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COMPUTERIZING PRIMARY SCHOOLS IN RURAL KENYA: OUTSTANDING CHALLENGES AND POSSIBLE SOLUTIONS
Javier Gordon Ogembo Harvard University USA jogembo@sambazagroup.com Benjamin Ngugi Suffolk University USA bngugi@suffolk.edu Matthew Pelowski Nagoya University & Sambaza Group Japan mattpelowski@yahoo.com

ABSTRACT This paper investigates the outstanding challenges facing primary schools computerization in rural Kenya. Computerization of schools is often envisaged as a magic, or at least a particularly efficient, solution to many of the problems that developing countries face in improving primary school education. However, while a great deal of consideration is given to the technical issues surrounding computer implementation, government policy makers, administrators, aid organizations and individuals participating in school computerization programs often have not carefully considered the contextual questions surrounding this endeavour. Specifically: 1.) what problems do rural schools actually want to solve with computerization; 2.) is computerization the most important priority for rural schools; 3.) are schools ready, in terms of infrastructure, for a computer in the classroom; or 4.) might there be better avenues for implementing access to the benefits of the digital age? These questions and the issue of school computerization are considered via results from a survey of thirtyseven rural Kenyan primary public schools. Results indicate that, while all schools had low ICT status making them primary targets for computerization, only eleven percent had at least one ICT compliant teacher, of which all were considered to require further training. In addition we found inadequate infrastructural preparedness - lack of access to electricity, internet; no classroom computer space, few desks, secure walls and protective roofing posing severe challenges to the outstanding conception of computerization. We consider these results and make recommendations for better adapting programs for computer introduction, and also suggest the use of new innovative devices, such as cell phones, which might already have overcome many of the technical challenges found. KEYWORDS: ICT, computerization, techno-literacy, primary schools, classrooms, cell phone. 1. INTRODUCTION Kenya, like many Sub-Saharan nations - and representative of many developing countries as a whole - suffers from a double-edged educational conundrum (Coombs & Ahmed, 1974; Grant & Behrman, 2010; Patrinos & Psacharopoulos, 2011; Van Der Gaag & Adams, 2010). On the one hand is the professed need for improved basic access to primary education (Nkinyangi, 1982; Sifuna, 2007; Tooley et al., 2008; Vos et al., 2004). Kenya has long subscribed to an exclusionary educational system that provides opportunities for further learning to only a select few (Buchmann, 2003; Kay & Nystrom, 1971; Macharia, 2011; Shahjahan, 2011). Out of all school-age children in Kenya, about 85% currently attend primary school; 32% will continue on to secondary school, and only 2% will go to college (Lloyd et al., 2000; Ngware et al., 2006). This condition is far from the ideal model of mass education in developed countries, where more than 80% of adolescents aged 14-18 would be enrolled or have completed secondary education (Boli et al., 1985; Meyer et al., 1992; Ramirez & Boli, 1987). Furthermore, the limited chances that do exist in Kenya, especially in the best secondary schools, go to the academically strong or those with financial resources, leaving behind large
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numbers of weak or poor learners who score marginally in their exams (Glewwe et al., 2007; Sifuna, 2007). The problem is critical in rural areas, where schooling is marked by factors that make it hard for pupils to gain access to any education beyond the primary level (Buchmann, 2002; Eisemon & Schwille, 1991). Standards of education are low and repetition and drop-out rates are high (Abagi & Odipo, 1997; Mensch al., 2001; Yakaboski & Nolan, 2011). Approximately 17,864, or 89.9%, of such existing primary and secondary schools are publicly funded, and are characterised by high number of students per classroom, low number of teachers, and lack of basic teaching and learning materials (Amutabi, 2003; Mathooko, 2009; Vos & Ponce, 2004). With the introduction of free primary education (FPE) by the Kenyan government in 2002, this situation has moved from bad to worse (Evans et al., 2011; Johnson, 2011; Onyango, 2003; Somerset, 2011). Though a necessary endeavour, enrolment is estimated to have increased from 5.9 to 8.6 million students since introduction of FPE, without any parallel increase in the capacity of the already over-burdened school system to handle the large influx of students, placing even greater burden on the aging physical classroom spaces, desks, number of teachers and other resources (Mukudi, 2004; UNESCO, 2006). In some schools, classes now have as many as 80-100 students, while the average student-teacher ratio is currently estimated to be 60 to 1 (Oketch & Rolleston, 2007). Many schools do not even have enough classrooms to cope with the upsurge in numbers, putting constraints on other physical amenities such as sanitation and recreational facilities (Mathooko, 2009; Oketch & Rolleston, 2007; UNESCO, 2006). In turn, the Kenyan government rightly notes that correcting this disparity - i.e., providing both basic access and sufficient educational resources to all of its residents - is a major key to the countrys development, vital as a means of offering a foundation for future productive life (Lloyd et al., 2000; Onyango, 2003). At the same time, however, with this push for basic improvement in access to education, is the parallel realization that the sort of education, and sorts of experiences expected from a primary education itself, are rapidly changing. As put by the Kenyan government in its assessment of the current educational situation, the world is undergoing a fundamental transformation as the industrial society that marked the 20th century rapidly gives way to the information society of the 21st century. The new society promises a fundamental change in all aspects of our lives, including knowledge dissemination, social interaction, economic and business practices and political engagement(National Economic Social Council, 2007). Like many other developing nations, it is noted that while basic education is an important pursuit, in order for its citizens to function on the world stage it is also imperative that they achieve a basic amount of literacy with this information society. And underlying this is access to and literacy with the computer, internet or ICT (Glennerster et al., 2011; National Economic Social Council, 2007; Thugge et al., 2011) - overcoming the socalled digital divide. However, just as noted above, computers too are scarce in Kenyan primary schools. Many students leave primary school without ever having used, or often seen, a computer (Kinuthia, 2009). In addition - or, more probably, because of this - Kenyan society in general has been slow in adopting the use of computer technology. This in turn means that the society has long gone without any meaningful utilization of the powerful solutions that computers or information communication technology can provide (Hennessy et al., 2010). And each generation of student who passes through primary levels without computer exposure further places Kenya behind. This leaves Kenya in an undesirable position of both attempting to provide basic access to education, while, at the same time, painfully aware of the need to update techno-literacy within its curriculum and for the present and future generation. These dual needs, however, also potentially coalesce with the computer. Kenya, again like much of Sub-Saharan Africa (Langmia, 2006), has turned to the integration of
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information communication technology (ICT) as a tool to improve access to education itself, as well as a new medium for social and economic change (Kinuthia, 2009; Wims & Lawler, 2007). The current, prevalent, assumption shared by the Kenyan government policy makers, aid organizations and often school administrators, is that it is through focusing on computerization of school classrooms (hereafter computerization) that Kenya might overcome both the digital-divide and in addition address the basic deficiencies in educational infrastructure in schools themselves. Computerization is seen as a means of reducing studentteacher ratio, providing access to reading and learning materials, creating virtual class space without the necessity of building more classrooms, and connecting schools with resources of the world outside (Wims & Lawler, 2007). It has also been suggested that use of ICT will create techno-savvy students who will help to propel the country to industrialized nation status (Ford, 2007; Kinuthia, 2009), in turn injecting needed resources back into Kenyas rural environment, alleviating economic and basic educational disparities (Ford, 2007; Kinuthia, 2009; National Economic Social Council, 2007; Wabuyele, 2003). This reasoning may of course undoubtedly prove true. However, despite considerable growth in the numbers of computers acquired by schools in Kenya in recent years and the sacrifices made to finance these, the actual data and application of computerization is not good (Judson, 2010; Wims & Lawler, 2007). Governments, agencies and administrators tend to seek out computers as a panacea or magic solution for Africas troubles and for the needs of school (Gichoya et al., 2006; Hennessy et al., 2010; Kariuki, 2009; Wabuyele, 2003), without having in place a plan for how they will be utilized, why they want computers, or what existing deficits the computers will address. Donor agencies or individuals are often complicit in this as well, providing computers to schools as lump gifts without prior involvement with the schools themselves (Wells & Wells, 2007). And at the national level, many African countries rush, by giving computers, to show that the government is working hard to reduce the digital divide (Dada, 2006). Yet, despite the best of intentions, many of these projects ultimately fail (Tedre et al., 2009; Vallauri, 2009; Kohn et al., 2008; Wells & Wells, 2007). In fact, statistics indicate that, of the government-led ICT projects in developing countries, 35% are regarded as total failures, 50% partial failures and only 15% are considered a success (Heeks, 2002, 2005, 2010). This is particularly pertinent again for rural schools where the computer is taking away from basic resources themselves (Ackers et al., 2001; Pontefract & Hardmen, 2005). Underlying the above situation, are a set of questions that, while implied in administrators actions, are rarely explicitly asked and, as we argue in this paper, must be considered before a meaningful solution is found. Specifically: 1.) what problems do rural primary schools actually want to solve with computerization; 2.) is computerization the most important priority for rural primary schools themselves; 3.) are schools ready, in terms of basic infrastructure, for a computer in the classroom; and 4.) might there be better avenues for implementing access to the benefits of the digital age? In this paper we discuss these questions and the issue of school computerization via results from a survey of rural Kenyan primary public schools. By considering the results of this survey, this paper serves as a walkthrough of the existing situation in rural parts of Kenya. We discuss schools answers regarding their present situation and attempt to connect these answers to the background context of the dual issues introduced above; investigating the major challenges facing primary schools when improving techno-literacy. Ultimately, we suggest strategies that might be made based on these findings and even a potential alternative - use of cell phone technology - as a pedagogical tool for bridging the digital divide.

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2. SURVEY OF COMPUTERIZATION ABILITY IN KENYAN PRIMARY SCHOOLS As noted above, the primary aim of this paper surrounds the discussion of a survey conducted in 2007 as part of a larger effort to consider the viability of a computerization in rural Kenya. The survey itself was conducted as the beginning of a project for computer donation, matching a proposal by the government with a Non-governmental organization (Sambaza Group) and supported by several policy makers, with the aim of addressing the existing needs, conceptions and preparedness of primary schools for computerization. This survey, then, will be the primary basis for this papers discussion. In this first section, we will introduce this survey and consider its key findings, followed by a consideration of the implications and suggestions the data raises. 2.1 Participants The survey was administered to primary schools in the Western part of Kenya, including Nyanza, Western and Rift Valley provinces. These provinces were targeted because of their classic relationship to the traditional problems of the digital divide and lack of educational resources outlined above (i.e., rural population, low primary/ secondary education, low computer implementation). A self-administered questionnaire was distributed to a total of 100 primary schools, targeting primary school heads or community leaders with close ties to the running of a local primary school. Of these, sixty-one schools responded to the distributed questionnaire, with 37 schools, from 11 districts in Western Kenya (see results below for detailed demographic discussion), completing all the questions and considered in the analysis. 2.2 Procedure The questionnaire was physically distributed to schools and also made publicly available via website, operated by Sambaza Group, to allow accessibility for further distribution. Participants in the survey were informed that the objective of the study was to understand the main challenges facing their schools and community in order to help formulate a framework and policies incorporating their views in future planning and resource allocation. They were however also informed that participation in the survey was not a registration process for receiving any form of assistance. A three-month window was allotted to the collection of survey materials, with schools submitting completed surveys via postal address or email. 2.3 Questions/Measures The survey consisted of a series of questions targeting the issues of computerization and basic school needs, eliciting short answers. This survey format was chosen to allow respondents to answer as freely as possible without limitation or potential bias that might be introduced by prepared lists or multiple-choice. Questions were broken into the following three areas. First, in order to assess basic infrastructure and school needs, irrespective of computerization, we asked: 1) What are the biggest problems that face your school?/ your students?/ your teachers? (Not necessarily related to computers); 2) What are your major goals for growth or improvement in your school? Second, in order to assess existing preparedness for computerization, we asked the following: 3) Does your school currently use computers or ICT technology/ If yes, how many computers do you have?; 4) Do you have access to internet or do you consider internet availability to be important for your school?; 5) How many teachers in your school do you consider to be computer literate and can teach computer literacy to others?; 6) Do you have a room with: lockable doors and windows, ceiling, flooring, computer tables and chairs, stable electricity, alarm system, curtains, outlets?

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Finally, to assess school computer desires and expectations for computerization, we asked: 7) If you were to receive a donation of computers, how many will your school need?; 8) What types of computers/ software/ peripherals are best for your school/ your students?/ teachers?; 9) How many students would consider eligible for training if you were to immediately start a computer literacy program? 10) What problems could computers solve for your school? or What are the benefits of computers to your school/ community/? 3. RESULTS 3.1 Demographic Distribution of Schools Participating in the Survey First, looking to respondents demographic and background information themselves, to better establish the area we are dealing with. As noted above, the survey covered three provinces in rural Western Kenya (Rift Valley, Nyanza and Western), with schools representing 11 districts (Homa Bay, Migori, Rachuonyo, Rongo, Siaya, Bondo, Kisumu, Vihiga, Butere, Nandi South, Naivasha) (Table 1). The total number of students in the schools participating in the survey was 17,743, with an average number of 492 students per school. Out of the total population of students, 11,203 (63%) were considered to be eligible for computer and technoliteracy training program by the respondents themselves. The total number of boys and girls in these schools was 9,160 and 8,583, respectively. Many schools did not indicate the exact number of teachers per school hence this data was expunged from the analysis. Table 1: Demographic Distribution of Schools Participating in the Survey No. of Male Female Eligible Primary School District District students students students 1. Rangwe Township academy1 Homa Bay 1 142 108 250 1 2. Rodi Township Homa Bay 1 64 88 50 3. Paullo Odendo1 Migori 2 140 100 100 4. Nyaburi integrated1 Rachuonyo 3 211 236 278 5. Rawinji1 Rachuonyo 3 345 367 321 6. Mango1 Rachuonyo 3 180 184 210 1 7. Wire Rachuonyo 3 214 210 8. Nyabola1 Rachuonyo 3 248 227 284 9. Obisa1 Rachuonyo 3 270 282 250 1 10. Oriwo Rachuonyo 3 154 123 160 11. Malanga1 Siaya 4 204 199 245 12. Nyabenda 1 Siaya 4 328 340 75 Nandi 13. Ressio1 South 5 160 143 116 14. St. Mary's school for Deaf2 Bondo 6 114 86 118 15. Barkowino1 Bondo 6 210 190 400 16. St Joseph technical institute1 Bondo 6 200 50 90 17. Gavudia1 Vihiga 7 175 185 360 18. Sabatia1 Vihiga 7 259 271 200 1 19. Gahumbwa Vihiga 7 264 312 400 20. Kodero Bara1 Rongo 8 390 290 210 21. Kanga1 Rongo 8 620 573 1193
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EJISDC (2012) 52, 6, 1-17 No. of Male Female Eligible Primary School District District students students students 22. Arundo1 Rongo 8 217 182 399 23. Rairi1 Rongo 8 120 80 50 24. St. Jonathan1 Rongo 8 170 80 250 25. Kitere1 Rongo 8 422 383 450 26. Kangeso1 Rongo 8 240 210 250 27. Ngere1 Rongo 8 216 170 320 28. Ragogo1 Rongo 8 98 107 148 29. Mitwe1 Rongo 8 125 104 75 1 30. Kitweru Rongo 8 188 170 150 31. Toku1 Rongo 8 164 143 224 32. Rakwaro1 Rongo 8 205 210 415 33. Bukna1 Kisumu 9 305 298 42 34. Dago Kokore1 Kisumu 9 193 199 200 35. Lunza1 Butere 10 262 306 200 2 36. Githuamba Naivasha 11 353 347 700 37. Milimani2 Naivasha 11 990 1030 2020 Total 9 160 8 583 17,743 Legend: 1 Schools head participated in filling the questionnaire. 2 Community leaders participated in filling in the questionnaire. 3 Eligible students are those whom respondents considered to be given priority when implementing computerization Respondents unsure how many students eligible for techno-literacy class enrollment.

3.2 What Were the Basic Infrastructure and School Needs? Turning to respondents answers to the questions themselves, beginning with a consideration of the general problems facing these schools, survey findings (Figure 1), paint the essential picture laid out above, identifying nine major problems. These included, in order of frequency: lack of school fee (10.8%); high dropout (21.6%); lack of parent support (21.6%); computer literacy (27%); lack of food, water and sanitation (37.4%); HIV orphans (40.5%); poor academic performance (70%); teachers and accommodations (86.5%); lack of classrooms and desks (86.5%). Of note here is the fact that respondents did note computerization as a primary issue, however, only 27% were concerned. Of much greater mention were more basic issues such as classroom space, teachers and notably HIV complications. Looking to respondent answers to the related question of resource needs of their school (Fig. 2), a number of needs were enumerated here as well, with new classrooms (89.9%) listed as the number one requirement for most of the schools. This was again followed by introduction of computers (56.7%), followed by lack of electricity (48.6%), lack of reading or reference materials for both teachers and students (40.5%). Again, it is interesting to note that these two latter issues might also be tied to computerization, with the latter lack of resources tied to the potential solutions that computers might provide, but the former issue of electricity also showing that schools administrators recognize a major hurdle to successful implementation. Finally, it is interesting to note that teachers and, secondarily, furniture or housing only showed 18.9% and 16.2%, respectively, while these issues were highlighted as major problems in the question above, and too play an important role in successful computerization.
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Fig. 1. The major problems affecting primary schools as identified by teachers and administrators of the schools

Figure 2: Resource needs of the schools in priority ranking order as identified by teachers and administrators participating in the survey.
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3.3 What is the Preparedness for Computerization? Moving on to the more specific topic of computerization, we find that all of schools showed low existing ICT status, with only 13.5% of schools noting that they currently use computers, and of these the average number of computers within school being 1-2 desktop computers only. In turn, none of schools noted that they currently had access to internet, while only 38% noted that they currently had at least one ICT compliant teacher. All these ICT compliant teachers were still considered, by the respondent, to require further training in order to take on an ICT class independently. Finally, in answer to the last question of this section in which respondents were given a list of peripheral/ infrastructure needs for secure and feasible computer implementation, we find that only a few schools had electricity (24%), power sockets (32%), tables/chairs (24%), ceiling (11%) and PVC (3%). 3.4 Schools Expectations for Computerization Finally, looking to respondent answers for what they expect to gain from computers, they answered to the primary question of uses they would put computers to in their schools showed a number of answers as indicated in Table 2. The majority of schools (79%) planned to use the computers for record keeping and administration, followed by computer literacy program (71%), communication among teachers, students and access of government documents (34%) and data processing (34%). However, answer to the question of potential software (viewed as a further indicator of administrator expectations for use) showed that the only software identified by name was, perhaps predictably, Microsoft Office, with 18% noting this title. This suggests that, as considered below, the respondents themselves were not aware of the peripherals that might accompany a computer. Neither could they identify the exact software that might serve their needs, confirming, again, the present basic lack of ICT infrastructure and awareness. Table 2. Uses of computers in rural primary schools Uses of the computer Record keeping/administration Computer literacy (teachers, students and community) Communication (teachers, students and government) Data processing (exams, attendance, sports) Teaching (Classroom use for students) Examinations (Typing, analysis and storage) Source of getting new information (internet) Generation of employment opportunity Percentage 79 71 34 34 29 26 16 13

In answer to the number of computers desired, most of the respondents suggested an average of 25 computers for the whole school, suggesting a single classroom. The majority noted that they preferred laptops or otherwise portable, easily stored equipment. 4. DISCUSSION It is in the discussion of these results, however, that we might find a compelling beginning for rethinking computerization. First, to begin with the general question regarding schools perceived problems, our survey findings indicate an urgent need for classrooms and desks in almost all public schools participating in the study. In order of priority, the overwhelming majority of schools identified lack of classrooms and desks as their number one priority in the list of resources they would like to have in order to achieve their primary goal of educating children. Improving teachers accommodation, salary, and working environment were noted
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as the second most pressing need. Followed by improving school performance as the number three most pressing issue, while the fourth and the fifth issues appears to be a combination of problems stemming from Human Acquired Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) and lack of food, water and resources. Finally, the problem of computer literacy and low-techno-literacy in schools was ranked sixth. When we consider these results, it is quite clear that, at least in the minds of school leaders and teachers who participated, computer technology is perceived as relatively secondary to the pressing needs of the schools. While schools did mention this issue, only 26% of schools recognized the digital divide as an immediate, highly important issue facing their schools. On the other hand, these results give us a glimpse into the present issues administrators and, by extension rural communities, do perceive on a more persistent basis. Notably, in addition to the basic lack of resources noted in the introduction, the poor academic performance noted by administrators is reflected in the national ranking of the schools from these areas. The Kenya Certificate of Primary Education (KCPE) results between the year 2003 to 2009 are a testimony to these findings. With Nyanza province, which represented most schools participating in this survey, ranked seventh among the eight Kenya provinces, since the introduction of FPE (Bagaka's, 2010). In addition to the obvious lack of structural and educational resources, the HIV problem is also notable. The HIV scourge in Western Kenya has been widely documented, disproportionately affecting the rural areas of Kenya from which this survey was drawn (Amornkul et al., 2009). This in turn compounds the structural issues of primary schools, creating a high number of orphans who, unfortunately, represent the age group attending primary school, themselves with no household resources to contribute to the community school. In this scenario, teachers are also asked to assume the role of parents, in addition to their duties of educating the students, and also meeting other basic needs such as food, clothing and shelter. These above challenges have also been reported elsewhere with the introduction of FPE programs, such as Malawi (Kadzamira & Rose, 2003), which began a similar program in 1994, followed by Uganda in 1997 (Deininger, 2003), Lesotho in 2000 (Moloi et al., 2008) 4.1 Computerization Hurdles and Issues from the Results of the Survey While computerization continues to advance in developed countries, Kenya still experience a lag in its implementation, and that continues to widen the digital and knowledge divides (Ford, 2007). The ultimate aim of ICT adoption is to facilitate effective transformation of learning. For this to be successful, three prerequisites are essential: availability of ICT and supporting infrastructure, ICT integration into the curriculum and ICT leadership. As shown in the above results, schools themselves are aware of the challenges they are facing. A common thread of this survey involved schools noting their need for modern technology, but also admitting that they do not have enough resources for this endeavour. Perhaps most striking is the basic need, noted almost universally by the schools, of classrooms and desks for students. For the schools even to offer the basic form of training, which is their primary objective, the availability of classrooms and desks, is then paramount. Furthermore, this need will compromise the ability of the government, donors and private individuals who intend to roll out ICT programs in these schools as there are no extra available rooms for the computers and their peripherals. At the same time, introduction of FPE in Kenya has also compounded these problems by increasing the number of students, competing for space, classrooms and desks (Oketch & Rolleston, 2007; Onyango, 2003). It is encouraging to note that a significant majority, 58% of the schools identified introduction of computers and e-learning as a means of improving techno-literacy in the school community. However, only 24% and 18% of the schools had electricity and at least
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one computer within the school, respectively. The application of these computers, either in classroom teaching or office use, was not mentioned. This suggests that they were donations to the schools. However, the schools had limited knowledge of their operation due to lack of trained teachers and possibly lack of a classroom to designate for their utilization due to constraints of available space as a result of the increase in number of students. Lack of internet access could also limit the usability of the computers. It is also important to note what was missing in schools responses, specifically, a potential disconnect between computers and the needs of their schools verses those of their community. Schools highlighted use of computers to help them solve academic disparity, access information, mode of communication, and means of information storage and processing. They also viewed an ICT center as a bridge between schools and their community - where community members can meet, exchange information with other people and the school administration. However, when discussing how these needs might be addressed, there appears to be a bias toward a top-down approach to the computer, the main ICT device which most of the projects focus on sourcing for schools. The respondents viewed computers as a tool for adults; either to be implemented toward solving adult problems, or administered by adults in highly structured computer classes. This perception raises some concerns. First, might this feedback into the basic problem of the digital divide, where young children will not have access to computers without didactic or highly structured interference? How will this help the society bring techno-savvy students to solve future societal problems? While a computer could certainly offer myriad means of achieving some of the challenges of the schools and community, the need for a room, devoted to ICT infrastructure is a must, but may not be conceivable in the current situation of most schools. There is need for innovative solutions that can be used to enhance techno-literacy while still being cognizant of the current lack of basic resources. The first step is to recognize that the two problems are intertwined and trying to enhance techno-literacy without addressing the resource problems will not succeed. One possible solution is a concurrent injection of funds to address the current lack of basic resources. This would require massive capital and it is unlikely in the current circumstances with the perilous worldwide economic recession, making this quite a challenge for most African countries. Most of these countries mainly rely on donor support for the major part of their fiscal budgetary allocations, and already there are other various competing development priorities that policy makers need to consider. Currently, there are also other numerous massive initiatives to integrate ICT in Africa education through donors support but with little success in their target aims. A typical example is the New Partnership for African Development (NEPAD) e-Schools initiative launched in June 2003, at the African Summit of the World Economic Forum held in Durban, South Africa (Evoh, 2007; Farrell et al., 2007). The project intended to equip all African high schools with ICT equipment including computers, radio, television sets, phones, fax machines, scanners, digital cameras, and copiers, etc. The project is meant to connect African students to the Internet. The NEPAD capacity-building initiative is to be executed over a ten-year period, with the high school component to be completed in the first five years. Three phases were envisaged, with fifteen to twenty countries in each phase. The phases are to be staggered, with an estimated 600,100 schools expected to benefit from the program. The aim of the initiative is to impart ICT skills to young Africans in primary and secondary schools, and to harness ICT to improve, enrich, and expand education in African countries. This project is currently lagging behind in many aspects, and it will only benefit a few number of students. This is also true of similar initiatives, such as one laptop per child, an inexpensive laptop computer designed for use by children in developing countries around the world. One laptop per child project aims at providing young people access to knowledge, and opportunities to explore, experiment and
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express themselves. This project is also having its share of challenges and there are profound fears that it will not meet its primary aim of providing cheap and durable computers to most school children, as the prices of the computers is still expensive (Streicher-Porte et al., 2009). Kenya government is also experimenting with various ICT projects at the local level. These include the digital villages, ICT for schools, lying backbone optic cables infrastructure and ICT policy to regulate the sector. But whether these initiatives are currently making significant impact in schools is yet to be determined. A second solution would be the use of turnkey projects. This requires conducting need analysis studies of all the resources that would be required to install equipment and also teach ICT either for certain classes or for the whole school and supplying all the related resources. But with a focus on a few selected schools that require minimum investment since they have extra rooms for computerization, access to electricity, trained teachers on ICT use for education with the hope that through successful implementation of the project in a few schools, this can serve as a catalyst for uptake of ICT in other schools. However, this also has its limitations; the first challenge will be to convince the non-participating schools why they are excluded. They might feel that they are being alienated further due to political reasons, and in countries where examination is national based like Kenya, it will take a long time to universally introduce ICT as part of the curriculum as many students will still not be able to access ICT resources needed for education. 4.2 A Potential Third Option: Cell Phones in Lieu of Computers It is apparent that the two solutions suggested above would require heavy investment of resources in terms of capital; human resources and time may not be feasible. A third solution is to consider the use of alternative lightweight digital devices that are less resource intensive but would still meet the basic student computerization needs. A review of reasons that schools need computers in Table 2 show that most of the non-administrative needs do not require intensive power. Students, teachers and the community need computerization for computer literacy, for communication, for teaching, students classroom use and as a major source of getting new information. All these needs can be meet by programs based on the Internet like Google search, email programs for communication, Internet based student learning programs and games. A closer look at Kenya demonstrate that the mobile phone industry has enjoyed unprecedented growth in the last decade (Ngugi et al., 2010). Kenya, according to 2011 statistics had 26.49 million mobile phone giving a mobile phone penetration of about 63% of total population (Communication Commission of Kenya, 2012). This has in turn led to a phenomenal growth in the number of users with Internet. For example, the latest government statistics indicates that the number of Internet users rose by 65% to 14.3 million in the third quarter of 2011 compared to the same period in the previous year (Communication Commission of Kenya, 2012). The same report indicates that the majority of these users (89.9 %) are mobile phone Internet subscribers. The big take from the above is that Internet growth in Kenya has come from mobile phones and hence any techno-literacy initiative needs to take this fact into consideration. Further such mobile devices do meet most if not all the components that the NEPAD project considered for the ICT class like the text message, camera, internet, video, television and radio (Evoh, 2007). They can be used as a pedagogical tool to help mitigate some of the basic problems faced by the schools. The mobile phone revolution is continuing so we expect the penetration to be beyond the reported 63% on the population. Cell phones are currently revolutionising the way the banking and financial sector is run in Kenya through innovative technology such as M-PESA (Ngugi et al., 2010). The technology has also allowed Partners In Health (PIH) to successfully implement an electronic medical record (EMR) system in Rwanda since 2005 to
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support and improve HIV and TB patient care (Amoroso et al., 2010). In Rwanda, the system is used to store and relay detailed patient medical records, accessible to clinicians through printed reports or directly via a computer in the consultation rooms. This can be shared my various hospitals in case of an emergency or an outbreak of a disease. Furthermore, on-going assessment of data quality and clinical data use has led to multiple interventions being put in place to curb various medical malpractices, previously common in Rwanda health system. Mobile electronic systems can be used to support health care in rural resource-poor settings, and frequent assessment of data quality and clinical use of data can be used to support that goal. This, we would argue, can also be easily replicated in the education sector. There are many possible pedagogic applications for the cell phone as the primary vehicle for ICT implementation and exposure in the primary school. First, cell phones can be used to give students pop quizzes or relay information to large groups of students or teachers, with no need to invest in any additional devices. Kenya National Examination Council (KNEC) has developed a system that gives examination candidates access to their results through short messages, saving a tremendous amount of time in terms of travelling, cost of posting examination results to individual students through schools, allowing teachers ample time to focus on teaching or school administration responsibilities rather than travelling to KNEC office headquarter located in the city of Nairobi. These examination official records are also securely posted on the web, and with access to candidate information, one would be able to download the official transcript from the KNEC website. Even more potentially important is the introduction of the internet via the cell phone. Many consumers in Kenya can currently access internet through their cell phone, primarily Nokia, the most preferred cell phone type in Kenya because of its many user friendly features, affordability, durability and long lasting batteries (Ngugi et al., 2010). With 63% market penetration of cell phones in Kenya, one would assume that a good number of teachers do have access to cell phones and, perhaps, even some students. In turn, as we explored in our previous paper, one of the important social features allowing for easy communicability of the use of this device is the standardization, again in the great majority of cases via the Nokia, between models and users. If the son or a daughter living in Nairobi can communicate to his illiterate mother how to complete a bank transaction wirelessly through her cell phone, one would assume the teacher could communicate to their students a similar pedagogical task even. Encouraging use of cell phones as a pedagogical tool in schools will further enhance its penetration. Coupled with the laying of four optic cables along the Kenyan coastal areas and lying of cables across the mainland, which is slowly reducing the cost of internet, the use of cell phones as an internet browser will allow access to endless information. Students will be able to read news articles and current events, access online books, exchange information with other students locally and even abroad, download and use education programs, such as Google Maps, as GPS in history and geography lessons. Most cell phones are also equipped with digital or video camera functions/ features that can be used in school projects, publishing, voice technology to share engaging lectures or lessons etc. A unique feature in Kenyan cell phones, particularly in rural areas, is the radio, as many people depend on it as a source of news. This can also translate to mass teaching students even at night. However, training students and teachers on appropriate and acceptable social use of cell phone will also be necessary to curb certain abuses that can also occur, such as sending examination answers to friends, exchanging messages with sexual connotations and infringing on others privacy. As a tool to solve lack of classrooms and desks for students a significant problem cited by many schools participating in the survey, use of cell phones will not require extra new buildings, or refurbishing of the existing classrooms. Although these issues too are
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imperative, use of cell phones will also not require modern desks, roof-ceiling, cemented floors to prevent dust, electricity and sockets to power computers. This will significantly reduce the cost of introducing ICT in resource poor schools. In turn, these saved resources can go to these infrastructural needs. As a long-term goal, the government can also re-channel the saved resources toward training teachers and into the development of ICT curricula through teachers training colleges. This will help in boosting the capacity and provide welltrained teachers who are at ease with the use of new technologies as demonstrated by related studies in other parts of the world (Markauskaite, 2007). 5. CONCLUSION The potential of ICT to motivate and engage students and teachers to help relate school experience to work practices create economic viability for tomorrow's workers, as well as strengthening teaching and school relation to technology has been reported in several studies. Applications of ICT in schools have been reported to impact positively on teaching, learning, and research if carefully implemented. Despite the roles ICT can play in education, primary schools in Kenya are yet to adopt any form of ICT for teaching and learning. Efforts geared towards integration of ICTs into the primary school system have not had much impact and it is still at a very rudimentary stage and hanging at the policy level. Problems such as poor policy and project implementation strategies and limited or poor infrastructure militate against these efforts. In order to ensure that ICTs are widely adopted and used in Kenyas primary school system, the following efforts should be undertaken. 1) Government should ensure that ICT policy statements are achievable within the prescribed time frame taking into consideration the existing infrastructure. 2) Use of cell phones seems to be the most logical device to serve as a turnkey tool for initiating ICT in primary schools and possibly at secondary schools too at an affordable cost. 3) Helping school administrators and organizations involved in ICT implementation to adapt to new circumstances and providing tools and models to respond rationally to challenges posed by ICT projects in schools. 4) Providing information and communication facilities, services and management at a reasonable or reduced cost by eliminating taxes on cell phones, internet access as they have done on computer and its accessories to expand ICT uptake. 5) Encouraging improvement of the quality of cell phone services and products to increase its penetration by reducing the tax rates charged on mobile phone services. 6. LIMITATIONS AND FUTURE RESEARCH This survey covered only 37 rural primary schools from three provinces in Kenya. The study can be extended to cover many other schools in the regions, and also other more samples from all the eight provinces in Kenya. Comparative ICT status of rural verses urban schools will also be necessary. A future study can be extended to survey the secondary schools and investigate whether techno-literacy is better at higher levels of education. A survey on the existing use of cell phones among teachers and students in any form will also allow us strengthen our arguments.

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