Chapter One

INTRODUCTION ________________________________________________________________
1.1 Background In recent years availability of power in India has both increased and improved but demand has consistently outstripped supply and substantial energy and peak shortages prevailed. There are also various estimates of power being produced by diesel generation to meet the deficits. Electricity shortage is not the only problem; its spread is an equally serious issue. In the past, the selection of an energy resource for electricity generation was dominated by finding the least expensive power generating plant. Although such an approach is essential, there is growing concern about other aspects of power generation such as social, environmental and technological benefits and consequences of the energy source selection. However, in the long run if we take the effect of the pollutants on human health and environment and cost as well as the efforts needed to improve or alter the path of degradation, the initial higher cost of using renewable resources for producing energy may not be too big. A high degree of caution is also needed as emerging economies like India may not at present have financial resources to leapfrog directly to cleaner mechanisms of energy. Since global warming is an international phenomenon and it has no boundaries, there is an urgent need for the transfer of technology and development of appropriate financial instruments from developed world to nations who are still trying to find their rightful places. No argument is needed to understand that the world is today facing the problem of global warming due to rapid industrialization and urbanization followed by the western world. A plenty of energy is needed to sustain the industrial growth and agricultural production. The existing sources of energy such as coal, oil uranium etc., may not be adequate to meet the ever increasing energy demands. These conventional sources of energy are also depleting and may be exhausted at the end of the century or beginning of the next century. Consequently, sincere and untiring efforts shall have to be made by the scientists and engineers in exploring the possibilities of harnessing energy from several non-conventional energy sources. The various non-conventional energy sources are as follows: (i) Solar Energy (iii) Energy from biomass and biogas 1 (ii) Wind energy (iv) Ocean thermal energy conversion

(v) Tidal energy (vii) Hydrogen energy (ix) Magneto-hydrodynamics generator (xi) Thermo-electric power

(vi) Geothermal energy (viii) Fuel cells (x) Thermionic converter

The leading advantages of non-conventional energy sources are: 1) They do not pollute the atmosphere. 2) They are available in large quantities. 3) They are well suited for decentralized use. According to energy experts the conventional energy sources can be used with advantage for power generation as well as other applications in large number of locations in our country. Hence use of non-conventional energy sources allows the conventional energy sources to be used for those applications. 1.2 Geothermal Energy It is one of the least concerned renewable sources of energy as far as India is concerned. Where the other sources of energy are being used reasonably, geothermal energy is yet to find its place for power generation in India, though India has reasonably good potential for it. Heat energy continuously flows to the Earths surface from its interior, where central temperatures of about 6000C exist. The predominant source of the earths heat is the gradual decay of long-lived radioactive isotopes (232Th, 235U and 238U). The outward transfer of heat occurs by means of conductive heat flow and convective flows of molten mantle beneath the Earths crust. This results in a mean heat flux at the earths surface of 80kW/km2 approximately. This heat flux, however, is not distributed uniformly over the earths surface; rather, it is concentrated along active tectonic plate boundaries where volcanic activity transports high temperature molten material to the near surface. Although volcanoes erupt molten rock on the earth surface, the vast majority of it remains at the depth of 5 to 20 km, where it is in the form of liquid or solidifying magma bodies that release heat to surrounding rock. Under the right conditions, water can penetrate into these hot rock zones, resulting in the formation of high temperature geothermal systems containing hot water, water and steam, or steam alone, at depths of 500 to 3,000 m which results in the occurence of sources for the applications of geothermal energy in various parts of the earth surface.

1.3 Characteristics and Applications of Geothermal Energy Geothermal energy is an enormous, underused heat and power resource that is clean (emits little or no greenhouse gases), reliable (average system availability of 95%), and homegrown (making us less dependent on foreign oil). Geothermal resources range from shallow ground to hot water and rock several miles below the earth's surface, and even farther down to the extremely hot molten rock called magma. Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that can be brought to the surface for use in a variety of applications. The general characteristics of geothermal energy that make it of significant importance for both electricity production and direct use include:

Extensive global distribution; it is accessible to both developed and developing countries.

Environmentally friendly nature; it has low emission of sulphur, CO2 and other greenhouse gases. Indigenous nature; it is independent of external supply and demand effects and fluctuations in exchange rates.

Independence of weather and season. Contribution to the development of diversified power sources. Geothermal energy can be used very effectively in both on and off-grid developments,

and is especially useful in rural electrification schemes. Its use spans a large range from power generation to direct heat uses, the latter possible using both low temperature resources and cascade methods. Cascade methods utilize the hot water remaining from higher temperature applications (e.g., electricity generation) in successively lower temperature processes, which may include binary systems to generate further power and direct heat uses (bathing and swimming; space heating, including district heating; greenhouse and open ground heating; industrial process heat; aquaculture pond and raceway heating; agricultural drying; etc.) 1.4 Technology Mile-or-more-deep wells can be drilled into underground reservoirs to tap steam and very hot water that drive turbines which drive electricity generators. Although research into ways of efficiently extracting and using the energy contained in hot dry rock and geopressured resources continues, virtually all current geothermal power plants operate on hydrothermal resources. Four types of power plants are operating today: 3

Flashed steam plant Flash steam is the steam produced when the pressure on a geothermal fluid is reduced. A flash steam cycle for a high-temperature liquid-dominated resource is shown in Figure 1.1. This dual-flash cycle is typical of most larger flash steam geothermal power plants. Single-flash cycles are frequently selected for smaller facilities. Geothermal brine, or a mixture of brine and steam, is delivered to a flash vessel at the power plant by either natural circulation or pumps in the production wells. At the entrance to the flash vessel, the pressure is reduced to produce flash steam. The steam is delivered to the high-pressure inlet to the turbine. The remaining brine drains to another flash vessel in which the pressure is again reduced to produce lowpressure flash steam.

Fig. 1.1 Double-flash steam cycle geothermal power plant Direct Steam Cycle Direct steam is also referred to as dry steam. As the term implies, steam is routed directly to the turbines, thus eliminating the need for the boilers used by conventional natural gas and coal power plants. Figure 1.2 shows a schematic of a direct steam cycle power generation process. In a direct steam cycle power plant, a geothermal turbine can operate with steam that is far from pure. Chemicals and compounds in solid, liquid, and gaseous phases 4

are transported with the steam to the power plant. At the power plant, the steam passes through a separator that removes water droplets and particulate before it is delivered to the steam turbine. The turbines are of conventional design with special materials, such as 12Cr steel and precipitation hardened stainless steel, to improve reliability in geothermal services.

Fig. 1.2 Direct steam cycle geothermal power plant The other components present in the direct steam geothermal cycle include: 1. A condenser used to condense turbine exhaust steam. Both direct-contact and surface condensers are used in direct-steam geothermal power plants. 2. Noncondensable gas-removal system, to remove and compress the noncondensable gases. A typical system uses two stages of compression. The first stage is a steam jet ejector. The second stage is another steam jet ejector, a liquid ring vacuum pump, or a centrifugal compressor. 3. The cooling tower employs a multicell wet mechanical draft design. Cooling is accomplished primarily by evaporation. Water that is lost from the cooling system to evaporation and drift is replaced by steam condensate from the condenser. 5

4. An injection well: Excess water is returned to the geothermal resource in an injection well. Binary cycle power plant A binary-cycle geothermal power plant employs a closed-loop heat exchange system in which the heat of geothermal fluid (primary fluid) is transferred to a lower-boiling heat transfer fluid (secondary fluid) that is thereby vaporized and used to drive a turbine or generator set. In other words, a binary cycle uses a secondary heat transfer fluid instead of steam in the power generation equipment. Binary geothermal plants have been in service since the late 1980s. A binary cycle is the economic choice for hydrothermal resources, with temperatures below approximately 165C. A typical binary cycle is shown in Figure 1.3. The binary cycle shown in Figure 1.3 uses isobutane (i-C4H10) as the binary heat transfer fluid. Heat from geothermal brine vaporizes the binary fluid in the brine heat exchanger Spent brine is returned to the resource in injection wells, and thebinary fluid vapor

Fig. 1.3 Binary cycle geothermal power plant drives a turbine generator. The turbine exhaust vapor is delivered to an air-cooled condenser, in which the vapor is condensed. Liquid binary fluid drains to an accumulator vessel before 6

being pumped back to the brine heat exchangers to repeat the cycle. The brine heat exchangers are typically shell-and-tube units fabricated from carbon steel. Hybrid power plant Some geothermal fields produce boiling water as well as steam, which are also used in power generation. In this system of power generation, the flashed and binary systems are combined to make use of both steam and hot water. Efficiency of hybrid power plants is however less than that of the dry steam plants. Enhanced geothermal system The term Enhanced Geothermal Gystems (EGS), also known as Engineered Geothermal Systems (formerly hot dry rock geothermal), refers to a variety of engineering techniques used to artificially create hydrothermal resources (underground steam and hot water) that can be used to generate electricity. Traditional geothermal plants exploit naturally occurring hydrothermal reservoirs and are limited by the size and location of such natural reservoirs. EGS reduces these constraints by allowing for the creation of hydrothermal reservoirs in deep, hot but naturally dry geological formations. EGS techniques can also extend the lifespan of naturally occurring hydrothermal resources. Given the costs and limited full-scale system research to date, EGS remains in its infancy, with only a few research and pilot projects existing around the world and no commercial-scale EGS plants to date. The technology is so promising, however, that a number of studies have found that EGS could quickly become widespread. 1.5 Advantages and disadvantages Advantages 1) Geothermal energy is cheaper. 2) It is versatile in its use. 3) It is least polluting as compared to other conventional energy sources. 4) It is available for multiple uses from a single resource. 5) Geothermal power plants have highest annual load factor of 85 to 90 % compared to 45 to 50% for fossil fuel plants. 6) It delivers greater amount of net energy from its system as compared to other alternative or conventional systems. 7) Geothermal energy from the earths interior is almost as inexhaustible as solar or wind energy, so long as its sources are actively sought and economically tapped. 7

Disadvantages 1) Low overall power production efficiency, (about 15% as compared to 35 to 40% for fossil fuel plants). 2) Drilling operation is noisy. 3) Large areas are needed for exploitation of geothermal energy as much of it is diffuse. 4) The withdrawl of large amounts of steam or water from a hydrothermal reservoir may result in surface subsidence or settlement.

Chapter Two REVIEW OF LITERATURE ___________________________________________________________________________ According to Pandey and Negi's 1995 paper [2] more than 300 thermal springs with temperatures of 30-100C and a number of high heat flow areas have been identified. Some thermal springs have deep reservoir temperatures beyond 200-250C. Some estimates of power potential from these thermal areas range from 2000 to 10000 MW. Exploitation of wells drilled for hydrocarbons in sedimentary basins is also considered to be suitable for development projects with temperatures of 100-150C measured at 1.5-3 km depth in the Cambay graben. Use of this country's resources for electric power production is, however, at an early stage as no serious deep drilling to prove reservoirs has been undertaken. Direct utilization is also in its infancy, with a number of projects having been started. The government of Himanchal Pradesh finalised plans for direct utitisation of geothermal heat in selected areas for tourism and health resorts. In general, however, the country lacks the infrastructure to rapidly develop its large geothermal resources. The chemical composition of Tattapani thermal springs, together with the experimental results on host rock-meteoric water interaction at 100C [3], indicate dissolution of K-feldspars and albite during the initial stages of reaction. These phases control the chemical composition of the thermal springs. The estimated reservoir temperatures range from 205 to 217C. Assuming an average thermal gradient of 80C/km, the minimum depth of the reservoir is estimated to be around 3 km. Most thermal spring discharges of Rajasthan and Gujarat in northwestern India have been sampled and analysed [4] for major and trace elements in both the liquid and associated gas phase, and for 18O/16O, D/H (in water), 3He/4He and 13C/12C in CO2 (in gas) isotopic ratios. Most thermal springs in Rajasthan are tightly associated to the several regional NE SW strike-slip faults bordering NESW ridges formed by Archaean rocks at the contact with Quaternary alluvial and aeolian sedimentary deposits of the Rajasthan desert. Their CaHCO3 immature character and isotopic composition reveals: (1) meteoric origin, (2) relatively shallow circulation inside the crystalline Archaean formations, (3) very fast rise along faults, and

(4) deep storage temperatures of the same order of magnitude as discharging temperatures (5090C). Thermal spring discharges in Gujarat are spread over a larger area than in Rajasthan and are associated both with the NNWSSE fault systems bordering the Cambay basin and the ENEWSW strike-slip fault systems in the Saurashtra province, west of the Cambay basin. Chemical and isotopic compositions of springs in both areas suggest a meteoric origin of deep thermal waters. They mix with fresh or fossil seawater entering the thermal paths of the spring systems through both the fault systems bordering the Cambay basin, as well as faults and fractures occurring inside the permeable Deccan Basalt Trap in the Saurashtra province. The associated gas phase, at all sampled sites, shows similar features: (1) It is dominated by the presence of atmospheric components (N2 and Ar), (2) It has high crustal 4He enrichment, (3) It shows crustal 3He/4He signature, (4) It has low CO2 concentration, and (5) The only analysed sample for 13C/12C isotopic ratio in CO2 suggests that CO2 has a strong, isotopically light organic imprint. All these features and chemical geothermometer estimates of spring waters suggest that any active deep hydrothermal system at the base of the Cambay basin (about 20003000 m) has low-to-medium enthalpy characteristics, with maximum deep temperature in the storage zone of about 150C. In a regional overview, both thermal emergences of Rajasthan and Gujarat could be controlled by the counter-clockwise rotation of India. Chandrasekharam and Chandrasekhar (2010) discussed [5] the geothermal potential of the country and the current use of its resources. As of December 2009, 265MWt are installed all for bathing and swimming with an annual use of 2545 TJ/yr. No other uses of geothermal direct heat are recorded, including a zero entry for GHP. Currently, the building sector utilizes 33% of thermal power and the food processing industry 13%, generated by coal fired plant these activities could easily be serviced by geothermal if the environment was right for the conversion. However, there appears to be little incentive for the conversion to geothermal heat. One of the major difficulties is having trained manpower to undertake these developments. The average was 56 wells/country, and the countries drilling more than 100 wells being: USA, China, Turkey, Iceland, Korea, India and New Zealand.

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Table 2.1 Geothermal energy potential potential of india according to Geothermal Energy 2010 worldwide review [5] Capacity, MW Annual use in TJ/yr Annual use in GWh/yr Capacity factor 265 2545 707.0 0.30

According to Geothermal power generation world update report 20052010 [6] India has following geothermal energy potential: Table 2.2 Geothermal energy potential of India according to Geothermal power generation world update report 20052010 [6]

Theoretical potential (106 EJ)

0.938

Heat for direct utilization (EJ/year) Heat for electricity Technical potential (EJ/year) Heat for direct utilization (EJ/year) Heat for direct utilization (EJ/year) Heat for electricity (EJ/year) Produced electricity (TWh/year)

1.4 15

0.062 0.613 17

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Chapter Three

GEOTHERMAL ENERGY SCENARIO OF INDIA ________________________________________________________________

3.1 Geothermal energy potential of India It has been estimated from geological, geochemical, shallow geophysical and shallow drilling data it is estimated that India has about 10,000 MW of geothermal power potential that can be harnessed for various purposes. Rocks covered on the surface of India ranging in age from more than 4500 million years to the present day and distributed in different geographical units. The rocks comprise of Archean, Proterozoic, the marine and continental Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, Teritary, Quaternary etc. More than 300 hot spring locations have been identified by Geological survey of India (Thussu, 2000). The surface temperature of the hot springs ranges from 35C to as much as 98C. These hot springs have been grouped together and termed as different geothermal provinces based on their occurrence in specific geotectonic regions, geological and strutural regions such as occurrence in orogenic belt regions, structural grabens, deep fault zones, active volcanic regions etc., Different orogenic regions are Himalayan geothermal province, Naga-Lushai geothermal province, Andaman-Nicobar Islands geothermal province and nonorogenic regions are Cambay graben, Son-Narmada-Tapi graben, west coast, Damodar valley, Mahanadi valley, Godavari valley etc. The different geothermal energy potential regions in India are:

Puga Valley (J&K) Tatapani (Chhattisgarh) Godavari Basin Manikaran (Himachal Pradesh) Bakreshwar (West Bengal) Tuwa (Gujarat) Unai (Maharashtra) Jalgaon (Maharashtra)

3.2 Cost price and challanges Unlike traditional power plants that run on fuel that must be purchased over the life of the plant, geothermal power plants use a renewable resource that is not susceptible to price fluctuations. New geothermal plants currently are generating electricity from 2.7 Rs. to 4.3 Rs. per kilowatt hour (Kwh). Once the capital costs have been recovered, price of power can 12

Table 3.1 Estimated (minimum) reservoir Temperature (approximately) & Status of various geothermal fields in India Estimated (minimum) Geothermal field reservoir Temperature (Approximately) Puga geothermal field 240oC at 2000m From geochemical and deep geophysical studies (MT) Tattapani Sarguja (Chhattisgarh) Tapoban Chamoli (Uttarakhand) 100oC at 430 meter 120oC - 150oC at 500 meter and 200 C at 2000 m Magnetotelluric survey done by NGRI Magnetotelluric survey done by NGRI Steam discharge was Cambay Garben (Gujrat) 160 C at 1900 meter (From Oil exploration borehole)
o

Status

estimated 3000 cu meter/ day with high temprature gradient Magneto-telluric study was

Badrinath Chamoli (Uttarakhand) 150 C estimated

o

done by NGRI. Deep drilling required to ascertain geothermal field Magneto-telluric study was 110oC

Surajkund Hazaribagh (Jharkhand) Manikaran Kullu (H P)

done by NGRI. Heat rate 128.6 mW/m2 Magneto-telluric study was

100oC

done by NGRI Heat flow rate 130 mW/m2

Kasol Kullu (H P) 110 C

o

Magneto-telluric study was done by NGRI

decrease below 2.7 Rs. per Kwh. The price of geothermal is within range of other electricity choices available today when the costs of the lifetime of the plant are considered.

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Most of the costs related to geothermal power plants are related to resource exploration and plant construction. Like oil and gas exploration, it is expensive and because only one in five wells yield a reservoir suitable for development .Geothermal developers must prove that they have reliable resource before they can secure millions of dollar required to develop geothermal resources.

Fig. 3.1 Cost analysis of geothermal energy Drilling Although the cost of generating geothermal has decreased by 25 percent during the last two decades, exploration and drilling remain expensive and risky. Drilling Costs alone account for as much as one-third to one-half to the total cost of a geothermal project. Locating the best resources can be difficult; and developers may drill many dry wells before they discover a viable resource. Because rocks in geothermal areas are usually extremely hard and hot, developers must frequently replace drilling equipment. Individual productive geothermal wells generally yield between 2MW and 5MW of electricity; each may cost from $1 million to $5 million to drill. A few highly productive wells are capable of producing 25 MW or more of electricity. 14

Transmission Geothermal power plants must be located near specific areas near a reservoir because it is not practical to transport steam or hot water over distances greater than two miles. Since many of the best geothermal resources are located in rural areas , developers may be limited by their ability to supply electricity to the grid. New power lines are expensive to construct and difficult to site. Many existing transmission lines are operating near capacity and may not be able to transmit electricity without significant upgrades. Consequently, any significant increase in the number of geothermal power plants will be limited by those plants ability to connect, upgrade or build new lines to access to the power grid and whether the grid is able to deliver additional power to the market. Barriers

Finding a suitable build location. Energy source such as wind, solar and hydro are more popular and better established; these factors could make developers decided against geothermal.

Main disadvantages of building a geothermal energy plant mainly lie in the exploration stage, which can be extremely capital intensive and high-risk; many companies who commission surveys are often disappointed, as quite often, the land they were interested in, cannot support a geothermal energy plant.

Some areas of land may have the sufficient hot rocks to supply hot water to a power station, but many of these areas are located in harsh areas of the world (near the poles), or high up in mountains.

Harmful gases can escape from deep within the earth, through the holes drilled by the constructors. The plant must be able to contain any leaked gases, but disposing of the gas can be very tricky to do safely. Geothermal companies

Panx Geothermal LNJ Bhilwara Tata Power Thermax NTPC Avin Energy Systems GeoSyndicate Power Private Limited

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Chapter Four

R&D MULTIPURPOSE PROJECT FOR POWER GENERATION AND DIRECT HEAT USES FROM PUGAH
___________________________________________________________________________ 4.1 R&D Priorities In the case of geothermal energy, several topics are identified as being key to its advancement in the global market place. These are related to cost reduction, sustainable use, expansion of use into new geographical regions, and new applications. The priorities are categorized as general or specific to R&D. General priorities: Life-cycle analysis of geothermal power generation and direct use systems. Sustainable production from geothermal resources. Power generation through improved conversion efficiency cycles. Use of shallow geothermal resources for small-scale individual users. Studies of induced seismicity related to geothermal power generation (conventional systems and enhanced geothermal systems. Specific R&D priorities: Commercial development of EGS(Exhaust Gas Recirculation). Development of better exploration, resource confirmation and management tools. Development of deep (>3000 m) geothermal resources. Geothermal co-generation (power and heat).

4.2 Geothermal Research Centres MeSy India MeSy India acts as technical arm to governmental institutions in the conduction of scientific and geothermal research projects, and stimulates new R&D projects in collaboration with Indian national research institutions and international organizations, in particular in the field of techniques and earthquake mechanisms, reservoir induced seismicity, advanced mining technologies, ground water production stimulation, use of geothermal energy, hazardous underground waste storage. Apex Bodies Geological Survey of India 16

National Geophysical Research Institute, Hyderabad Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Dehradun

4.3 Details of Pugah Geothermal Energy Research As a result of decades of studies, surveys and research by various organizations, such as GSI (Geological Survey of India), NGRI (National Geophysical Research Institute), CEA(Central Electricity Authority), ONGC (Oil and Natural Gas Corporation) and MNRE (Ministry of New and Renewable Energy) since 1973, it has been unequivocally proved that Pugah geothermal area, located in Pugah District Leh of Jammu & Kashmir State, is one of the most promising geothermal area in the country from the point of view of power generation. Information available from the detailed exploratory studies carried out in Pugah over the past more than three decades (1973- 2001) by GSI, ONGC, NGRI, MECL, CEA and IIT, Kanpur was examined and collected by the Expert Group. Other organizations like M/s GeoSyndicate who did not share their data with the Expert Group due to IPR issues, have also indicated that the deep reservoir temperature has been calculated to be 289oC but in order to assess potential for power generation, deep drilling shall have to be undertaken. NHPC with the help of an International consultant viz.M/s Geothermex Inc. USA have also estimated Pugahs Reserves as 19 MW with 90% probability of generating power for 30 years. As far as surface studies on geological, geophysical and geochemical aspects and subsurface exploration to relatively shallow depth are concerned, Pugah is definitely the most "well understood" geothermal field of the country. MNRE has been supporting a research, development and demonstration programme for utilization of geothermal energy for power generation and direct heat applications and has demonstrated its use at some locations in the Country. Deep reservoir temperature assessment of potential sites at Pugah in J&K and Tatapani in Chattisgarh have also been carried out through Magneto Telluric Investigations assigned to NGRI, Hyderabad. The investigations have resulted in a wealth of information on subsurface features, reservoir characteristics and the possible potential of this field, main findings of which are presented briefly as follows:-

17

 Pugah in the most promising geothermal field of the sub-continent from the point of view of electric power generation. In the field, the geothermal anomalous area with over 100 hot springs is about 5 squarekms bounded by Zildat fault in the east and Kiagar Tso fault in the west. It is this area which is accessible for drilling of production wells for power generation. The 17 producing wells out of 34 wells drilled in the valley produce from the shallow reservoir are hosted by a breccia type rock generated due to in duration of morainic (a mass of rocks and sediment carried down and deposited by a glacier) material. In light of the available geochemical and geophysical data, the shallower reservoir is fed by a deeper reservoir at temperature definitely in excess of 2300 C. The highest bottom hole and discharge temperature are 280 and 1400 C, respectively. Discharge pressure in good wells is 3 kg/cm2. The data obtained after drilling when projected to deeper levels indicates that estimated deep reservoir temperature in excess of 2200C are estimated by GSL and NGRI and about 2390C by M/S Geo Syndicate. The shallow reservoir may yield temperature of 1800C. Cumulative discharge from 17 producing wells is 300 tones/hr. Eight good out of these 17 have a cumulative discharge of 190 tons/hr. The steam content is borehole discharges varies from 10 to 20%. Seventeen producing wells have a cumulative discharge of 300 tons/hr. With steam content of about 10% the stream would be 30 tons/hr (considering cumulative discharge by joining all the flowing wells), and 1.5 to 2 MW of power would be generated. (Normally, 10 tons/hr of steam is required for generating 1 MW at 100o to 140o C but as Pugah steam is likely to be at an average temperature of 100o to 115o C). Also binary plant uses 20 tons/hr. of thermal discharge per MW generation and considering this, Pugah has a proven potential of generating 1.5 MW using a binary plant. Chemistry of thermal discharges is relatively uniform. Hot springs and borehole discharges are NaHCO3Cl type with little quantitative variation in major cations and anions. This indicates that all discharges owe their origin to a single reservoir and that there is a subsurface mixing and stirring of geothermal fluid. This is also an indication of better permeability conditions. A number of boreholes drilled during 1973 to 1976 threw up silica gel as the initial discharge. This unequivocally proves much higher temperatures (160-1800C) in the shallow aquifer itself.

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The expert group has recommended that the exploitation of geothermal potential at Pugah must be expedited through a two pronged approach for which both a short term and long term action plans need to be evolved. The short term would envisage reviving of existing borewells and combine the discharge to run a binary plant or alternatively drilling of 2-4 wells each of 500 meters depth in the vicinity of the existing borewells to produce 3-5 MW of power from consolidated discharge. The long term action plan would envisage drilling of two 2000 meters deep production wells to tap the geothermal potential of deep reservoir. Against the backdrop of the studies conducted by various agencies, report of the expert group and the prospect of good potential of the Pugah valley site , it has been decided by the State Government that Jammu & Kashmir State Power Development Corporation Limited(JKSPDCL) shall install a Geothermal Power Plant at Pugah,Leh,by drilling at least 2000 meter borewell through IPP selected by International Competitive Bidding route. The mandate for the Successful Bidder would be to develop the Geothermal Power Plant on Design, Build, Own & Operate (DBOO) basis. However, the JKSPDC has decided that before the main project is developed a Technology Demonstration Project Cum resources assessment project be set up to validate the resource. JKSPDC has been in discussion with MNRE on the proposal to set up the TDP (Thermal Design Plant) and it is a result of these discussions that the RFP (Request For Proposal) has been floated. The Purpose of this RFP is to select an agency for a 5 MW TDP cum Resource Assessment Project by drilling at least upto 2000 Meters. The work proposed to be undertaken through this RFP has following objectives in brief: 1. Installation of Geothermal multi-purpose Power generation plant at Technology Demonstration scale at Pugah District Leh, which has been conceived with an objective to obtain baseline information on Geothermal Project Development which may be of great use for planning the harnessing of geothermal resources in Ladakh region in J&K state and other parts of the country. 2. Any additional surface studies or geophysical surveys as considered necessary by the selected Developer with an objective to acquire additional data for further understanding the geothermal resource. 3. Subsurface studies in Pugah Geothermal Field by way of carrying out deep drilling to about 2000 m (or more) in at least two wells with an objective to ascertain the existence and viability of the deep reservoir. 19

4. Wellhead studies and other measurements, including logging and testing of wells are to be carried out with an objective to understand the sustainability of thermal discharge for power generation and other possible applications. 5. Resource evaluation studies with an objective to know the potential of the geothermal field from the point of view of optimum power generation and understand the long term behavior of the geothermal system under conditions of optimum power generation. 6. Installation of a 5 MW Technology Demonstration Geothermal Power Generation and other uses Plant using appropriate technology. 7. Evacuation of power and transmission to the nearest load centre, which in all likelihood would be Chumathang, located about 35 Km (by road) from Generating Station at Pugah. 8. Installation on Experimental/Demonstration scale the off grid applications such as, space heating, greenhouse cultivation and creation of recreational facilities (hot water pond/lagoon). 9. Data generated during execution and implementation of the Project to be shared at all stages with the Government of Jammu & Kashmir and Government of India for use in Public Interest. 10. Submission of a Detailed Project Report to JKSPDC /MNRE for facilitating the optimum capacity development of Pugah Geothermal Field and for application in geothermal development programmes in other parts of the state/ country. 11. The said DPR should also address aspects of waste heat management/ utilization from the point of view of down-the-line (off grid) applications of geothermal energy which may be beneficial for the region, in particular, and the State, in general, in terms of societal benefits and generation of employment. Decisions Subsequent to the submission of the MNRE Expert Group Report in June, 2008, JKSPDC was declared as the State Nodal Agency for Developing the Geothermal Resource at Puga, District Leh, J&K, vide Government of J&K Order No: - 144-PDD of 2009 dated 23-6-2009. It was decided that JKSPDC will develop geothermal energy resource in Puga for electrical energy generation through Independent Power Producer (IPP) on BOOT (Build, Own, Operate & Transfer) basis in order to take into consideration the possibility of power production on trial basis to exract the primary power produced such that further experimentation can be done for the for the development of geothermal energy for the purpose of power production. 20

Available Scientific Data The Ladakh region is one of the countrys remotest corners which are strategically one of the most important regions. There is zero availability of fossil fuels locally and hydropower generation is also affected in winters due to freezing of rivers. Puga geothermal area is about 190 km from Leh. Manali Leh and Srinagar Leh roads are closed between 15th of November and early June every year due to passes being snow bound. Dry arctic climatic conditions prevail in the region and the active working period is restricted to about 5 months in a year. The rocks exposed and encountered in boreholes are fractured and jointed and are traversed by a number of faults. This suggests that, in general, permeability conditions should be conducive for geothermal power generation. Geophysical studies, employing self potential and geo-electric resistivity (bipoledipole and dipole-dipole) surveys, have indicated the presence of a low resistivity zone in the south central part of the valley. This conducting body is postulated as the zone of entry for hot fluids into the valley. The lowest resistive part appears to be in the western part of the thermal anomaly zone. It also appears that the low resistivity zone extends into the ridge south of Puga valley. AMT surveys carried out by IIT Kanpur, also indicated a conductive zone suggesting occurrence of subsurface geothermal activity in the southern part. This zone occupies an area of about 6.5 km2. Geological and geochemical parameters, i.e., the presence of high concentration of rare alkalis, particularly Cs, in thermal springs, the occurrence of cinnabar encrustation around some hot spring cones, higher concentration levels of B and F, the presence of stibnite crystals as cavity fillings in drill cores and relatively high inferred base temperatures suggest that the heat source for the Puga geothermal system, in all likelihood, is magmatic. A geothermal system with a magmatic input has, naturally, much higher potential for power generation as compared to a system with non-magmatic heat source. Stable isotope data indicate that the system gets recharged in the southwest from ice bodies located at altitude of about 6400 m. There are indications that the deep singlephase fluid has a temperature of about 2500C and undergoes various processes, such as, conductive cooling, boiling and dilution to finally emerge as surface discharge. Temperature of only about 180 to 200 0C may possibly be accessible to us at levels of 1000 to 2000 m.

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Two distinct aquifers (body of rock which holds water) have been identified in the valley. The first aquifer comprises unconsolidated Quaternary deposits consisting of medium to coarse sand, gravel, moraine material, lacustrine deposits and talus material while the second aquifer comprises fractured gneiss/schist and basal granite. These are highly jointed and fractured rocks forming the valley walls as well as the valley floor and are likely to be effective for deeper circulation of meteoric water and thermal fluid. Glacial melt water is the major source of recharge of these aquifers. Based on the meager data available from the area, it has been suggested that there is 90% probability that the Puga Geothermal System could sustain a 19 MW power plant for a period of 30 years. The available data may be summarized as given below: The geothermal anomalous area with over 100 hot springs is about 5 km2 bounded by Zildat fault in the east and Kiagar Tso fault in the west. It is this area which is accessible for drilling of production wells for power generation. Chemistry of thermal discharges is relatively uniform. Hot springs and borehole discharges are NaHCO3Cl type with little quantitative variation in major cations and anions. The 17 producing wells out of 34 wells drilled in the valley produce from the shallow reservoir hosted by a 'breccia' type rock generated due to in duration of morainic material. In light of the available geochemical and geophysical data, the shallower reservoir is fed by a deeper reservoir at temperature definitely in excess of 2200 C. The highest bottom hole and discharge temperatures are 1300 and 1400C, respectively. Discharge pressure in good wells is 3 kg/cm2. Estimated deep reservoir temperature is in excess of 2200C. The shallow reservoir may yield temperature of 1800C. Cumulative discharge from 17 producing wells is 300 tones/hr. Out of these 8 good wells have a cumulative discharge of 190 tones/hr. The steam content is borehole discharges varies from 8 to 15%. 4.4 Conclusions Geothermal resources are continuously renewable sources of energy regardless of climate or weather conditions, unlike wind or solar energy. Reliability, sustainability, and cleanness make geothermal energy especially attractive as a source of baseload electricity generation or for direct-use applications that need constant heat or energy. 22

 Geothermal power plants compete economically with coal, oil, and nuclear plants in meeting baseload capacity needs, with significant environmental advantages. In order to assess potential for power generation, deep drilling shall have to be undertaken. Puga reserves have 19 MW power generation capacity with 90% reliability of producing it for 30 years. Zildat fault in the east and Kiagar Tso fault in the west of Puga is the area with 100 hotsprings over 5 squarekms area accessible accessible for drilling of production wells for power generation. Cumulative discharge from 17 producing wells is 300 tones/hr. Eight good out of these 17 have a cumulative discharge of 190 tons/hr from which 1.5 to 2 MW of power may be generated. Binary plant uses 20 tons/hr of thermal discharge per MW generation and considering this, Pugah has a proven potential of generating 1.5 MW using a binary plant. Before the main project is developed a Technology Demonstration Project Cum resources assessment project has to be set up to validate the resource.

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REFERENCES
1) R. K. Rajput, Thermal Engineering, S. Chand Publications. 2) Derek H. Freestone, Direct Uses of Geothermal Energy (1995), Geothermics Vol. 25, No. 2, pp. 189-214, 1996. 3) D. Chandrasekharam, M.C. Antu, Geochemistry of Tattapani thermal springs, madhya Pradesh, India-field and experimental investigations , Geothermics, Volume 24, Issue 4, August 1995, Pages 553-559. 4) A. Minissale, D. Chandrasekharam, O. Vaselli, G. Magro, F. Tassi, G.L. Pansini, A. Bhramhabut, Geochemistry, geothermics and relationship to active tectonics of Gujarat and Rajasthan thermal discharges, India, Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research, Volume 127, Issues 12, September 2003, Pages 19-32. 5) John W. Lunda, Derek H. Freestonb, Tonya L. Boyda, Direct utilization of geothermal energy 2010 worldwide review, Geothermics 40 (2011) 159180. 6) Ruggero Bertani, Geothermal power generation in the world 20052010 update report, Geothermics 41 (2012) 1 29. 7) Sunggyu Lee and H. Bryan Lanterman, Geothermal Energy, Handbook of Alternative Fuel technplogies. 8) Request for Proposal for 5 Mw R&D-Cum-Technology Demonstration Cum Resource Assessment Multipurpose Project For Power Generation And Direct Heat Uses From Pugah Geothermal Energy Resource In Leh J&K On Boot Basis by Jammu & Kashmir State Power Development Corporation Limited, February 2012. 9) http://www.eai.in/ref/ae/geo/geo.html

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