Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Table of Contents
1.1.HISTORY ................................................................................................................................ 1 OPEC .......................................................................................................................................... 1 FOUNDATION OF OPEC ............................................................................................................... 1 OPEC MISSION ............................................................................................................................ 1 STATISTICS ON THE WORLD CURRENT CRUDE OIL RESERVES ....................................................... 2 1.2.GEOLOGY .............................................................................................................................. 3 ROCK CHARACTERISTICS ............................................................................................................. 3 Porosity ................................................................................................................................... 3 Permeability ............................................................................................................................ 3 EXPLORATION OF HYDROCARBONS ............................................................................................. 4 Exploration methods ............................................................................................................... 4 Exploration risk ...................................................................................................................... 4 1.3. RESERVOIRS ....................................................................................................................... 5 DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................. 5 OIL TRAPS .................................................................................................................................... 5 DRIVE MECHANISM ...................................................................................................................... 6 1.4. OVERVIEW ON DRILLING RIGS ................................................................................... 7 DEFINITION .................................................................................................................................. 7 TYPE OF RIGS ............................................................................................................................... 7 Offshore-based drilling rigs.................................................................................................... 7 Onshore-based drilling rigs .................................................................................................... 9 RIG PERSONNEL ......................................................................................................................... 10
RIG COMPONENTS
..................................................................................................................... 11
Page | I
1.5. WELL COMPLETION ...................................................................................................... 15 CASING ...................................................................................................................................... 15 Function of Casing................................................................................................................ 15 Types of Casing ..................................................................................................................... 16 CEMENTING ............................................................................................................................... 18 Definition .............................................................................................................................. 18 Function of Cementing .......................................................................................................... 18 COMPLETING THE WELL ............................................................................................................. 18 2.1. ARTIFICIAL LIFT SYSTEMS ......................................................................................... 19 DEFINITION ................................................................................................................................ 19 PURPOSE OF ALS ....................................................................................................................... 19 2.2. OIL-WELL BEHAVIOR .................................................................................................... 20 OVERVIEW ON MOST WELLS BEHAVIOR .................................................................................... 20 DECLINE CURVE ........................................................................................................................ 20 2.3. ENHANCED OIL RECOVERY ........................................................................................ 21 DEFINITION ................................................................................................................................ 21 CLASSIFICATIONS OF EOR TECHNIQUES .................................................................................... 21 2.4. TYPES OF ARTIFICIAL LIFT SYSTEMS ..................................................................... 22 SUCKER ROD PUMP .................................................................................................................... 23 PROGRESSIVE CAVITY PUMP (PCP) ........................................................................................... 26 ELECTRIC SUBMERSIBLE PUMP (ESP)........................................................................................ 28 SUBSURFACE HYDRAULIC PUMP ................................................................................................ 30 GAS LIFT .................................................................................................................................... 33 2.5. SELECTING AN ARTIFICIAL LIFT METHOD .......................................................... 35 3.1. OVERVIEW ON HEAVY OIL .......................................................................................... 37 DEFINITION ................................................................................................................................ 37 CLASSIFICATION OF OIL TYPES .................................................................................................. 37 REASONS OF STRONG DEMAND ON HEAVY OIL .......................................................................... 38
Page | II
3.2. HEAVY OIL PRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 39 HEAVY OIL PRODUCTION TECHNIQUES ..................................................................................... 39 Thermal Recovery Techniques .............................................................................................. 40 Emerging Techniques............................................................................................................ 42 3.3. OVERVIEW ON WEATHERFORD HEAVY OIL PROJECT ..................................... 43 WEATHERFORD HEAVY OIL SYSTEM SCHEMATIC ..................................................................... 43 3.4. HEAVY OIL PROJECT MAIN OPERATIONS ............................................................. 43 SHIPMENT OPERATION ............................................................................................................... 45 LAB TESTING OPERATION .......................................................................................................... 46 QUESTIONS & ANSWERS ...................................................................................................... 47
Page | III
List of Abbreviations
Abbreviation API OPEC HC WHP WHT BHP BHT CT CP bbl bpd Psig Psia SCFD BS&W TDS WC SC GOR GLR OWC GOC ESD BOP SRP PCP ESP SPM SCBA SABA Stands For: American Petroleum Institute indicates the measure of oil weight (API gravity) Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries Hydrocarbons Well head pressure Well head temperature Bottom Hole Pressure Bottom Hole Temperature Casing temperature Casing pressure Barrel Barrels per day Pounds per square inch gauge Pounds per square inch absolute Standard cubic feet per day Basic Sediments and Water Total Dissolved Solids Water cut Sand cut Gas Oil Ratio Gas Liquid Ratio Oil Water contact Gas Oil Contact Emergency Shut-down Blowout Preventer Sucker rod pump Progressive cavity pump Electric Submersible Pump Strokes Per Minute (of a positive-displacement pump) Self Contained Breathing Apparatus Supplied Air Breathing Apparatus Page | IV
Permissible limit value (H2S) Upper Explosion level (H2S) Lower Explosion level (H2S) Barrel Oil Barrel Water Barrel Oil per day Barrel Water per day Liquefied Natural Gas Liquefied Petroleum Gas
Page | V
Abstract
This book is an overview on Oil Field Foundation and also emphasizes on the Heavy Oil production. It is mainly oriented to the beginners in Oil Filed as it shows an overview on most used systems and operations without going through the deep technical details. Weatherford Kuwait has recently started a Heavy Oil project. This project comes as a contemporary response to the world Oil Field changes. There are huge, well-known resources of heavy oil, extra-heavy oil, and bitumen around the world that havent been extracted yet. Technologies that upgrade value, drive down costs, and reduce environmental impacts will have the greatest effect on increasing the production of heavy oil.
Page | VI
Chapter 1
1.1. History
OPEC Foundation of OPEC
The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) is a permanent, intergovernmental Organization, created at the Baghdad Conference on September 1014, 1960. The five Founding Members were: Iran Iraq Kuwait Saudi Arabia Venezuela
The five Founding Members were later joined by nine other Members: Qatar (1961); Indonesia (1962) suspended its membership from January 2009; Libya (1962); United Arab Emirates (1967); Algeria (1969); Nigeria (1971); Ecuador (1973) suspended its membership from December 1992-October 2007; Angola (2007) and Gabon (19751994). OPEC had its headquarters in Geneva, Switzerland, in the first five years of its existence. This was moved to Vienna, Austria, on September 1, 1965.
OPECs Mission
The mission of OPEC is: Coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its members Ensure the stabilization of oil markets in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers Ensure a steady income to producers and a fair return on capital for the investor
Page | 1
Page | 2
1.2. Geology
1.2.1. Rock Characteristics Porosity
Porosity is the amount of void space in a rock, in other words, its how much water a material can hold.
Permeability
Permeability is how well water can flow through a material, thats controlled by how large the pores are, and how well connected they are.
Unit of measuring Permeability: Permeability is measured in Darcy. < 1 mD 1 mD < < 10mD 10 mD < < 100 mD : Poor : Fair : Good
Darcys Law Darcy's law is a simple proportional relationship between the instantaneous discharge rate through a porous medium, the viscosity of the fluid and the pressure drop over a given distance.
Page | 3
Exploration Methods
Visible surface features such as oil seeps, natural gas seeps provide basic evidence of hydrocarbon generation. However, most exploration depends on highly sophisticated technology to detect and determine the extent of these deposits using exploration geophysics. Areas thought to contain hydrocarbons are initially subjected to a gravity survey, magnetic survey, and passive seismic or regional seismic reflection surveys to detect large scale features of the sub-surface geology.
Surface Data
Exploration Methods
Finally, when a prospect has been identified and evaluated and passes the oil company's selection criteria, an exploration well is drilled in an attempt to conclusively determine the presence or absence of oil or gas.
Exploration Risk
Oil exploration is an expensive, high-risk operation. Offshore and remote area exploration is generally only undertaken by very large corporations or national governments. Typical shallow shelf oil wells cost USD$10 30 million, while deep water wells can cost up to USD$100 million plus. These factors require the efficiency of the exploration results to be very high to minimize the total cost and risk.
Page | 4
1.3. Reservoirs
Definition
A porous and permeable underground formation containing an individual and separate natural accumulation of producible hydrocarbons (oil and/or gas) which is confined by impermeable rock or water barriers. Most reservoir rocks are limestones, dolomites, sandstones, or a combination of these. An oil reservoir generally contains three fluids gas, oil, and water with oil the dominant product. In the typical oil reservoir, these fluids occur in different phases because of the variance in their gravities. Gas, the lightest, occupies the upper part of the reservoir rocks; water, the lower part; and oil, the intermediate section.
Oil Traps
Oil traps are usually formed as a result of sudden rock movements which causes spaces where oil is trapped. The next figure shows the different types of traps.
Page | 5
Drive mechanisms
A virgin reservoir may be under sufficient pressure to push hydrocarbons to surface. As the fluids are produced, the pressure will often decline, and production will decrease. Some techniques can be used in this case to maintain the pressure as will be shown in the next section of Enhanced Oil Recovery techniques. Artificial drive methods may be necessary too.
Gas cap drive In reservoirs already having a gas cap (the virgin pressure is already below bubble point), the gas cap expands with the depletion of the reservoir, pushing down on the liquid sections applying extra pressure.
Aquifer (water) drive Below the hydrocarbons may be a ground water aquifer. Water is compressible to a small degree. As the hydrocarbons are depleted, the reduction in pressure in the reservoir causes the water to expand slightly which will push up on the hydrocarbons, maintaining pressure till a certain limit when the water pressure is less than the pressure needed to push the oil column to the surface.
Page | 6
Types of Rigs
Rigs are classified into Offshore and Onshore rigs as will be shown through the next classification Offshore-based drilling rigs: 1. Jack-up platform Jack-up platforms (or jack-ups) are platforms that can be jacked up above the sea using legs that are lowered, much like jacks. They usually have 3 or 5 legs. These platforms are typically used in water depths up to 400 feet (120 m), although some designs can go to 550 ft (170 m) depth. They are designed to move from place to place, and then anchor themselves by deploying the legs to the ocean bottom using a rack and pinion gear system on each leg.
Page | 7
2. Semi Submersible Platform These platforms have hulls (columns and pontoons) to allow the structure to float, but of weight sufficient to keep the structure upright. Semisubmersible platforms can be moved from place to place. They are anchored but their structure does not touch the sea bed. Semi-submersibles can be used in water depths from 200 to 10,000 feet (60 to 3,000 m).They are sometimes referred to as a floater.
3. Drillship A drillship is a vessel that has been fitted with apparatus for drilling. They are often used for exploratory drilling of new oil or gas wells in deep water but can also be used for scientific drilling (mud sampling or techtonic plate surveys). Most drillships are fitted with a dynamic positioning system to maintain position over the well. They can drill in water depths up to 12,000 ft (3,700 m).
4. Fixed Platform A fixed platform is a type of offshore platform used for the production of oil or gas. These platforms are built on concrete and/or steel legs anchored directly onto the seabed, supporting a deck with space for drilling rigs, production facilities and crew quarters. Such platforms are designed for very long term use
Page | 8
1. Drilling Rig Land-based drilling rigs generally consist of engines, a drawworks, a mast (or derrick), pumps to circulate the drilling fluid (mud) under various pressures, blowout preventers, drill string and related equipment. Rock cuttings are carried to the surface by the circulating drilling fluid. The intended well depth, bore hole diameter and drilling site conditions are the principal factors that determine the size and type of rig most suitable for a particular drilling job.
2. Workover Rig Land-based workover rigs (commonly referred to as well servicing rigs) consist of a mobile carrier, engine, drawworks and a mast. The primary function of a workover rig is to act as a hoist so that pipe, sucker rods and down-hole equipment can be run into and out of a well. Land-based workover rigs are easier to move between well sites and different geographical areas of operations than drilling rigs. Typically, the rigs are selfpropelled and have less auxiliary equipment to move. Because of size and cost considerations, workover rigs are used for these operations rather than the larger drilling rigs.
Page | 9
Rig Personnel
All rigs operate on a 24 hours round the clock operation divided into two twelve hour shifts with a full crew on each. The drill crew on an offshore rig typically consists of an:
OIM (offshore installation manager): Is the senior person in charge of the offshore platform has both marine and oilfield experience. Company Man (representative of the oil company): Is the production companys senior representative on site. Tool/Tour Pusher: Is the senior drilling person on site. Drilling Engineer: Is a drilling technical specialist. Medic: The person who looks after injured personnel on site. Driller: (may also be called Toolpusher) may report to Toolpusher. Assistant Driller: Reports to the Driller or Toolpusher. Derrick Man: Works up high on the derrick, handles the top end of the drill pipe sections and fluid circulation Equipment. He works on the Monkey Board.
Rig Electrician: Responsible for connecting and maintaining electrical equipment on the rig site. Material Coordinator: Ensure adequate and safe supplies of equipment and goods are brought to site.
Page | 10
Rig Components
This article lists the main components of a petroleum onshore drilling rig. Offshore drilling rigs have similar elements, but are configured with a number of different drilling systems to suit drilling in the marine environment. It can be mainly divided into 3 categories: Hoisting System Rotating System Circulating System
Hoisting System main components: Derrick Travelling Block, Crown Block & Drill Line Drawworks
Rotating System main components: Top Drives Power Swivels Swivels Rotaries and Drives
Surface piping & Standpipe The kelly (rotary) hose The drillpipe & drill collars The bell nipple The flowline The mud-cleaning equipment & mud tanks The centrifugal pumps Page | 11
Page | 12
11. Traveling block: is the moving end of the block and tackle. Together, they give a significant mechanical advantage for lifting. 12. Drill line: is thick, stranded metal cable threaded through the two blocks (traveling and crown) to raise and lower the drill string. 13. Crown block: is the stationary end of the block and tackle. 14. Derrick: is the support structure for the equipment used to lower and raise the drill string into and out of the wellbore. 15. Monkey board: is the structure used to support the top end of the stands of drill pipe vertically situated in the derrick. 16. Stand (of drill pipe): is a section of 2 or 3 joints of drill pipe connected together and stood upright in the derrick. When they are pulled out of the hole, instead of laying down each joint of drill pipe, 2 or 3 joints are left connected together and stood in the derrick to save time. 17. Pipe rack (floor): is a part of the drill floor (#21) where the stands of drill pipe are stood upright. It is typically made of a metal frame structure with large wooden beams situated within it. The wood helps to protect the end of the drill pipe. 18. Swivel (On newer rigs this may be replaced by a top drive): is the top end of the kelly that allows the rotation of the drill string without twisting the block. 19. Kelly drive: is a square, hexagonal or octagonal shaped tubing that is inserted through and is an integral part of the rotary table that moves freely vertically while the rotary table turns it. 20. Rotary table: rotates, along with its constituent parts, the kelly and kelly bushing, the drill string and the attached tools and bit. 21. Drill floor: is the area on the rig where the tools are located to make the connections of the drill pipe, bottom hole assembly, tools and bit. It is considered the main area where work is performed. 22. Bell nipple: is a section of large diameter pipe fitted to the top of the blowout preventers that the flow line attaches to via a side outlet, to allow the drilling mud to flow back to the mud tanks.
Page | 13
23. Blowout preventer (BOP) Annular type: are devices installed at the wellhead to prevent fluids and gases from unintentionally escaping from the wellbore. #23 is the annular (often referred to as Hydril named after a manufacturer), and #24 is the pipe rams and blind rams. 24. Blowout preventer (BOP) Pipe ram & blind ram 25. Drill string: is an assembled collection of drill pipe, heavy weight drill pipe, drill collars and any of a whole assortment of tools, connected together and run into the wellbore to facilitate the drilling of a well. The collection is referred to singularly as the drill string. 26. Drill bit: is a device attached to the end of the drill string that breaks apart the rock being drilled. It contains jets through which the drilling fluid exits. 27. Casing head or Wellhead: is a large metal flange welded or screwed onto the top of the conductor pipe and is used to bolt the surface equipment such as the blowout preventers (for well drilling) or the Christmas tree (oil well) (for well production). 28. Flow line: is large diameter pipe that is attached to the bell nipple and extends to the shale shakers to facilitate the flow of drilling fluid back to the mud tanks.
Drilling fluids Cool & lubricate drilling bit Control corrosion Remove cutting from the well Facilitate cementing and completion Minimize reservoir damage
Page | 14
Well Completion steps: Installing the well Casing and Cementing Completing the well Installing the well head Installing the lifting equipment
Function of Casing
The main objectives of casing are: Prevents the collapse of the borehole Prevents fracturing of the upper zones and so additional pressure occurs Facilitates attaching surface equipments (Production tree, Lifting systems,.) Restricts production to the well Provides a well of known diameter for future operations
Page | 15
Types of Casing
The number of casing layers we use depends on the unique characteristics of the subsurface and can vary from well to well. Depending on a wells design, well construction can have between two and four main components. These components include conductor, surface, intermediate and production casings. Conductor Casing Conductor casing is typically the first (and largest diameter) pipe installed during construction and usually extends between 25 and 45 meters (approximately 80 to 150 feet) below surface. Conductor casing is inserted into the surface hole and cemented in place along its full length to ground surface. Its two primary purposes are: Surface Casing After the conductor casing is installed and cemented, the hole is drilled deeper and surface casing is installed and cemented in place. Surface casing can be set anywhere up to 600 meters (approximately 2,000 feet) or more. It is also cemented all the way from the bottom of the hole to ground surface. Its two primary purposes are: Well control Completely isolating the well from groundwater aquifers as surface casing is installed with the deepest local groundwater aquifers in mind and regulated accordingly Holding back any unconsolidated surface sediments Isolation of shallow groundwater from the contents of the hole
Page | 16
Intermediate Casing After the surface casing has been set and properly cemented, drilling of the intermediate hole and installation of intermediate casing begins. In some cases, depending on the unique characteristics of the subsurface, intermediate casing may not be needed. Its primary purpose is: Isolation of any abnormally-pressured subsurface rock formations from causing instability
Production Casing Production casing is the final length of steel pipe used in wellbore construction. Production casing typically runs the entire depth of the well and may be cemented in place all the way to ground surface. Its primary purpose is: Isolation of the zone containing natural gas from other subsurface formations Pumping hydraulic fracturing fluids into the producing formation without contacting other formations along the wellbore
Page | 17
Function of Cementing
Cementing process is considered as one of the major steps of well Completion as it has various functions that affect the whole performance of the well. The next points highlight some of these functions: Restriction of fluid movement between permeable zones Provision of mechanical support of the casing string Protection of casing from corrosion Support of the well-bore walls to prevent collapse of formations Helps in the control of blowouts from high-pressure zones.
Page | 18
Chapter 2
2.1. Artificial Lift Systems
Definition
Artificial Lift
Any system that adds energy to the fluid in the well having an objective of improving production of the wells with low reservoir pressure
Purpose of ALS
At first, reservoirs are always at elevated pressure because of underground forces. The next diagram shows briefly the different types of the reservoirs which was discussed in details in the reservoirs section as this is an important factor in the choice of the applied artificial lift system.
Through time the reservoirs pressure differential becomes insufficient for the oil to flow naturally upwards, As a result Artificial Lift systems are used to pump the oil to the surface to facilitate the production operation. One of the reasons of why this occurs is that by time when the oil in the reservoir decreases the percentage of water coming out increases which is heavier than oil and so increases the pressure formed by the water/oil column till it exceeds the reservoir pressure. These calculations vary according to the depth of the reservoir and density of the fluid.
Page | 19
Decline Curve
Oil well production curves typically end in an exponential decline. At natural rates, oil well production curves appear similar to a bell curve, a phenomenon known as the Hubbert curve. The typical decline is a rapid drop in production, and eventually a leveling off to a point at which they no longer produce profitable amounts. The next figure shows a typical Decline Curve of a given well:
Page | 20
Page | 21
Rod Pumps
Pump Types
Gas Method
Gas Lift
Page | 22
The surface equipments consist of: A surface pumping unit powered by an electric or gas prime mover The pumping unit, a mechanical linkage that transforms the rotary motion into the reciprocating motion The polished rod that connects the walking beam to the sucker-rod string A stuffing box that seals on the polished rod and a pumping tee to lead well fluids into the flowline The downhole equipments consist of: The rod string that is composed of sucker rods The pump plunger
Page | 23
Mechanism of Operation
The surface operation is mainly transferring energy for pumping the well from primemover to sucker rod string. In doing this, it must change the rotary motion of prime-mover to reciprocating motion of sucker rod. And it must reduce the speed of prime-mover to suitable pumping speed. This type of lifting uses a positive displacement pump that is installed in the tubing near the bottom of the well and this pump goes through a cycle to attain the lifting of the fluid to the surface. The pumping cycle starts with the lifting of the traveling valve (TV) at the bottom of the stroke, the TV is closed and the standing valve (SV) is opened. This lifts the fluid above the TV and allows fluid to enter the pump through the SV. At the top of the stroke when the TV starts down and is opened and the SV is closed. The fluid that is now in the pump is trapped there by the closing of the S V and TV moves under the fluid by being open. The TV and SV are ball and seat type valves that are in cages to restrict the movement of the ball.
Page | 24
Advantages of SRP:
Economical to repair and service High system efficiency Flexibility in adjusting production through modifying stroke length and speed Upgraded materials reduce the corrosion concerns
Disadvantages of SRP:
Limited to certain production limits Low resistance in dealing with sand and can be stuck by gas locks every now and then
Page | 25
2.4.2. Progressive Cavity Pump (PCP) Components of Progressive Cavity Pump system
This system consists mainly of two main parts. The first part is the surface equipments while the second part is the downhole equipments. The whole system is illustrated in the next figure that shows the various components of the system.
The surface equipments consist of: A surface drive Polish rod Stuffing box to avoid fluid leakage
The downhole equipments consist of: A downhole pump that consists of a rotor that rotates inside a fixed stator Rod strings that connect the surface drive to the downhole pump
Page | 26
Mechanism of operation
Downhole pump is mainly formed of a rotor than rotates inside a stator which is attached to the production tubing. As the rotor starts rotating, a series of sealed cavities are formed and moves on from the inlet till the discharge end of the pump which results in a positive displacement flow. Factors that affects the production rate:
Size of the cavities Rotational speed of the rotor Differential pressure across the pump
Quiet operation High system efficiency Portable, lightweight surface equipment Simple installation with minimal maintenance costs Pumps oils and waters with solids No internal valves to clog or gas lock
Disadvantages of PCP:
Page | 27
2.4.3. Electric Submersible Pump (ESP) Components of Electric Submersible Pump system
This system consists mainly of two main parts. The first part is the surface equipments while the second part is the downhole equipments. The whole system is illustrated in the next figure that shows the various components of the system.
The surface equipments consist of: A system controller connected to a VSD unit Power cable that extends from the surface unit to the downhole pump
The downhole equipments consist of: An electrical motor covered by a seal to avoid fluid flow into it Pump intakes Gas separator Centrifugal unit that consists of multi-stage rotating impellers
Page | 28
Mechanism of operation
At first, the fluid flows into the perforations into the system. This fluid passes past the motor to aid its cooling process. Afterwards, the flow enters through the intake and passes through the gas separator till it reach the centrifugal unit. The centrifugal unit consists of multi-stage rotating impellers which have a function of adding pressure to the fluid column and builds up pressure till the fluid reaches the surface of the well.
High efficiency at high production rates Can be applied to deviated wells Minimum surface equipment requirements High volume and depth capacity
Disadvantages of ESP:
Poor ability to pump sand High cost in case of downhole equipment maintenance
Page | 29
The surface equipments consist of: A surface power fluid system A prime mover A surface pump
Page | 30
Mechanism of Operation
In the operation of a hydraulic lift system, crude oil or water (power fluid) is taken from a storage tank and fed to the surface pump. The power fluid, now under pressure built up by the surface pump, is controlled by valves at a control station and distributed to one or more wellheads. The power fluid passes through the wellhead valve and is directed to the downhole pump. In a piston pump, power fluid actuates the engine, which in turn drives the pump, and power fluid returns to the surface with the produced oil, is separated, and is piped to the storage tank. A jet pump has no moving parts and employs the Venturi principle to use fluid under pressure to bring oil to the surface.
Jet Lift No moving parts High volume capability "Free" pump Multiwell production from a single package Low pump maintenance
Piston Lift "Free" or wireline retrievable Positive displacement-strong drawdown Double-acting high-volumetric efficiency Good depth/volume capability (+15,000 ft.)
Page | 31
High initial capital cost Complex to operate Only economical where there are a number of wells together on a pad. If there is a problem with the surface system or prime mover, all wells are off production.
Page | 32
The surface equipments consist of: A gas source A surface injection system including piping, compressors and needed valves A surface processing system
The downhole equipments consist of: A downhole gas lift equipments as mandrels and valves
Page | 33
Mechanism of Operation
In a typical gas lift system, compressed gas is injected through gas lift mandrels and valves into the production string. The injected gas lowers the hydrostatic pressure in the production string to reestablish the required pressure differential between the reservoir and wellbore, thus causing the formation fluids to flow to the surface. Essentially, the liquids are lightened by the gas which allows the reservoir pressure to force the fluids to surface. Gas may be injected continuously or intermittently, depending on the characteristics of the well and the arrangement of the gas-lift equipment.
Not feasible if no source of gas present High initial capital purchase cost Maintenance intensive
Page | 34
Hole Considerations: Well depth Casing and tubing sizes Wellbore deviation
Page | 35
The next table compares between the previously mentioned Artificial Lift Systems and shows when each of them is applicable on the desired well:
Operating Parameters
Typical Operating Depth Maximum Operating Depth Typical Operating volume Maximum Operating Volume Typical Operating Temperature Typical Wellbore Deviation Maximum Wellbore Deviation Corrosion handling Gas handling
Rod pump
100 to 11000 ft 16000 ft 5 to 1500 BFPD 6000 BFPD
PCP
2000 to 4500 ft 6000 ft 5 to 2200 BFPD 4500 BFPD
Hydraulic Piston
7500 to 10000 ft
ESP
Hydraulic Jet
5000 to 10000 ft 15000 ft 300 - 4000 BFPD >15000 BFPD 100 - 250 F [40-120 C] 0 - 20 deg hole angle 0 - 90 deg < 24 deg/100 ft Excellent
Gas lift
5000 to 10000 ft 15000 ft 100 10000 BFPD 30000 BFPD 100 - 250 F [40-120 C] 0 - 50 deg 70 deg, short to medium radius Good to excellent Excellent
12000 ft
17000 ft
50 500 BFPD
4000 BFPD
100 - 350 F [40-177 C] 0 - 20 deg landed pump 0 - 90 deg landed pump Good to Excellent Fair to good
75 - 150 F [24-65 C]
0 - 90 deg
Good
Good
Good
Fair
Fair
Good
Solids handling
Fair to good
Excellent
Poor
Fair
Good
Good > 15 API Wireline or workover rig Compres sor Excellent 10% 30%
Fluid gravity
> 8 API
< 35 API
> 8 API
> 10 API
> 8 API
Servicing
45% - 60%
40% - 70%
45% - 55%
35% - 60%
10% - 30%
Page | 36
Chapter 3
3.1. Overview on Heavy Oil
Definition
Heavy oil, extra-heavy oil, and bitumen are unconventional oil resources that are characterized by high viscosities (i.e. resistance to flow) and high densities compared to conventional oil. Generally, there is no exploration phase for heavy oil projects in the conventional sense. The main challenge in heavy oil is not in finding resources, but in the ability for an oil company to extract, recover, produce, and sell heavy crudes.
Light oil
Also known as "conventional oil," light oil has an API gravity of at least 22 and a viscosity less than 100 centipoises (cp).
Heavy Oil
Asphaltic, dense (low API gravity), and viscous oil that is chemically characterized by its content of asphaltenes (very large molecules incorporating most of the sulfur and perhaps 90% of the metals in the oil). Although variously defined, the upper limit for heavy oils has been set at 22API gravity and a viscosity of less than 100 cP.
Page | 37
Page | 38
Thermal Recovery
CHOPS
SAGD
THAI
Page | 39
Page | 40
2. CHOPS
Cold heavy oil production with sand (CHOPS) is a technique for extracting difficult heavy crude oil where sand is used as a means enhancing the productivity of the oil well. Thats because Canadian oil companies discovered that if the sand filters are removed from the wells, and as much sand as possible is produced with the oil, the production rates improved considerably.
3.SAGD
It is a technique that involves the drilling of two horizontal wells, one at the bottom of the formation and another about 5 meters above it. The upper well injects steam into the reservoir. The resulting heat melts the bitumen which allows gravity to assist it to flow to the lower well, and the bitumen is pumped to the surface. SAGD is cheaper than Cyclic Steam Simulation, allows very high oil production rates, and recovers up to 60% of the oil.
Page | 41
Emerging Techniques
It is a second classification of the techniques used in oil recovery and this section will emphasize on two types of them.
1.VAPEX
It is similar to SAGD, but instead of steam, hydrocarbon solvents are injected into the upper well to dilute the bitumen and allow it to flow. It is much more energy efficient than steam injection and some partial upgrading of the bitumen to crude oil occurs right in the sands. This method is new and more expensive than the above but oil companies are experimenting with it.
2.THAI
It is a new and experimental method where a vertical air injection well is combined with a horizontal production well. To begin the process, bitumen around the toe of the horizontal well is heated with steam. Once this approximately three-month heating cycle in a bitumen reservoir is complete, the steam is shut off and air is injected into the vertical well to create a combustion reaction in the reservoir.
Page | 42
Page | 43
1. First Chamber (Sand Separating Chamber): The part of the facility that separates the trace of sand from the inlet feed. After filling this part the crude flows to the second chamber. 2. Second Chamber (Interface\ Water Separating Chamber): At this chamber, the water is separated by holding the oil for certain duration of time (Retention Period) and so water traces can be removed, thereby meeting the specifications. 3. Third Chamber (Oil Chamber): Oil free from sand & water traces flow to this chamber.
4. Water Holding Tank: It is a tank used in holding the water that is drained from the second chamber till the shipment process occurs. 5. Oil Holding Tank: It is a tank used in holding the separated oil till the shipment process occurs.
6. Knock-Out Drum: A system used to eliminate the traces of condensate entering the flare system providing additional safety to the facility.
7. Interconnection between Oil Holding tank and Vacuum Truck: A connecting hose that connects the oil holding tank to the pump installed in the vacuum truck to do the shipment process.
8. Flare System: A system used to burn out the associated gas produced during the crude oil flow through the production facility. 9. Oil Flowline: It is the flowline that carries the produced crude to the facility. 10. Gas Flowline: It is the flowline that carries the produced gas to the Knock-Out Drum and then to the flare.
Page | 44
Quantity of Shipment = Reading of Oil Holding Tank = Initial reading Final reading
Page | 45
TDS (total dissolved solids) Test It is performed using the TDS meter to show the percentage of the rest of solids in the sample. PH Test The pH test measures the H+ ion concentration in liquids and substances. All measured liquids or substances are given a pH value on a scale that a range from 0 to 14.This makes it neutral, acidic or basic.
Page | 46
Page | 47
Page | 48
Q17: In case you are on field, and you realized the well head pressure increased rapidly while the pump is still working, what actions will you take?
STOP the pump immediately
Q20: What happens in case of back spin of pump & how can you detect it? What will you do in this case?
It can be detected by realizing that the pump rod is rotating in an opposite direction (anti clockwise), in this case the pump should be stopped immediately
&
Page | 49
Page | 50