solids (and other material
as well) from water. The first filters of this type
were built in England in 1829.
Sand filters operate not only because the
particles in the water are trapped in the bed,
but also because the upper layer of the bed
(called the Shmutzdecke) becomes colonized
by bacteria after some time, forming a
gelatinous gel responsible for most of the
particle entrapment and filtration action.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Slow Sand Filters vs. Rapid Filters
The water throughput in slow sand filters is
low. These filters are cleaned infrequently by
removing the top sand layer.
Rapid filters were developed in the U.S. to
increase the water throughput (which also
increases the pressure drop across them) and
by cleaning them frequently via fluidization.
In rapid filters there is not enough time
between cleaning (backwashing) operations to
generate a Schmutzdecke. The filtering action
occurs throughout the entire filter bed. This
produces a better utilization of the entire filter.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Example of Slow Sand Filter
After Droste, Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment, 1997, pp. 450.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Example of Rapid Multimedia Filter
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Direction of Flow in Deep-Bed Filters
Upflow
Downflow (most common)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Examples of Deep-Bed Filters
Granular-bed filters
Conventional mono-medium downflow filter
Conventional dual-medium downflow filter
Conventional mono-medium deep-bed
downflow filter
Deep-bed upflow filter
Pulsed-bed filter
Traveling-bridge filter
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
(continued)
Granular-bed filters (continued)
Continuous backwash deep-bed upflow
filter
Slow sand filter
Fast sand filter
Pressure filters
Cartridge filters
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Conventional Monomedium Conventional Dual Medium
Downflow Downflow
After Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater Engineering, 1991, p. 252
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Conventional Monomedium Deep Bed Upflow
Deep-Bed Downflow
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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Pulsed-Bed Traveling Bridge
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Continuous Backwash Slow Sand
Deep-Bed Upflow
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Physical Characteristics of Commonly
Used Granular-Medium Filters
Dynasand Filter
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Example of Pressure Filter
Example of Pressure
Filter Operation
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Backwashing of Depth Filters
Because of the solid build-up within or on the
filter medium the resistance offered to filtration
increases with time
Backwashing is an operation conducted to
remove the filtered solids by inverting the
direction of the liquid flow while using clear
liquid
In conventional filters in which the slurry
velocity is downward backwashing produces a
lifting of the filter medium with consequent
dislodging of the filtered solids that can be
collected from the top of the filter
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Classification of Solid Medium Particles
During Backwashing
During backwashing the larger medium particles
tend to sediment to the bottom of the filter while
the lighter particles rise to the top
When the filter is put back into operation the
incoming slurry encounters the smaller particles
first. This is clearly undesirable since, as a
result, the filtering action will be provided
primarily by the top layer where the smaller
particles are
Dual- and multi-media systems are designed to
reduce the magnitude of this problem
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Dual and Multimedia Systems
Such systems (working in downward flow)
utilize as filter media small heavier particles
(typically sand) at the bottom and lighter but
larger particles (typically coal) on top
During backwashing the lighter, larger
particles will sediment more slowly than the
smaller but heavier particles and will remain at
the top
This will result in a more appropriate solid
distribution in which the slurry will first
encounter the larger particles as it enters the
filter from the top
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Common Depth Filter Media
Type of
Medium
Medium
Material
Particle
Size (mm)
Filter
Depth (in)
Monomedia
(a) coarse
(b) fine
Anthracite Coal
Sand
1.3 - 1.7
0.35 - 0.60
36 - 60
10 - 20
Dual Media Anthracite Coal
Sand
1.0 - 1.1
0.45 - 0.6
20 - 30
10 - 12
Multimedia Anthracite Coal
Sand
Garnet,
Metal Oxides
1.0 - 1.1
0.45 - 0.55
0.25 - 0.4
0.25 - 0.4
18 - 24
8 - 12
2 - 4
2 - 4
After Eckenfelder, Industrial Wastewater Pollution Control, p.383
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Stratification of Filter Medium Particles in Dual-
and Multimedia Systems After Backwashing
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Flow Control During Depth Filtration
Flow Rate
Driving Force
Filter Resistance
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Flow Control Strategies for Depth Filtration
Fixed Head (4 filters in parallel) Variable Head (4 filters in parallel)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Flow Control Strategies for Depth Filtration
Pulsed-Bed Filter Variable Head and Flow (4 filters in parallel)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Analysis of
Depth Filtration
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Analysis of Suspended Solids
Removal and Pressure Drop
in Depth Filters
As the suspension moves through the filter
bed some of the particles are captured by the
filter and are removed from the suspension.
Equations can be written to describe:
the removal of particles by the filter, and
the pressure drop (or headloss) of the fluid
as it passes through the filter bed
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Removal of Suspended Solids in Depth Filters
The rate of particle removal from suspension will depend
on several parameters such as:
concentration of solids in suspension, X
type of solids in suspension
amount of solids deposited in filter per unit volume, q
vertical location within the filter, z
fluid superficial velocity, u
s
size of particles, D
p
void fraction, (void volume/total bed volume)
time, t
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Superficial Velocity
The superficial (or approach) velocity is defined
as the velocity of the liquid as it flows through a
cross section equal to that of the tank (or filter
vessel) in the absence of the medium. It is also
equal to the total flow rate divided by the total
cross-sectional area normal to flow, i.e.:
u
Q
A
s

where:
A = cross sectional area of empty tank
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Void Fraction (Porosity)
The void fraction (also called porosity), , of
a bed is defined as the ratio:

void volume
total volume of bed
Because of its definition the void fraction must
be within the range 0-1.
The void fraction in a depth filter can change
with time as more suspended solids are
removed by the filter.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Removal of Suspended Solids in
Depth Filters
L
p
D
s
u
A
dz
X
Q
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Mass Balance for the Suspended Solids
Moving Through a Section of the Bed
Rate of accumulation
of solids within the layer
Rate of flow of
solids into the layer
Rate of flow of
solids out of the layer
'
'

'
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
( )
q
t
t
X
t
Adz Q X Q X
X
z
dz +
1
]
1
+
_
,
The term q/t is the rate of deposition of

solids per unit bed volume in the filter layer of
thickness dz
The term X/t is the rate of change of solid
suspension concentration as a function of time
The term X/z is the rate of change of
concentration as a function of filter depth z
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
A simplification of the above equation yields:
( )
q
t
t
X
t
u
X
z
s
+
since
u
Q
A
s

PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Since the fluid contained in a layer is typically
small in comparison with the flow passing
through it one can safely assume that:
( )
q
t
t
X
t
>>
i.e., the mass balance becomes:
u
X
z
q
t
s

PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
The rate of solids deposition per unit bed
volume q/t is very difficult to estimate
In general, it is reasonable to assume that the
rate of solid removal is proportional to the
concentration in the solid suspension:
q
t
X
i.e.,

X
z
X
In practice, extensive experimental data are
necessary to predict the removal rate of solids
in depth filters
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Generalized Rate Equation
The experimental data can be analyzed using the
following general equation:
( )
dX
dz
az
r X
q
q
n o
u
m

+
1
]
1
1

_
,
1
1
1
where:
a, n, m = experimentally determined constants
r
o
= initial rate of removal constant (length
-1
)
q = amount of solids deposited in unit filter
volume (mass/volume)
q
u
= ultimate amount of solids deposited in unit
filter volume (mass/volume)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Modification of the Generalized Rate
Equation
Initially, when the value of q 0 the term in
parenthesis in the previous equation is equal to 1
and the rate equation becomes:
( )
dX
dz
az
r X
n o

+
1
]
1
1
1
1
The term in brackets is called the retardation
factor.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Determination of the Constants in the
The value of r
o
is obtained by plotting the
experimental rate of removal for very shallow filter
depths for which one can assume that:
( )
1
1
1
+
1
]
1
1

az
n
and
dX
dz
r X
o

ln
X
X
r z
o
o
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Determination of the Constants in the
Once r
o
is known a and n are obtained from:
( )
_
,
+
r X
dX dz
az
o
n 1
1
using a trial-and-error approach (or a non-linear
regression algorithm) until the values of a and n
that produce a straight line when plotting the term
in parenthesis vs. z are obtained
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Limitations of the Applicability of Theoretical
Analysis to Depth Filter Design and Operation
Predictive equations to determine the rate of solid
removal and solid buildup in the filter as a function of
time, and size distribution and concentration of
solids in the wastewater are typically quite complex
They typically require numerical integration of
differential equation as well as the estimation of
constants from preliminary experiments
In practice, depth filters are sized largely on the basis
of past experience and the use of semiempirical
equations to correlate pilot plant data for scale up
purpose
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Suspended Solids Removal in Filters:
OMelias Approach
OMelia (1975) has proposed a theoretical
approach to determine the efficiency of solids
removal from wastewaters using depth filters.
This approach is based on the consideration of
different mechanisms of particle removal.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Suspended Solids Removal in Filters:
OMelias Approach
The fraction, , of particles remaining in the
wastewater after passing through a monolayer of
filter medium is given by:
+

_
,
+

_
,
4 072 00024
1
3
2
3
1
8
15
8
5
6
2
5
Pe Lo
D
D
Gr
D
D
p
s
p
s
. .
Then, the ratio of the effluent to influent particle
concentration, f, can be calculated from:
( ) lnf
L
D
c
s

3
2
1
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
OMelias Approach: Nomenclature

+
1
1 15 15
5
5 6
. .
( )
1
1
3
13
D
k joule K
T
erg
s
s
L
diameter of solid particles in suspension
density of solid particles in suspension
liquid viscosity
= Bolzmann constant =1.38 10
absolute temperature (K)
Ha = Hamaker constant (typically 10
-23
/
)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
OMelias Approach: Nomenclature
The nondimensional numbers in the preceding
equations are defined as:
( )
Pe
D D u
kT
Lo
Ha
D u
Gr
D g
u
p s s
L p s
p s L
L s

3
9
2
9
2
2
c
= dimensioness collision efficiency (=1 for ideal
destabilization)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Semiempirical Equations to Size and
Operate Depth Filters
Many semiempirical equations are used to
interpret and analyze pilot plant data
An example of a semiempirical equation to size
and operate depth filters is:
t
k H
X u
s
where: k = empirical constant

t = total run time before backwash is carried out
H = available head before backwash is carried out
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Mechanical Energy Losses of a Fluid
Moving in a Conduit
As a fluid moves in a conduit mechanical
energy losses occur as a result of friction with
the wall of the conduits and turbulence. This
phenomenon can also be interpreted as a
conversion of some of the mechanical energy
to thermal energy.
In pressurized pipes this energy loss is
typically reported in terms of pressure drops.
In open channels this loss is typically reported
in terms of headloss.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Mechanical Energy Losses of a Fluid
Moving in a Conduit
The mechanical energy losses must be accounted
for in the mechanical energy balance for the fluid.
1
2
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Mechanical Energy Balance
A mechanical energy balance in a fluid at two
different sections (1 and 2) in a conduit gives the
familiar Bernoulli equation:
v
g
z
P
g
W
v
g
z
P
g
H
L
1
1
1 2
2
2
2 2
+ + + + + +

where:
v = fluid velocity
P = fluid pressure
z = fluid height (with respect to a reference height)
W = mechanical energy input (e.g., via a pump)
H
L
= headloss due to friction
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop vs. Headloss
It is common in the industrial practice to refer
to the pressure drop encountered as a liquid
passes through a flow resistance (e.g., a
granular bed) in terms of headloss and vice
versa
The headloss is the energy loss expressed in
terms of an equivalent head of the liquid, i.e.,
the liquid height that produces a hydrostatic
pressure equal to the pressure drop
To convert a pressure term into a headloss
term just remember the equation for
hydrostatic pressure
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop vs. Headloss (cont.'d)
P g h
L

(SI units)
P
g
g
h
L
c

(English units)
Example: P corresponding to a head of 5 ft of water
P
kg
m
m
s
ft
m
ft
Pa 1000 9 8 5
0 3045
1
14 920 5
3 2
.
.
, .
P
lb
ft
ft
s
lb ft
lb s
ft
lb
ft
psi
m
m
f
f
62 43
32 174
32 174
5 312 15 2 165
3
2
2
2
.
.
.
. .
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop Across Depth Filters
L
p
D
s
u
A
P
Q
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop Across Granular Media
The pressure drop across a depth filter depends
on a number of factors including:
bed depth, L
effective diameter of filter medium particles, D
p
shape factor of filter medium particles,
L
void fraction, (void volume/total bed volume)
superficial velocity of fluid, u
s
fluid density,
L
fluid viscosity,
L
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop in an Empty Pipe
u
D
L
The pressure drop across an empty pipe given by:
P f
L
D
u
L
2
2
where:
P = pressure drop across length of pipe L
L = length of pipe
u = average fluid velocity
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Friction Factor f for Pressure Drop in
an Empty Pipe
The (Fanning) friction factor f in the pressure drop
equation for empty pipes is given by:
f
0 0791
1 4
.
Re
for turbulent flow
f
24
Re
for laminar flow
where:
Re
u D
L
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Friction Factor f for Pressure Drop in
an Empty Pipe
After Bird, Steward and Lightfoot, Transport Phenomena, 1960, p. 184
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Similarly to what found for the pressure drop in
empty pipes the pressure drop across granular
media is given by:
P f
L
D
u
p
p
L s
2
2
where:
P = pressure drop across length of bed L
L = length of bed
u
s
= superficial fluid velocity
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Effective Particle Diameter D
p
The effective particle diameter is defined as:
D
V
A
p
p
p
6
where:
V
p
= volume of filter medium particle
A
p
= surface area of filter medium particle
This definition is important to determine the area
of the particles if their volume in known since:
A
V
D
p
p
p
6
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Effective Particle Diameter D
p
(continued)
Remark: the above definition for D
p
was chosen
so that for the case of a sphere it is always:
( )
D
V
A
D
D
D
p
p sphere
p sphere
p sphere
p sphere
p sphere

6 6
6
3
2
,
,
,
,
,
Important: one should be careful in checking

definitions in textbooks since a number of
definitions for the effective particle diameter
exists
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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Particle Reynolds Number
The effective Reynolds number, Re
p
is defined as:
Re
p
L p s
D u
It has been found experimentally that:

for
Re
p
1
10
<
flow is laminar
for
Re
p
1
1000
>
flow is turbulent
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Friction Factor f
p
for Pressure Drop
Across Granular Media
The friction factor f
p
in the pressure drop equation
for granular media is given by:
( )
f
p
p
1
]
1
1
75 1
2
3
Re

for laminar flow

f
p

_
,
0875
1
3
.

for turbulent flow

PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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- The Ergun Equation
Combining together all the expressions given
above one obtains the Ergun Equation for
pressure drop in granular media:
( ) P
L
D
u
p p
L s
+
1
]
1
1
_
,
150
1 175
1
3
2
Re
.

where the first term and the second term in
brackets are the laminar contribution and the
turbulent contribution, respectively.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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Pressure Drop Across Granular Media - The
Blake-Kozeny and Burke-Plummer Equations
Sometime the laminar and the turbulent contributions
in the Ergun equation are considered separately (this
is actually the way in which each contribution was
originally determined). In such a case one obtains the
Blake-Kozeny and Burke-Plummer equations, i.e.:
( )
P
L
D
u
p p
L s
1
]
1
1
150 1
2
3
2
Re

Blake-Kozeny equation
P
L
D
u
p
L s
_
,
175
1
3
2
.

Burke-Plummer equation
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Average Particle Size of Sieved
Fractions of Medium
Typically, sieves are used to determine the
particle size distribution of particulate filter
media (e.g., sand)
Sieves come in different "mesh" sizes, each
one corresponding to the size of the sieve
opening
The larger the mesh size the smaller the
opening
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Average Particle Size of Sieved
Fractions of Medium
Table of representative mesh sizes vs. particle
sizes:
Mesh size 10 16 20 28 32
Sieve Opening
(mm)
1.68 1 0.841 0.595 0.5
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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Shape Factor of Filter Medium
Particles
The filter medium particle shape factor,
p
, is
defined as:
p

Surface area of sphere having same volume as particle
Surface area of particle
i.e.,
p
p
p
p
sph p
D
D
V
A
V
D A
sph
sph

6
6
2
3
where D
sph
is the diameter of a sphere having the
same volume as the particle.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Relationship Between D
p
, D
sph
, and
p
Since:
D
V
A
p
p
p
6
and:
p
sph
p
p
D
V
A

1
6
then:
D D
p p sph

PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Approximate Relationship Between
D
p
and Sieve Opening
The assumption is often made that:
D D
sph p
where D
p
is the average size of the particles
whose size is between two sieve openings
D D D p
s s
1 2
and where D
s1
and D
s2
are the sieve openings.
Then:
D D D
p p sph p p

PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Shape Factor of Filter Medium
Particles (continued)
Values of
p
:
spheres
p
= 1
cylinders (with H = D)
p
= 0.874
cubes
p
= 0.806
rounded sand
p
= 0.82
average sand
p
= 0.75
crushed coal and angular sand
p
= 0.73
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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Particle Sphericity and Porosity
Description Sphericity,
p
Typical Porosity,
Spherical 1.00 0.38
Rounded 0.98 0.38
Worn 0.94 0.39
Sharp 0.81 0.40
Angular 0.78 0.43
Crushed 0.70 0.48
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Characterization of Filter Media
Sieve analysis is commonly used to
characterize the particle size distribution of
filter media.
The mean and standard deviation are the
appropriate statistical parameters that can be
used to describe the particle population.
A straight line is typically obtained by plotting
the cumulative weight percentage of the solids
vs. the particle size on normal probability-
logarithmic paper.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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Effective Grain Size and Uniformity
Coefficient of a Filter Medium
Two parameters are commonly used to
characterize filter bed particle sizes. They are:
Effective Grain Size (d
10
) = the particle size in
correspondence of the 10 percentile by weight,
using sieve analysis
Uniformity Coefficient (UC) = d
60
/d
10
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Characteristics of Depth Filter Media
Type of
Medium
Density
(g/cm
3
)
Uniformity Coefficient
(UC)
Range Typical
Dual Media
Coal
Sand
1.5
2.65
1.3 - 1.8
1.2 - 1.65
1.5
1.4
Multimedia
Coal
Sand
Garnet
1.5
2.65
4.1
1.3 - 1.8
1.2 - 1.65
--
1.5
1.4
--
After Sundstrom and Klei, Wastewater Treatment, 1979, p. 228
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Characteristics of Filter Bed Material
Material Shape
p

s
/
water
d
10
(mm)
Silica Sand Rounded 0.82 2.65 0.42 0.4-1.0
Silica Sand Angular 0.73 2.65 0.53 0.4-1.0
Ottawa Sand Spherical 0.95 2.65 0.40 0.4-1.0
Silica Gravel Rounded 2.65 0.40 1.0-50
Garnet 3.1-4.3 0.2-0.4
Crushed
Anthracite
Angular 0.72 1.50-1.75 0.55 0.4-1.4
Plastic Any characteristics of choice
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
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The Ergun Equation for a Stratified
Bed of the Same Filter Medium
The Ergun equation can also be rewritten for a
medium made of the same material (e.g., sand)
but made of particles with a given particle size
distribution as:
( )
P L u
D
L s
pj
j
j
j
j
pj
i
n
+
1
]
1
1
_
,
2
3
1
150
1 175
1
Re
.
where:
j
= fraction of particles (based on mass) having
a particle size between two sieve openings
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Most Common Equations for the
Calculation of Pressure Drop Across
Granular Media
Ergun equation
- Blake-Kozeny equation (laminar regime)
- Burke-Plummer (turbulent regime)
Fair-Hatch equation
Rose equation
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
- The Fair-Hatch Equation
The Fair-Hatch equation can also be used to
predict pressure drop in granular material:
( )
P k
L
D
u
p
s

36
1
2
3 2
where:
k = non-dimensional filtration constant (equal
to 5 if based on sieve openings, or 6 if
based on size of separation)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
The Fair-Hatch Equation for a Stratified
The Fair-Hatch equation can also be rewritten for
a medium made of the same material (e.g., sand)
but made of particles with a given particle size
distribution as
( )
P k Lu
D
s
j
j
j
pj
j
n
36
1
2
3 2
1
where:
j
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
- The Rose Equation
Pressure drop for beds made or uniform size
particles:
P C
L
D
u
D
p
L s
1067
1
4
2
.

where C
D
= drag coefficient for spheres given
from graph or from:
C
D
p
p
+ +
24 3
0 34
Re
Re
.
with:
Re
p
L s p
u D
and
D
V
A
D
p
p
p
p p

6
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
The Rose Equation for a Stratified
The Rose equation can also be rewritten for a
medium made of the same material (e.g., sand)
but having a given particle size distribution:
P L u C
D
L s Dj
j
j
pj
j
n
1067
1
2
4
1
.
where:
j
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop in Clean Multimedia
Filters
The total pressure drop in multimedia filters is
just the sum of the pressure drops produced by
each layer of medium:
P P
C Cj
j
n
1
where
P
C
= total pressure drop in clean filter
P
Cj
= pressure drop in the jth layer of medium
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop in Clean Multimedia
Filters (continued)
For example, the pressure drop of a dual medium
filter made of sand and anthracite having each a
perfectly homogeneous particle size (UC = 1) is:
P P P
C anthracite sand
+
If the sizes of, say, the anthracite particles are not
identical stratification will occur with the larger
particles typically on top. In such a case one can
determine the pressure drop of each layer within
the anthracite medium and sum all the pressure
drop contributions as described above.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Clean Filter Pressure Drop vs.
Dirty Filter Pressure Drop
The equations developed above apply to clean filters
in which the characteristics of the filter medium are
known
As solids from the suspension are filtered and
trapped in the filter medium the pressure drop across
the medium increases
Calculation of the new pressure drop can still be
carried out using the equations for granular media for
clean filters given above provided that the new
combined distribution of all the solids (due to filtered
solids as well as filter media solids) is known
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop in Dirty Filters
Several expressions have been derived to predict
the pressure drop in dirty filters. They require the
knowledge of the volume of deposited solids per
unit bed volume. For example, the Ives
expression is:
( ) ( )
P
L
P
L
b b
D C
_
,
_
,
+ + + +

_
,
1
]
1
1
1 2 1 1
2
where:
subscripts D or C refer to the dirty and clean filter,
( ) b
1 packing constant
volume of deposited particles per unit bed volume
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop in Dirty Filters
Another approach to the calculation of the pressure drop
in dirty filters is by summing the contribution of all layers
at each time for each layer containing a known amount of
filtered solids. This implies solving the equation:
( ) P t P p t
D C j
j
n
+
( )
1
where both P
D
(t) and p
j
(t) are functions of time.
P
D
(t) = Total pressure drop across dirty filter
P
C
= Total pressure drop across clean filter
p
j
(t) = Incremental pressure drop across the jth layer
in filter
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Relationship Between Pressure Drop
in a Filter Layer and Amount of
Material Deposited
The following equation states that the incremental
pressure drop in the jth layer of the filter at time t
due to the amount of solids deposited is a
function of the amount of solids, q, that has been
deposited in that layer
( ) ( )
[ ]
p t q t
j j

where q
j
(t) = amount of deposited solids per unit
bed volume in jth layer at time t
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Relationship Between Pressure Drop
in a Filter Layer and the Amount of
Material Deposited
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Design Parameters for Depth Filters
The most important design parameter for
depth filters is the hydraulic loading, defined
as the volumetric flow rate per unit cross
sectional area.
Typical hydraulic loading values are in the
range 1-10 gpm/ft
2
.
Depth filtration units are typically cylindrical or
rectangular in shape.
The surface area of a bed is about 1600 ft
2
(150
m
2
). The typical range is: 400-2100 ft
2
(35-190
m
2
).
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Design Parameters for Depth Filters
In medium to large filter installations (Q > 10
mgd) four beds are typically installed.
Wastewater pretreatment with coagulants is
often common prior to depth filtration, in order
to remove colloidal particles.
Backwashing typically results in a 15-30% bed
expansion. Water flow rates per unit area
during backwashing are in the range 10-20
gmp/ft
2
(6.8-13.6 L/m
2
s). Application times are
in the range 5-15 minutes.
Design Features of Monomedium
Filter Beds for Wastewater Treatment
Characteristic Range Typical
Shallow bed (stratified)
Sand
Depth, cm (in.) 25-30 (10-12) 28 (11)
Effective size, mm 0.35-0.6 0.45
Uniformity coefficient 1.2-1.6 1.5
Filtration rate, m/h
(gal/ft
2
/min)
5-15 (2-6) 7 (3)
Anthracite
Depth, cm (in.) 30-50(12-20) 40 (16)
(gal/ft
2
/min)
5-15 (2-6) 7 (3)
Conventional (stratified)
Sand
Depth, cm (in.) 50-76 (20-30) 60 (24)
(gal/ft
2
/min)
5-15 (2-6) 7 (3)
Anthracite
Design Features of Monomedium
Filter Beds for Wastewater Treatment
(Continued)
Characteristic Range Typical
Deep bed (unstratified)
Sand
Depth, cm (in.) 90-180 (36-
72)
120 (48)
Effective size, mm 2-3 2.5
(gal/ft
2
/min)
5-24 (2-10) 12 (5)
Anthracite
Depth, cm (in.) 90-215 (36-
84)
150 (60)
Effective size, mm 2-4 2.75
(gal/ft
2
/min)
5-24 (2-10) 12 (5)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Design Parameters for Pressure
Depth Filters
Effective Size, mm Filtration Rate, m/h
(gal/ft
2
/h)
0.35 25-35 (615-860)
0.55 40-50 (980-1230)
0.75 55-70 (1350-1720)
0.95 70-90 (1720-2210)
After Droste, Theory and Practice of Water and Wastewater Treatment, 1997, pp. 448
and Dregmont (1979).
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Cyclical Operation of Depth Filters
The operation of depth filter is intrinsically
cyclical as a result of solids accumulating in
the filter and the necessity of their removal.
Typically two or more units are used so that
backwashing can be conducted without
interrupting the treatment.
Most depth filters are designed so that
backwashing takes place once per day
operation.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Backwashing
During backwashing water is pumped upward,
i.e., in the opposite direction of the suspension
during normal operation
The backwashing flow expands the bed to
dislodge all the particles removed during
filtration
In order for backwashing to be effective the
filter medium must be fluidized
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Backwashing

Regular
Bed
Expanded
Bed
Backwash
Water
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Fluidization of Solids in Depth Filters
Steps in the fluidization of solids in depth filters:
1. At a low upflow velocity of the backwash water the
solids in the bed remain stationary
2. As the upflow velocity is increased the pressure
drops across the bed also increases (Ergun
equation)
3. For a critical value of the upflow velocity the
minimum fluidization velocity is achieved, the
particles begin to loosen up, and the bed begins to
expand
4. At higher velocities the porosity of the bed
increases and the bed continues to expand
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Minimum Pressure Drop for Fluidization
to Occur During Backwashing
When the incipient (or minimum) fluidization
velocity is achieved the actual weight of the
solid bed is supported by the drag force
generated by the water on the solid particles.
The actual weight of the bed is equal to the
weight of the solid less that of the water
displaced by the solids (buoyancy effect).
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Minimum Pressure Drop for Fluidization
to Occur During Backwashing
From a force balance on a particle at the point of
incipient fluidization it must be that:
drag force gravity force buoyancy force
( ) ( )
P L g
mf mf mf s L
1
where: P
mf
= pressure drop at the point of
incipient fluidization
L
mf
= height of bed at the point of
mf
= bed void fraction at the point of
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Relationship Between Bed Height and
Bed Porosity (Void Fraction) During
Backwashing
If the cross section of the bed, A, is constant and
no solids are lost with the backwash water the
mass of solids in the bed is constant. Hence:
( ) ( )
L A L A
1 1 2 2
1 1
where the subscripts 1 and 2 refer to two levels of
bed expansion (depending on the fluid velocities).
L
L
1
2
2
1
1
1
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Relationship Between Bed Height and
Bed Porosity (Void Fraction) During
Backwashing (continued)
In particular it must be that:
L
L
mf
o
o
mf
1
1

where:
subscript mf = at incipient fluidization
subscript o = resting bed (before fluidization)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Porosity at the Incipient Fluidization Point
Particle Size (mm)
0.06 0.10 0.20 0.40
Particle Material Porosity at Incipient Fluidization,
mf
Sharp Sand
(
s
= 0.67)
0.6 0.58 0.53 0.49
Round Sand
(
s
= 0.86)
0.53 0.48 0.43 (0.42)
Anthracite Coal
(
s
= 0.63)
0.61 0.6 0.56 0.52
After Leva et al., U.S. Bur. Mines Bull., 1951
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Backwashing Water Velocity to Achieve
Fluidization of Filter Medium
The superficial velocity at which fluidization
begins, u
s mf
, can be obtained by combining the
equation for the pressure drop in the bed (using
the Ergun equation) as it begins to fluidize:
( )
P
L
D
u
mf
p mf
mf
mf
mf p
L s mf
+
1
]
1
1
_
,
150
1 175
1
3
2
Re
.

with the equation for P at incipient fluidization:
( ) ( )
P L g
mf mf mf s L
1
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Fluidization of Filter Medium (cont.d)
By recalling that the flow through small particles
is typically laminar one can re-write the Ergun
equation as:
( )
P
L
D
u
mf
p mf
mf
mf p
L s mf
1
]
1
1
150
1
2
3
2
Re

(i.e., the Blake-Kozeny equation)
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
The resulting equation is:
( )
u
D g
s mf
p s L
mf
mf
_
,
2
3
150 1

Recalling that:
D D D
p p sph p p

the above equation can also be written as:
( )
u
D g
s mf
s p s L
mf
mf
_
,
2 2
3
150 1
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
The equation for the superficial velocity at which
fluidization begins:
( )
u
D g
s mf
p s L
mf
mf
_
,
2
3
150 1

is valid for:
Re
p
L p s mf
D u
<
20
which is typical of most backwashing operations.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Backwashing Velocity Higher than
the Minimum Fluidization Velocity
The bed can be backwashed at a velocity higher
than u
s mf
. When this happens the bed porosity
will increase accordingly. The relationship
between such bed expansion velocity and the
corresponding bed porosity is:
( )
u
D g
s
s p s L
exp
exp
exp
_
,
2 2 3
150 1
This equation shows that u
s mf
is only a function
of
exp
since all other parameters are constant.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Pressure Drop in Fluidized Beds
Once the minimum fluidization condition has been
achieved the pressure drop across the bed
remains relatively constant, independently of the
level of expansion, and is equal to the pressure
drop at the minimum fluidization point.
Hence, for any (reasonable) degree of bed
expansion during fluidization it is:
( ) ( )
( ) ( )
P L g
P L g
s L
mf mf mf s L
exp exp exp

1
1

with: subscript exp = expanded bed in
correspondence of a bed void fraction
exp
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Alternative Relationship Bed Porosity
(Void Fraction) and Particle Shape
Factor During Backwashing
In the absence of other data the following
equations can be used to estimate the void
fraction from the particle shape factor:

s mf
3
1
14
1
11
2 3

mf
s mf
After Wen and Yu, AIChE J ., 1966
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Entrainment of Solids During
Backwashing
The upper limit for the backwash water velocity is
that at which the solids in the bed are entrained
by the water and leave the filter from the top.
For small particles the terminal settling velocity of
the particles (assuming Stokes law) is:
( )
u
g D
t
s L p
2
18
where: u
t
= particle terminal velocity.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
The relationship between the terminal velocity
and the minimum fluidization velocity is:
( )
( )
u
u
g D
D g
t
s mf
p s L
p s L
mf
mf
2
2 3
18
150 1

i.e.:
u
u
t
s mf
mf
mf

150
18
1
3
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
For a typical value for
mf
such as 0.5 this ratio
becomes:
u
u
t
s mf
33
which means that the minimum fluidization
velocity is, in this case, about 33 times smaller
that the terminal velocity.
In this case, to prevent particle entrainment the
maximum expansion velocity will have to be
approximately much smaller than 33 u
s mf
.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Fluidization Parameters
Fluidization velocities resulting in 100-200%
bed expansion are typically sufficient to
release the solids entrapped in the bed.
Typical fluidization flow rates are in the range
20-50 gpm/ft
2
.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
Additional Information and Examples
on Depth Filtration
Additional information and examples can be
found in the following references:
Bird, R. B., Stewart, W. E., and E. N. Lightfoot,
Transport Phenomena, 1960, Section 6.4.
Corbitt, R. A. 1990, The Standard Handbook of
Environmental Engineering, McGraw-Hill, New
York, pp. 5.96-5.104.
Droste, R. L., Theory and Practice of Water and
Wastewater Treatment, John Wiley & Sons,
New York, 1997, pp. 416-456.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
on Depth Filtration
Freeman, H. M. (ed.), 1989, Standard Handbook
of Hazardous Waste Treatment and Disposal,
McGraw-Hill, New York, pp. 7.3-7.19.
Geankoplis, C. J., Transport Processes and
Unit Operations, 3
rd
Edition, 1993, pp. 114-127.
Haas, C. N. and Vamos, R. J., 1995, Hazardous
and Industrial Waste Treatment, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 70-75.
PIERO M. ARMENANTE
NJIT
on Depth Filtration
Metcalf & Eddy, 1991, Wastewater Engineering:
Treatment, Disposal, and Reuse, McGraw-Hill,
New York, pp. 248-276.
Sundstrom, D. W. and Klei, H. E., 1979,
Wastewater Treatment, Prentice Hall,
Englewood Cliffs, NJ, pp. 219-234.

Granular Filter Design

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Granular Filter Design

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PIERO M.

The term q/t is the rate of deposition of

where: k = empirical constant

Important: one should be careful in checking

It has been found experimentally that:

for laminar flow

for turbulent flow

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