OIL SPILLS AND THEIR EFFECTS ON SEA LIFE

INTRODUCTION:
An oil spill is a release of a liquid petroleum hydrocarbon into the environment due to human activity, and is a form of pollution. The term often refers to marine oil spills, where oil is released into the ocean or coastal waters. Oil spills include releases of crude oil from tankers, offshore platforms, drilling rigs and wells, as well as spills of refined petroleum products (such as gasoline, diesel) and their by-products, and heavier fuels used by large ships such as bunker fuel, or the spill of any oily refuse or waste oil. Spills may take months or even years to clean up An oil spill is the accidental petroleum release into the environment. On land, oil spills are usually localized and thus their impact can be eliminated relatively easily. In contrast, marine oil spills may result in oil pollution over large areas and present serious environmental hazards. The primary source of accidental oil input into seas is associated with oil transportation by tankers and pipelines (about 70%), whereas the contribution of offshore drilling and production activities is minimal (less than 1%). Large and catastrophic spills releasing more than 30,000 tons of oil are relatively rare events and their frequency in recent decades has decreased perceptibly. Yet, such episodes have the potential to cause the most serious ecological risk (primarily for sea birds and mammals) and result in long-term environmental disturbances (mainly in coastal zones) and economic impact on coastal activities. Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons with the initial appearance and consistency of thick dirty used oil. When crude oil is released into the sea a number of physical and chemical changes occur:
1

The oil initially floats in a layer up to several inches thick at the water surface which is spread and moved by wind and water currents. Immediately, more volatile components begin to separate and disperse into the atmosphere and water soluble components (called polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons, PAHs) leach into the surrounding water. Lighter insoluble components form thin films that spread and move more extensively than the thicker oil. The warmer the sea and air temperature, the more rapidly these components separate. Wave action separates the mass into smaller areas and patches, and eventually into smaller globules, some of which emulsify with seawater. Oil-water emulsion has the characteristic tan- yellow color often seen in floating oil slicks. Dispersants (detergent like substances) distributed to break up the oil slick facilitate the formation of emulsions, distributing the oil as droplets of oil and emulsion throughout the water column. As the lighter components dissolve, the remaining oil develops a thick gooey consistency, and breaks into pieces anywhere from mm to several cm diameters. Depending on the temperature, water contented the surface to volume ratio of these globules, they may remain buoyant, become suspended in the water column, or sink to the bottom. The oil slick th erefore contains a number of components, thick mats of oil, oily films, oil/water emulsions, particles and lumps (tar balls) that may float or sink and material dissolved in the water below and dispersed into the air above. This mixture of components becomes progressively more dispersed and difficult to contain as time goes by, and as wave action and temperature have their effect. As the slick approaches the shore, some of the denser oily components (tar) become mixed with sand, mud and floating debris forming tar balls with variable buoyancy and mobility. These particles may be mixed into the bottom
2

sediments, roll around on the bottom, or wash up on the beach or marsh. In warm climates, tar balls may melt on hot days, break up, remix and harden again, continually breaking up and releasing additional soluble and volatile components. Although the majority of spilled oil remains floating at or near the sea surface, components may be spread throughout the marine environment, water column, bottom and bottom sediments, and shoreline habitats.

EFFECTS OF OIL SPILLS ON SEA LIFE

Oil spills have a devastating and long-term impact on waterways and coastal areas around the world. When a spill occurs, oil rapidly spreads in the water thanks to currents and the wind. As it spreads, oil mixes with water and becomes sticky, clinging to helpless marine life unable to avoid its deadly pursuit. The environmental effects can have serious consequences for many marine populations. Oil can cause hypothermia and drowning of birds as the oil breaks down the insulating capabilities of their feathers, makes them heavier and compromises their flying ability. It can also cause hypothermia in seal pups and otters as the oil destroys their insulating fur. Birds and other animals often ingest oil when trying to clean themselves which can poison them and create toxins in their immune systems. Birds that dive under water to catch food are most vulnerable to spilled oil since they spend most of their time sitting on the water between dives. In the Great Lakes, and in the shore waters of the Pacific and Atlantic coasts, loons, grebes, and diving ducks such as long-tailed ducks, mergansers, and eiders are most affected by oil spills. Dabbling ducks including the American black ducks and mallards are often victims of oil spilled into the shallow coastal and inland waters of their habitats. Seabirds including puffins, shearwaters, razorbills, murres, and dovekies are frequently affected by offshore oil spills. These birds live mainly on open water, however; they can also become oiled in coastal waters since they come to coastal islands to breed. Oil spills can have more devastating effects on some bird populations than on others. Birds that lay several eggs are more likely to recover from deaths caused by oil spills than those that lay fewer eggs. The bottom line: the closer the spill occurs to the shoreline, the greater the ecological damage since coastal areas are home to more concentrated and diverse populations of marine life than at sea. Spills can also severely harm turtle eggs and damage fish larvae, causing deformities. Shellfish and corals are particularly at risk since they can't escape
4

the runaway slick. Oil spills are also responsible for tainting algae, which perform a vital role in waterway ecosystems. If a spill isn't contained quickly, oil can lie beneath the surface of beaches and the sea, severely affecting marine organisms that burrow, such as crabs, for decades. Since these burrowing creatures are a food source for other animals, the cycle of poisoning can continue for many years. When oil is spilled, most of the volatile compounds evaporate quickly. The oil, however, remains floating on the surface of the water, and starts to disperse, forming a very thin film which can cover large areas of water. Oil spills affect marine life which live, hunt, or travel in the area covered with oil. Different types of marine life are impacted differently, depending on their physiology and habits. The compounds left behind after the volatile compounds play a large part in why oil spills affect marine life, since many of them are toxic, dense, and bio-accumulative. One of the most direct ways in which oil spills affect marine life is by essentially suffocating plants and animals. Marine plants can be covered in a film of oil which prevents oxygen and water exchange, causing the plants to die. Marine life which feed on this vegetation will in turn struggle to survive. Coatings of oil on the flesh of birds and mammals can literally kill them through suffocation. Oil spills also affect marine life such as birds by stripping the water resistant coating from their feathers. A bird weighed down by oil may have difficulty flying, and will develop hypothermia as a result of exposure to extremely cold water. Mammals also suffer, as oil can remove water resistant compounds from the coats of furred marine life like otters and seals. Oil spills affect marine life like filter feeders by concentrating in the flesh of these animals. Clams, mussels, and oysters may quickly accumulate toxins which can kill the animals or be passed on along the food chain. Human consumers often complain that shellfish harvested from an area impact by an oil spill taste heavy and oily. Animals that rely on these filter feeders for food may become sick and die as a result of consuming them. When oil spills affect marine life, it usually happens at multiple levels of the food chain, representing a lot of work to fix the problem. The inhalation and ingestion of compounds related to oil spills can also harm marine life, both in the long and short term. In the long term, oil spills affect marine life by interfering with the ability to breed, reproduce, grow, or perform
5

other vital functions. Toxins in oil can also cause cancers and other illnesses in the long term. If left untreated, the area around an oil spill can be denuded of life. Fortunately, there are ways to clean up oil spills. In addition to chemicals, ecologists also use bacteria which thrive on the compounds in oil to digest it and render it less harmful. The oil penetrates into the structure of the plumage of birds, reducing its insulating ability, thus making the birds more vulnerable to temperature fluctuations and much less buoyant in the water. It also impairs or disables birds' flight abilities to forage and escape from predators. As they attempt to preen, birds typically ingest oil that covers their feathers, causing kidney damage, altered liver function, and digestive tract irritation. This and the limited foraging ability quickly causes dehydration and metabolic imbalances. Hormonal balance alteration including changes in luteinizing protein can also result in some birds exposed to petroleum. Most birds affected by an oil spill die unless there is human intervention. Some studies have suggested that, even after cleaning, less than 1% of oil soaked birds survive. Marine mammals exposed to oil spills are affected in similar ways as seabirds. Oil coats the fur of otters and seals, reducing its insulation abilities and leading to body temperature fluctuations and hypothermia. Ingestion of the oil causes dehydration and impaired digestions. Because oil floats on top of water, less sunlight penetrates into the water, limiting the photosynthesis of marine plants and phytoplankton. This, as well as decreasing the fauna populations, affects the food chain in the ecosystem. There are three kinds of oil-consuming bacteria. Sulfate-reducing bacteria (SRB) and acid-producing bacteria are anaerobic, while general aerobic bacteria (GAB) are aerobic. These bacteria occur naturally and will act to remove oil from an ecosystem, and their biomass will tend to replace other populations in the food chain.

Hypothermia
Oil, a product that we often use to keep warm, can cause hypothermia in marine animals. As oil mixes with water, it forms a substance called "mousse," which sticks to feathers and fur.
6

A bird's feathers are filled with air spaces that act as insulation and keeps the bird warm. When a bird gets coated with oil, the feathers lose their insulating ability and the bird could die of hypothermia. Similarly, oil coats a pinnipeds fur. When this happens, the fur gets matted with oil and loses its natural ability to insulate the animal's body, and it can die of hypothermia. Young animals like seal pups are particularly vulnerable.

Poisoning and Internal Damage

Animals can be poisoned or suffer internal damage from ingesting oil. Effects include ulcers and damage to red blood cells, kidneys, liver and to the immune system. Oil vapors can injure to eyes and lungs, and can be particularly hazardous while new oil is still coming to the surface and vapors are evaporating. If vapors are severe enough, marine mammals may become "sleepy" and drown. Oil can also cause effects 'up' the food chain, such as when an organism higher on the food chain eat a number of oil-infected animals. For example, eagles decreased after the eagles ate animals infected by oil after the Exxon Valdez spill.

Increased Predation
Oil can weigh down feathers and fur, making it difficult for birds and pinnipeds to escape from predators. If they are covered with enough oil, birds or pinnipeds may actually drown.

Decreased Reproduction
Oil spills can effect the eggs of marine life such as fish and sea turtles, both when the spill happens and later on. Fisheries were impacted years after the Exxon Valdez spill due to the destruction of herring and salmon eggs when the spill occurred. Oil can also cause disruption of reproductive hormones and behavioral changes that lead to reduced reproduction rates or affect the care of young.

Fouling of Habitat
Oil spills in the can effect ocean habitat, both offshore and onshore.Before an oil spill reaches shore, the oil can poison plankton and other pelagic marine life.

On shore, it can cover rocks, marine algae and marine invertebrates. The Exxon Valdez spill coated 1,300 miles of coastline, initiating a massive cleanup effort. Once the cleanup of surface areas has occurred, oil that has seeped into the ground can hurt marine life for decades. For example, oil can drip into the ground, causing issues for burrowing animals such as crabs.

How Oil Affects Birds

The most obvious way oil affects birds is by coating their plumage in sticky, greasy slime. Birds' feathers are precisely aligned and designed to provide superb waterproofing and insulation. Oil in the feathers, however, will mat them and misalign the tiny barbs that keep the feathers properly positioned, and even a small misalignment can cause birds to lose critical body heat, therefore exposing them to temperatures and weather conditions that can be fatal. Oiled birds also lose their natural buoyancy from air pockets created by proper feather alignment, and they can sink and drown in polluted waters. In order to remove the oil from their feathers, oiled birds will begin to preen excessively, even desperately. As they preen, they inadvertently ingest the toxic sludge, which will then poison their kidneys, liver, lungs, intestines and other internal organs, causing slow and agonizing death. If they do not die from the oil's toxicity, their excessive preening in a desperate attempt to realign their feathers and get clean again will cost them more energy than they can spare, and many oiled birds eventually succumb to exhaustion, dehydration or starvation.

More Impacts of Oil on Birds

Oil has more impacts on birds than just coating their plumage. An area subjected to a large oil spill become uninhabitable for the birds as food supplies are gradually killed off from the toxic poisons, and oil coating nesting areas destroys critical habitat. If birds are already nesting at the time of the pollution, oil that coats the eggs will suffocate the un-hatched chicks, decimating the birds' population. If eggs have not been laid but female adults ingest the oil, the pollution can cause thinner shells that are more subject to being crushed and causing malformed chicks that will not survive. Over time, small amounts of oil in the birds' ecosystem can be absorbed into food supplies, gradually building to deadly concentrations in birds that eat that food, whether it is plant life, insects, fish or other food sources.
8

CLEANUP METHODS OF OIL SPILL

There are several clean-up methods that can be used, depending on the type and amount of spilled oil, the water location and local weather conditions. Following are a list of some clean-up methods that are commonly used to treat areas that have been affected by oil spills. Recovery times can range from weeks to decades. Along bedrock shorelines, where there are high-energy waves, the region may recover within several weeks. Exposed beaches generally recover within a matter of months, but marshes and salt flats may take years or even decades to recover from an oil spill. Mangroves, which are coastal regions in the tropics and subtropics, can take around 50 years to recover.

Natural Methods: Bioremediation

The natural environment can effectively remove contaminants from the water and soil. There are microorganisms that are present in the environment that can break down many harmful chemicals, including gasoline and oil. To increase the rate at which the microorganisms work, nutrients, such as nitrogen or phosphorus, are often added. Bioremediation is a process that occurs, to some degree, after every oil spill. After the majority of the oil spill is cleaned up manually, biological processes break down the trace amounts that could not be removed. Or, in sensitive areas that would cause too much damage if people were to attempt to clean up the oil, these biological processes, together with evaporation, oxidation, weathering and other natural processes, will break down the oil and naturally clean up the environment.

Booms
Because oil spreads very quickly, the most important primary step is to contain the spill to as small of an area as possible. Booms are one of the most commonly used tools, because they can contain the oil to keep it from spreading. There are three main types of booms. A hard boom, like the first picture below, is a piece of plastic with a cylindrical float at the top and a weighted bottom, so that it floats on the surface with an underwater skirt.

Sorbent booms, like the one shown in the second picture below, are made from materials that can absorb oil, and are most effective on thin, light oil slicks. Great caution must be taken when removing sorbent booms, so that the oil is not squeezed back into the water. Booms can also be used to prevent oil from running into storm drains when oil spills on pavement. Fire booms are the third type of boom, but are not used as much as hard and sorbent booms. A fire boom is very similar to a hard boom, but is made of metal, so that it is fire resistant. Fire booms are used to contain oil spills until they can be lit on fire.

Chemical Dispersants
Chemical dispersants can be successful in cleaning up oil spills. Dispersants are chemicals that are applied to the surface of the water, usually by a lowflying plane. Oil can eventually break down naturally, and chemical dispersants act to speed up the natural process. The oil binds to the dispersant, and is able to move further down the water column, meaning that the oil disperses into the water. The water dilutes the oil to a concentration that is less harmful to aquatic life in the region. The following diagram illustrates how chemical dispersants can be applied to an oil spill. The red substances are the chemicals that are applied to the region with a low-flying plane; the black substance is the oil that binds to the dispersants and becomes suspended and diluted in the water.

Application of Chemical Dispersants to an Oil Spill;

Dish detergent is a common household item that can illustrate how chemical dispersants work, because grease and oil bind to dish detergent and are washed away. However, chemical dispersants are not applied to shallow water near shores, marshes, near coral reefs, or other sensitive areas.

10

Skimmers
Skimmers are boats that can skim oil from the water surface. An advantage of using a skimmer to remove oil from water is that it doesnt change the physical or chemical properties of the oil, as methods such as using chemical dispersants do. Skimmers often have attached settling tanks, refined. In other instances, the oil is burned. The success of skimming depends on the type and thickness of the oil spill, the amount of debris in the water, the location and the weather conditions (skimming works best in calm weather).

Sorbents
In addition to using sorbent materials as booms, to contain and soak up oil spills, sorbents can also be applied to the water surface as powders. Sorbents are often the final step of clean-up, because they can absorb trace amounts of oil that could not be skimmed off. Commonly used sorbents include natural organic materials, such as peat moss and sawdust, or synthetic organic materials, such as polypropylene, polyester foam or polystyrene. Sorbents are generally applied by hand, and recovered with the use of nets and rakes.

Burning
Burning is a method that is often used to remove oil from the surface of the water. Oil may also be burned after skimmers remove the oil from the water surface. The burning of oil releases nitrogen and sulphur, which in turn causes acid rain. While burning can remove the oil from the water surface quickly and efficiently, it causes additional pollution. Thus, there are some ways of cleaning up after oil spills that are more beneficial than others.

Solidifying
Solidifiers are composed of dry hydrophobic polymers that both adsorb and absorb. They clean up oil spills by changing the physical state of spilled oil from liquid to a semi-solid or a rubber-like material that floats on water. Solidifiers are insoluble in water, therefore the removal of the solidified oil is easy and the oil will not leach out. Solidifiers have been proven to be relatively non-toxic to aquatic and wild life and have been proven to suppress harmful vapors commonly associated with hydrocarbons such as Benzene, Xylene, Methyl Ethyl, Acetone and Naphtha. The reaction time for solidification of oil is controlled by the surf area or size of the polymer as well
11

as the viscosity of the oil. Some solidifier product manufactures claim the solidified oil can be disposed of in landfills, recycled as an additive in asphalt or rubber products, or burned as a low ash fuel. A solidifier called C.I.Agent (manufactured by C.I.Agent Solutions of Louisville, Kentucky) is being used by BP in granular form as well as in Marine and Sheen Booms on Dauphin Island, AL and Fort Morgan, MS to aid in the Deepwater Horizon oil spill cleanup.

Vacuum and centrifuge

Oil can be sucked up along with the water, and then a centrifuge can be used to separate the oil from the water - allowing a tanker to be filled with near pure oil. Usually, the water is returned to the sea, making the process more efficient, but allowing small amounts of oil to go back as well. This issue has hampered the use of centrifuges due to a United States regulation amount of oil in water returned to the sea.

Beach Clean-up
Areas near shore that are contaminated with heavy concentrations of thick oil are often cleaned up manually, using shovels and trucks. Manual recovery can also be used to pick up oiled beach sand and gravel, to remove it from the beach and transport it to alternate locations for treatment. Vacuum trucks can vacuum the oil up, right off of the beach. Pressurized hoses can also be used to wash oil off of beaches, into the water, where it will be dispersed and diluted in the water.

12

WAY OF PREVENTING OIL SPILLS

Double-hulling
Build double hulls into vessels, which reduces the risk and severity of a spill in case of a collision or grounding. Existing single-hull vessels can also be rebuilt to have a double hull.

Secondary Spill Containment

Secondary Spill Containment is used for the containment of liquids preventing contamination or pollution occurring. The use of a spill bream liner for containment of fuel tank leaks, oil spill cleanup, truck wheel washing, HAZMAT chemical spill response and deacon pool showers for clean animals, birds or people. These secondary spill containment breams and liners are used in the oil and gas industry while farcing, first responders for decontamination of equipment from truck roll over and spills and containment of chemical spills in factories or work sites. They are portable, flexible and a cost effective solution for pollution control.

13

Emergency Response Plans

This law says that the owners of the tanker must have a detailed plan on what they will do if there was a spill.

Liability
The law says that the owners of a boat that spills oil have to pay $1,200 for every ton they spill.

Spill Fund
The law says that the government has money from companies that transport the oil so when a spill occurs, the government can pay for the clean up.

Navigation
The law says that the Coast Guard must know where the oil tankers can drive without an oil spill occurring.

14

ENVIRONMENTAL SENSITIVITY INDEX (ESI) MAPPING

Environmental Sensitivity Index (ESI) maps are used to identify sensitive shoreline resources prior to an oil spill event in order to set priorities for protection and plan cleanup strategies. By planning spill response ahead of time, the impact on the environment can be minimized or prevented. Environmental sensitivity index maps are basically made up of information within the following three categories: shoreline type, and biological and human-use resources.

Shoreline type
Shoreline type is classified by rank depending on how easy the garret would be to cleanup, how long the oil would persist, and how sensitive the shoreline is. The floating oil slicks put the shoreline at particular risk when they eventually come ashore, covering the substrate with oil. The differing substrates between shoreline types vary in their response to oiling, and influence the type of cleanup that will be required to effectively decontaminate the shoreline. In 1995, the US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration extended ESI maps to lakes, rivers, and estuary shoreline types. The exposure the shoreline has to wave energy and tides, substrate type, and slope of the shoreline are also taken into account in addition to biological productivity and sensitivity. The productivity of the shoreline habitat is also taken into account when determining ESI ranking. Mangroves and marshes tend to have higher ESI rankings due to the potentially long-lasting and damaging effects of both the oil contamination and cleanup actions. Impermeable and exposed surfaces with high wave action are ranked lower due to the reflecting waves keeping oil from coming onshore, and the speed at which natural processes will remove the oil.

Biological resources
Habitats of plants and animals that may be at risk from oil spills are referred to as elements and are divided by functional group. Further classification divides each element into species groups with similar life histories and behaviors relative to their vulnerability to oil spills. There are eight element groups: Birds, Reptiles Amphibians, Fish, Invertebrates, Habitats and Plants,
15

Wetlands, and Marine Mammals and Terrestrial Mammals. Element groups are further divided into sub-groups, for example, the marine mammals element group is divided into dolphins, manatees, pinnipeds (seals, sea lions & walruses), polar bears, sea otters and whales. Issues taken into consideration when ranking biological resources include the observance of a large number of individuals in a small area, whether special life stages occur ashore (nesting or molting), and whether there are species present that are threatened, endangered or rare.

Human-use resources
Human use resources are divided into four major classifications; archaeological importance or cultural resource site, high-use recreational areas or shoreline access points, important protected management areas, or resource origins. Some examples include airports, diving sites, popular beach sites, marinas, natural reserves or marine sanctuaries.

16

ESTIMATING THE VOLUME OF A SPILL

By observing the thickness of the film of oil and its appearance on the surface of the water, it is possible to estimate the quantity of oil spilled. If the surface area of the spill is also known, the total volume of the oil can be calculated. Film thickness Quantity spread

Appearance

in

mm

nm gal/sq mi L/ha

Barely visible

0.0000015 0.0000380 38

25

0.370

Silvery sheen

0.0000030 0.0000760 76

50

0.730

First trace of color

0.0000060 0.0001500 150

100

1.500

Bright bands of color

0.0000120 0.0003000 300

200

2.900

Colors begin to dull

0.0000400 0.0010000 1000

666

9.700

Colors are much darker 0.0000800 0.0020000 2000

1332

19.500

Oil spill model systems are used by industry and government to assist in planning and emergency decision making. Of critical importance for the skill of the oil spill model prediction is the adequate description of the wind and current fields. There is a worldwide oil spill modeling (WOSM) program. Tracking the scope of an oil spill may also involve verifying that hydrocarbons collected during an ongoing spill are derived from the active spill or some other source. This can involve sophisticated analytical chemistry
17

focused on finger printing an oil source based on the complex mixture of substances present. Largely, these will be various hydrocarbons, among the most useful being polyaromatic hydrocarbons. In addition, both oxygen and nitrogen heterocyclic hydrocarbons, such as parent and alkyl homologues of carbazole, quinoline, and pyridine, are present in many crude oils. As a result, these compounds have great potential to supplement the existing suite of hydrocarbons targets to fine tune source tracking of petroleum spills. Such analysis can also be used to follow weathering and degradation of crude spills.

18

LARGEST OIL SPILLS

The Torrey Canyon Oil Spill
When: March 18, 1967 Where: Scilly Isles, UK Amount spilled: 25-36 million gallons

The Torrey Canyon was one of the first big supertankers, and it was also the source of one of the first major oil spills. Although the ship was originally built to carry 60,000 tons, it was enlarged to a 120,000-ton capacity, and thats the amount the ship was carrying when it hit a reef off the coast of Cornwall.

The spill created an oil slick measuring 270 square miles, contaminating 180 miles of coastland. More than 15,000 sea birds and enormous numbers of aquatic animals were killed before the spill was finally contained.

Toxic solvent-based cleaning agents were used by Royal Navy vessels to try to disperse the oil, but that didn't work very well and instead caused a great deal of environmental damage. It was then decided to set fire to the ocean and burn away the oil by dropping bombs.

The Sea Star Oil Spill

When: Dec. 19, 1972 Where: Gulf of Oman Amount spilled: 35.3 million gallons The South Korean supertanker, Sea Star, collided with a Brazilian tanker, the Horta Barbosa, off the coast of Oman on the morning of Dec. 19, 1972. The vessels caught fire after the collision and the crew abandoned ship. Although the Horta Barbosa was extinguished in a day, the Sea Star sank into the Gulf on Dec. 24 following several explosions.
19

Odyssey Oil Spill

When: Nov. 10, 1988 Where: Off the coast of Nova Scotia, Canada Amount spilled: 40.7 million gallons This large oil spill occurred about 700 nautical miles off the coast of Newfoundland and spilled more than 40 million gallons of oil into the ocean.

M/T Haven Tanker Oil Spill

When: April 11, 1991 Where: Genoa, Italy Amount spilled: 45 million gallons This oil tanker exploded and sank off the coast of Italy, killing six people and leaking its remaining oil into the Mediterranean for 12 years. The source of the explosion was thought to be the ships poor state of repair supposedly the Haven was scrapped after being hit by a missile during the Iran-Iraq War, but was put back into operation.

ABT Summer Oil Spill

When: May 28, 1991 Where: About 700 nautical miles off the coast of Angola Amount spilled: 51-81 million gallons This ship exploded off the coast of Angola, discharging massive amounts of oil into the ocean. Five of the 32 crew members on board died as a result of the incident. A large slick covering an area of 80 square miles spread around the tanker and burned for three days before the ship sank on June 1, 1991. Subsequent efforts to locate the wreckage were unsuccessful.

Amoco Cadiz Oil Spill

20

When: March 16, 1978 Where: Portsall, France Amount spilled: 69 million gallons

The massive Amoco Cadiz was caught in a winter storm that damaged the ships rudder. The ship put out a distress call, but while several ships responded, none were able to prevent the ship from running aground. On March 17, the gigantic supertanker broke in half, sending its 69 million gallons of oil into the English Channel. The French later sunk the ship.

Castillo de Bellver Oil Spill

When: Aug. 6, 1983 Where: Saldanha Bay, South Africa Amount spilled: 79 million gallons

The Castillo de Bellver caught fire about 70 miles north west of Cape Town, and drifted in the open sea until it broke in two 25 miles off the coast. The ships stern sank along with the 31 million gallons of oil it was carrying. The bow section was towed and deliberately sunk later.

Nowruz Oil
Field Spill When: Feb. 10, 1983 Where: Persian Gulf, Iran Amount spilled: 80 million gallons

The oil spill was the result of a tanker collision with an oil platform. The weakened platform was closed, and it collapsed upon impact, spewing oil into the Persian Gulf. The ongoing war between Iran and Iraq prevented the leak from being capped quickly.
21

Kolva River Oil Spill

When: Aug. 6, 1983 Where: Kolva River, Russia Amount spilled: 84 million gallons

A poorly maintained pipeline caused this massive oil spill. The pipeline had been leaking for eight months, but a dike contained the oil until sudden cold weather caused the dike to collapse. Millions of gallons of accumulated oil were released that spread across 170 acres of streams, fragile bogs and marshland.

Atlantic Empress Oil Spill

When: July 19, 1979 Where: Off the coast of Trinidad and Tobago Amount spilled: 90 million gallons

This Greek oil tanker was caught in a tropical storm off the coast of Trinidad and Tobago when it collided with the Aegean Captain. The damaged ship started losing oil and continued to leak it into the ocean while it was towed. The oil tank finally sunk into deep water on Aug. 3, 1979, where the remaining cargo solidified.

Ixtoc 1 Oil Spill

When: June 3, 1979 Where: Bay of Campeche off Ciudad del Carmen, Mexico Amount spilled: 140 million gallons

Like the Gulf oil spill, this spill didn't involve a tanker, but rather an offshore oil well. Pemex, a state-owned Mexican petroleum company was drilling an oil well when a blowout occurred, the oil ignited and the drilling rig to collapse.
22

Oil began gushing out of the well into the Gulf of Mexico at a rate of 10,000 to 30,000 barrels a day for almost an entire year before workers were finally able to cap the well.

Gulf oil spill

When: April 22, 2010 Where: Gulf of Mexico Amount spilled: An estimated 206 million gallons

The Gulf oil spill is officially the largest accidental spill in world history. It began when an oil well a mile below the surface of the Gulf blew out, causing an explosion on BPs Deepwater Horizon rig that killed 11 people. BP made several unsuccessful attempts to plug the well, but oil flowed possibly at a rate as high as 2.5 million gallons a day until the well was capped on July 15, 2010. Oil gushed from the broken well for more than 85 days, oiled 572 miles of Gulf shoreline, and killed hundreds of birds and marine life. The longterm effects of the oil and the 1.82 million gallons of dispersant used on this fragile ecosystem remain unknown, but experts say they could devastate the Gulf coast for years to come.

Arabian Gulf/Kuwait
When: Jan. 19, 1991 Where: Persian Gulf, Kuwait Amount spilled: 380-520 million gallons The worst oil spill in history wasn't an accident it was deliberate. During the Gulf War, Iraqi forces attempted to prevent American soldiers from landing by opening valves at an offshore oil terminal and dumping oil from tankers. The oil resulted in a 4-inch thick oil slick that spread across 4,000 square miles in the Persian Gulf.

23

RECENT OIL SPILLS IN INDIA

Aug 5,2011 The sinking of the Panama-flagged cargo vessel MV RAK off the coast of Mumbai has led to oil spill. MV RAK is a Panama flag registered bulk carrier which sank about 20 nautical miles off Mumbai coast in the Arabian sea. The ship sank with 60,000 metric tonnes of coal 290 tonnes of fuel oil and 50 tonnes of diesel on board which could prove fatal to the environment. Coast Guard officials said the slick on the sea surface is probably just lubricant oil and not the oil from the vessels so far intact fuel tank. Still, they have sent ICGS Kamladevi, a ship with pollution-control equipment, to the site to re place ICGS Samudra Prahari which was deployed on Thurs day, to prevent any environmental tragedy.

IN THE PAST
Jan 21, 2011 | An Oil and Natural Gas Commission pipeline ruptured, causing an oil spill about 80 km from Mumbais coast. Though plugged soon after it began, the ecological damage from the incident affected an area of a mile radius. Aug 7, 2010 | Two merchant vessels, MSC Chitra and MV Khalijia, collided around five nautical miles off Mumbai harbour, causing oil spillage of over 800 metric tonnes. The spill affected mangroves and marine life in areas as far as Colaba, Raigad and Thane.

24

25