ECOLOGY AND ANIMAL BEHAVIOR Relationships Occurring in the Biosphere:
1. Interaction among biotic factors
Importance of the study:
1. To create public awareness of dangers to the environment
caused by human population increase and technological
expansion
2. The science can be a tool to understand and cope with
emerging problems, such as water and air pollution and the
indiscriminate use of herbicides and pesticides
3. To understand how plant, animal, and aquatic life cope with
the ever changing environment
ECOLOGY
* etymology: eco = house / home ; logy = study of
> study of homes and/or house
* coined by Ernst Haeckel, a German zoologist in 1866
* older authors described the subject as the “natural history”
or “bionomics”
> study of the living animals and plants in their natural
environment
* study of the relations between organisms and their
environment
> more specifically, the study of the interaction and
interrelation of organisms in their respective communities
( plant and animal )
2. Chemical Environment
a. Terrestrial
- chemical composition of the soil and water supply
- basic to plants
- far reaching but with indirect effects on the
animal communities
- high importance to aquatic organisms
3. Biological Environment
* biological factors of the environment consists of the
interrelations of organisms in communities
* many organisms are complexly associated with nature
Biological….
* there is a reciprocal relationship between the biological
community and the inorganic environment
ex. type of forest depend on soil type
> soil type is the product of forest temperature, humidity,
and light conditions within are the results of vegetation
>> forest climate determines the type of community that
will inhabit the forest
4. Limiting Factors
- in the form of: environmental temperatures,
water salinity, availability of food
Biotic Factors
- etymology: bios = life
- includes: organisms within the environment
food supply
Abiotic Factors
- etymology: a = without ; bios = life
- includes physical conditions such as: temperature
Weather, altitude, availability, water and light
A. Competition for food resources
* animals depending on plant life for food are found
where plants are growing. ex. deer, gazelle, impala
* animals eating plant-eating animals are found near the
plants. ex. lions, tigers
* lions and tigers competing with other animals like
hyenas and vulture when feeding
Predation - type of interaction in which one animal hunts or
seizes another animal eats it for its food
Predator - animal that’s hunt, seize, and eat other animals for
food
Prey - animal that is hunted, seized, and eaten by the predator
Food Chain - the transfer of energy from the deer then to the
tigers
- chief source of energy of the food chain: SUN
B. Competition among male and female animals for a
mate
C. Close association relationship among organisms
ex. lichen = alga and fungus
> form of controlled parasitism
>> alga eventually dies
D. Interaction among organisms
- to increase their chances of survival
- perpetuate and preserve the species
ex. hookworm (parasite) looking for an animal
(host) to survive
2. Interaction among Physical factors
A. Temporary changes
ex. clouds covering the earth
> reduce amount of sunlight to earth
B. Permanent changes
ex. floods, earthquake, volcano eruption
> may alter the shape of a river or lake
> may change sedimentation rate
> may alter the landscape
3. Interaction between Biotic and Abiotic (Physical) factors
* life depends on Resources
Limiting factor - when the demand for a particular
resource is greater than its availability
> may limit the number of organisms that can live in a
particular place ex. a. lack of water - plants die ;
animals either leave or die
b. oxygen - fishes need oxygen
> physical factors like tides, currents, location of
continents, wind strength, water temperature can
create areas of low oxygen
>> fishes leave the area or die
Carbon - Oxygen Cycle
* involved in two basic life processes:
a. Respiration ( plant and animal)
b. Photosynthesis (only green plants)
* cellular respiration > glucose is oxidized
>> CO2 is released
* photosynthesis
> green plants use H2O, CO2, and sun’s energy
>> creates O2, glucose and water
Sources of CO2:
a. Organism’s death - eventual microbial breakdown of
its organic compounds
b. Fossil fuel burning - carbon compounds of ancient
plants and animals are stored in
the form of coal and petroleum
> burning
>> CO2 is released into the air and atmosphere
* lakes, rivers, streams, oceans, and plants act as water
reservoirs
Evaporation - the sun’s energy causes water to move into the
atmosphere
Precipitation - water moving down from the atmosphere to
earth
BIOMES
* areas of the biosphere that can be identified by a dominant
animal and plant species; with no sharp boundaries
> gradual merging
Biomes
* defined as "the world's major communities, classified
according to the predominant vegetation and characterized
by adaptations of organisms to that particular
environment" (Campbell 1996)

Carbon cycle: * the importance of biomes cannot be overestimated.

CO2 in the air > Biomes have changed and moved many times during the
> glucose history of life on Earth.
>> CO2
* more recently, human activities have drastically altered these
Nitrogen Cycle: communities
* atmosphere is 78% Nitrogen by volume > thus, conservation and preservation of biomes should be a
* often a limiting factor in plant growth major concern to all
> plants cannot change Nitrogen to elements need for its
manufacture of structural proteins and enzymes * increasing human activity has rapidly destroyed or polluted
>> has to be in NITRATE form for the plants to many ecological habitats throughout the world.
absorb and use > it is important to preserve all types of biomes as each
houses many unique forms of life
Natural sources of nitrates:
A. Nitrogen fixing ( Fixation ) ex. Azolla, Rhizobium , However, the continued heavy exploitation of certain biomes,
blue green algae such as the forest, freshwater, and marine, may have more severe
B. Atmospheric reaction during thunderstorms implications
ex. lightning causes nitrate ion formation from
atmospheric nitrogen Types of Biome:
C. Erosion of Nitrate - rich rocks 1. Terrestrial - most varied
> materials flow downstream to rivers and banks 2. Freshwater
D. Nitrification > protein from dead organisms 3. Marine - contains more dissolved salts than the
E. Denitrification (soil to atmosphere ) freshwater biomes
ex. plowing
> anaerobic bacteria (abundant in tightly packed Terrestrial Biome
waterlogged soil) causes release of free nitrogen from * contains the climax vegetation ( group of plants dominating
the soil a terrestrial biome)
* well drained cultivated fields = no problem with * climate (amount of rainfall, land configuration,
denitrification temperature, sunlight etc)
F. Carnivorous plants using animal proteins as a > determines/ influences the type of vegetation or
nitrogen source animals living in the area
ex. Venus flytrap, Butterwort, Sundew
* specific terrestrial biomes:
Water Cycle Tundra
* essential to life ex. chemical reactions in body Coniferous Forests
* cells made up of water mainly ; recyclable Deciduous Forests
* transport medium of minerals to other parts of organisms Rain Forests
* many organisms live in a water environment Grasslands
* plants - absorb water from roots Deserts
> transpiration process
>> water vapor emission from its leaves Tundra
* animals - drink water > give off when exhaling * the coldest of all the biomes ; dry climate
* Tundra comes from the Finnish word tunturi, meaning
treeless plain
* large area encircling the Arctic Ocean
* Southern Hemisphere (Alpine tundra) landmass is small as
compared to the Northern Hemisphere (Arctic tundra)
Permafrost – ground is permanently frozen about a meter
from the surface
* continuous summer light > surface thaws
>> bogs, streams, ponds are formed
Characteristics of a Tundra
1. Extremely cold climate
> fierce winds blow while snow and ice cover the ground.
Even the sea freezes as the temperature gets colder
> average yearly temperature is only 10 to 20 degrees F
> sometimes the strong winds create "white outs" when
the snow blows so much that it is hard to see! White
outs last for days.
> noted for its frost-molded landscapes
2. Low biotic diversity
> animals - with white coats for protection and stealth
ex. Polar bears, caribou, arctic hares, arctic foxes, and
insects laying freeze resistant eggs
> mammals and birds also have additional insulation from
fat
> The fauna in the arctic is also diverse:
Herbivorous mammals: lemmings, voles, caribou,
arctic hares and squirrels
Carnivorous mammals: arctic foxes, wolves, and
polar bears
Migratory birds: ravens, snow buntings, falcons,
loons, ravens, sandpipers, terns, snow birds, and
various species of gulls
Insects: mosquitoes, flies, moths, grasshoppers,
blackflies and arctic bumble bees
Fish: cod, flatfish, salmon, and trout
3. Simple vegetation structure
> main vegetation: moss, lichen, grasses, small woody
plants
> All of the plants are adapted to sweeping winds and
disturbances of the soil
> plants are short and group together to resist the cold
temperatures and are protected by the snow during the
winter
> the only tree that grows in the tundra is the dwarf
willow tree. It grows to a maximum of four inches tall.
> they can carry out photosynthesis at low temperatures
and low light intensities
4. Limitation of drainage
> The tundra receives less than 10 inches of precipitation
yearly
5. Short season of growth and reproduction
> short summer that lasts from May to July.
> during summer, the temperature only rises to about 50
degrees F
> most plants reproduce by budding and division rather
than sexually by flowering
* In the summer months, the sun shines all the
time, even at midnight.
6. Energy and nutrients in the form of dead organic
material
> The two major nutrients are nitrogen and phosphorus
Nitrogen is created by biological fixation
Phosphorus is created by precipitation
7. Large population oscillations
> Animals are adapted to handle long, cold winters and to
breed and raise young quickly in the summer.
> many animals hibernate during the winter because food is
not abundant.
> another alternative is to migrate south in the winter, like
birds do.
> reptiles and amphibians are few or absent because of the
extremely cold temperatures.
* Every ten or thirteen years, the small mammals in
the tundra breed in large numbers
> the larger animals also grow in number because of the
increase in their food supply
>> soon the small mammals run out of plants to eat and
many die
>>> the larger animals begin to die and then
the plants can grow back
* Because of constant immigration and emigration, the
population continually oscillates.
Animal adaptation
* a large variety of animals live in the tundra for the whole year.
* they have special adaptations that allow them to survive in the
winter weather.
> some of these include: short legs; long hair; and a coat of
thick fur short tails and large, furry feet. many animals
have white fur which camoflauges them against the
snow
FOREST BIOME
* about 420 million years ago, during the Silurian Period,
ancient plants and arthropods began to occupy the land
* over the millions of years that followed, these land colonizers
developed and adapted to their new habitat
* the first forests were dominated by giant horsetails, club
mosses, and ferns that stood up to 40 feet tall
* life on Earth continued to evolve, and in the late Paleozoic,
gymnosperms appeared
* Triassic Period (245-208 mya), gymnosperms dominated the
Earth's forests
* Cretaceous Period (144-65m mya), the first flowering plants
(angiosperms) appeared
> evolved together with insects, birds, and mammals and
radiated rapidly, dominating the landscape by the end
of the Period
* The landscape changed again during the Pleistocene Ice Ages
> the surface of the planet that had been dominated by
tropical forests for millions of years changed
>> temperate forests spread in the Northern Hemisphere
*** forests are becoming major casualties of civilization as
human populations have increased over the past several
thousand years
> bringing deforestation, pollution, and industrial usage
problems to
this important biome
* present-day forest biomes, biological communities that are
dominated by trees and other woody vegetation (Spurr and
Barnes 1980) can be classified according to numerous
characteristics
> with seasonality being the most widely used
* there are three major types of forests, classed according to
latitude:
1. Tropical
2. Temperate
3. Boreal forests (Taiga)
BOREAL FOREST (TAIGA)
* represent the largest terrestrial biome in the world
* forest is covered with coniferous trees
> sometimes the taiga is called a coniferous forest
* occurring between 50 and 60 degrees north latitudes, boreal
forests can be found in the broad belt of Eurasia and North
America: 2/3 in Siberia with the rest in Scandinavia, Alaska, and
Canada
* seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm
and rainy and long, cold, and dry winters
* the length of the growing season in a boreal forests is 130 days
* temperatures are very low - 65 degrees BELOW zero
* precipitation is primarily in the form of snow, 40-100 cm
annually
* 12-33 inches of rain in one year
* soil is thin, nutrient-poor, and acidic
CONIFEROUS FOREST (aka Boreal Forest / Taiga)
* South of the Tundra in Europe, Asia, and North America
* consists of evergreens or cone-bearing trees e.g. pines, firs,
spruces, cedars
* animals: moose, black bear, martens, wolverines, lynxes,
beavers, porcupines, bobcat, fox, birds and insects (summer) and
wolf
> eats chipmunks, squirrels, rabbits, and mice
* animals adapted to long cold winters
Characteristics of Boreal Forest (Taiga)
* seasons are divided into short, moist, and moderately warm
summers and long, cold, and dry winters
* the length of the growing season in boreal forests is 130 days
* temperatures are very low
* precipitation is primarily in the form of snow, 40-100 cm
annually
* soil is thin, nutrient-poor, and acidic
* canopy permits low light penetration, and as a result,
understory is limited
Flora: consist mostly of cold-tolerant evergreen conifers with
needle-like leaves, such as pine, fir, and spruce
* conifer trees are often called evergreens
- trees having long, waxy needles instead of wide, flat
leaves like hardwood trees
> evergreens do not loose their needles come
wintertime
>> needles stay on all year long
Fauna: woodpeckers, hawks, moose, bear, weasel, lynx, fox,
wolf, deer, hares, chipmunks, shrews, and bats
Note: current extensive logging in boreal forests may soon
cause their disappearance
BOREAL FOREST (TAIGA)
* Canopy permits low light penetration, and as a result,
understory is limited
* animals who live in the taiga must be ready for some cold
weather in the winter and some really warm weather in the
summertime
* during the summer, the taiga fills up with hundreds of insects.
Birds come from all over the world hungry and ready to eat all
the insects.
Animals in a Taiga
Moose - a large animal with huge antlers. It lives in areas near
lakes and streams
Bald Eagle - has a head covered in white feathers which makes
it look bald
- an endangered species
- this huge bird likes to eat fish
- has powerful wings and great eye sight to help it
find it's food
Weasel - a small animal that runs along the forest floor. It is
small enough to get into the tunnels that mice and voles
have created and then catches them to eat
Fox - has a red coat and a bushy tail. It is a very good hunter. It
eats anything from rodents, rabbits to fruits and
sometimes garbage.
RAIN FOREST (TROPICAL RAIN FOREST)
* found on or near the equator all around the earth
* abundant water supply and a long growing season
* high rate of productivity: abundant resources
favorable physical factors
ex. warm temperature speeds up growth
Jungle - area of very dense ground growth along the riverbanks,
or in land once cleared by man or by some natural event like
flood or fire
- immature rain forest
* equator is an imaginary belt which circles the earth and
divides it into two halves
> near the equator, the sun shines directly on the earth
Tropics - areas directly above and below the equator
- always warm and humid, much like summertime
* most tropical rain forests are located on the continents of
Central and South America, Africa, Asia and Australia.
* the largest tropical rain forest in the world is the Amazon
Rain Forest in South America
- The world's largest river, the Amazon, flows through it
> much of this rain forest is in the country of Brazil

* many different types of rain forests
- can grow on mountains, seacoasts, plains, or in river
valleys
Characteristics of a Tropical forest
* the greatest diversity of species - billions of species
* occur near the equator, within the area bounded by latitudes
23.5 degrees N and 23.5 degrees S
* the major characteristics of tropical forests is their distinct
seasonality
- winter is absent
- only two seasons are present (rainy and dry)
> the wettest place on earth. It rains every day.
>> In one year it may rain about 100 to 400 inches or
9 to 30 feet of rain may fall each year.
- length of daylight is 12 hours with little variations
- seasons do not change in the tropical rain forest. It has
been hot and wet for millions of years
* temperature is on average 20-25° C / 80 F
> the average temperatures of the three warmest and three
coldest months do not differ by more than 5 degrees
* precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year, with
annual rainfall exceeding 2000 mm
* soil is nutrient-poor and acidic
> decomposition is rapid and soils are subject to heavy
leaching
* canopy in tropical forests is multilayered and continuous,
allowing little light penetration
The Layers of the Rainforest
The rain forest is divided into four main layers. Different
kinds of trees, flowers, and other plants grow in each layer.
1. Emergent Layer - the Top Layer
- these huge trees rise above all other trees in the forest and
grow to 150 ft. tall
- receive the most sunlight
2. Canopy (Cover) - the Next Layer
- the treetops, or crowns, grow very close together and form a
lush green garden in the air
- rich with plants, animals and insects
> many beautiful birds, butterflies, hummingbirds, and
flowering plants live here
> monkeys, bats, reptiles, and other animals swing,
swoop, and climb through the canopy
3. Understory - the Middle Layer
- smaller trees, bushes, and plants such as ferns, live in the
understory
- not much sunlight reaches here, because the canopy blocks
the sun
- many birds and animals make their home in the understory
> forest wildcats, such as the leopard, are excellent tree
climbers
>>l chase monkeys and squirrels through the
understory for food
4. Forest Floor - The Bottom Layer
- few plants grow on the forest floor because almost
no sunlight reaches here
- leaves and plants which drop from the upper layers provide
food and shelter for animals and insects who live on the forest
floor
- mice, frogs, snakes and insects look for food here
- larger animals, such as wild boar and deer, also make the
forest floor their home
Further subdivisions of this group are determined by
seasonal distribution of rainfall:
1. Evergreen rainforest - no dry season
2. Seasonal rainforest
- short dry period in a very wet tropical region
> exhibits definite seasonal changes as trees undergo
developmental changes simultaneously, but the
general character of vegetation remains the same as
in evergreen rainforests
3. Semi-evergreen forest
- longer dry season
> the upper tree story consists of deciduous trees, while
the lower story is still evergreen
4. Moist/dry deciduous forest (monsoon)
- length of the dry season increases further as rainfall
decreases
>> all trees are deciduous
Note: More than one half of tropical forests have already been
destroyed
* Flora is highly diverse:
- one square kilometer may contain as many as 100 different
tree species.
- trees are 25-35 meter tall, with buttressed trunks and
shallow roots, mostly evergreen, with large dark green leaves
examples of plants: orchids, bromeliads, vines (lianas),
ferns, mosses, and palms
* Fauna includes: numerous birds, bats, small mammals, and
insects
> animals and insects live in all the layers of the rainforest
> some prefer the emergent layer, some the canopy,
understory, or the forest floor
* the heat and moisture in the rainforest cause plants and
animals
to rot quickly once they have died (called decay)
> when things decay, all the rich nutrients are recycled back
into the soil to feed the roots of other plants
* Rain forests even recycle their rain!
> as water evaporates from the forest back into the air, it
forms clouds above the canopy
>> the clouds will rain once again over the forest
Scientists think destroying rainforests makes our earth warmer.
This is called the Greenhouse Effect
> without rainforests, we will have less rain.
 >> harm the trees and plants that help to keep the air we * Flora: characterized by 3-4 tree species per square
breathe clean kilometer
>>> our earth could become very dry and > trees are distinguished by broad leaves that are
barren, like a desert lost annually
ex. oak, hickory, beech, hemlock, maple,
MAMMALS basswood, cottonwood, elm, willow, and
Bats spring-flowering herbs
Chimpanzee
Jaguar * Fauna: represented by squirrels, rabbits, skunks, birds,
Lemur deer, mountain lion, bobcat, timber wolf, fox, and
Leopard black bear
Mice
Opossum * soil can range from sandy and fine-textured to loose rock
Sloth fragments, gravel or sand
Squirrel * has a fairly low salt concentration, compared to deserts
which receive a lot of rain (acquiring higher salt concentrations
REPTILES as a result)
Lizard * in areas such as mountain slopes, the soil is shallow, rocky or
Snake gravely with good drainage
Turtle * in the upper bajada (lower slopes), they are coarse-textured,
rocky, well- drained and partly "laid by rock bench"
AMPHIBIANS * in the lower bajada (bottom land), the soil is sandy and fine-
Frog textured, often with "caliche hardpan"
Salamander >> in each case, there is no subsurface water
* the spiny nature of many plants in semiarid deserts provides
BIRDS protection in a hazardous environment
Bird of Paradise - large numbers of spines shade the surface enough to
Cockatoo significantly reduce transpiration
Eagle - the same may be true of the hairs on the woolly desert
Hummingbird plants
Macaw * many plants have silvery or glossy leaves, allowing them to
Parrot reflect more radiant energy
Peacock > often have an unfavorable odor or taste
Toucan * Semiarid plants include: Creosote bush, bur sage (Franseria
dumosa or F. deltoidea), white thorn, cat claw, mesquite, brittle
INSECTS bushes (Encelia farinosa), lyciums, and jujube
Ant * during the day, insects move around twigs to stay on the shady
Beetle side
Butterfly * jack rabbits follow the moving shadow of a cactus or shrub
Snail * naturally, many animals find protection in underground
Spider burrows where they are insulated from both heat and aridity
Termite ex. animals: mammals such as the kangaroo rats, rabbits, and
skunks
Temperate Forest / Deciduous Forest insects : grasshoppers and ants
* occur in eastern North America, Northeastern Asia, and reptiles: lizards and snakes
Western and Central Europe birds: burrowing owls and the California thrasher
* Distinctions/ Characteristics:
> well -defined seasons with a distinct winter Coastal desert
> moderate climate * occur in moderately cool to warm areas such as the Neararctic
> a growing season of 140-200 days during 4-6 frost- and Neotropical realm
free months ex. Atacama of Chile
> temperature varies from -30° C to 30° C. * cool winters of coastal deserts are followed by moderately
> precipitation (75-150 cm) is distributed evenly long, warm summers
throughout the year > average summer temperature ranges from 13-24° C
> soil is fertile, enriched with decaying litter * winter temperatures are 5° C or below
> canopy is moderately dense and allows light to * maximum annual temperature is about 35° C and the
penetrate minimum is about -4° C
>> resulting in well-developed and richly > in Chile, the temperature ranges from -2 to 5° C in July
diversified understory vegetation and and 21-25° C in January
stratification of animals * average rainfall measures 8-13 cm in many areas
* maximum annual precipitation over a long period of years has
been 37 cm with a minimum of 5 cm

Cold desert
Lichen growing on Torgerson Island, Antarctica; kangaroo
rat
* characterized by cold winters with snowfall and high overall
rainfall throughout the winter and occasionally over the summer
* occur in the Antarctic, Greenland and the Nearctic realm
* have short, moist, and moderately warm summers with fairly
long, cold winters
* mean winter temperature is between -2 to 4° C and the mean
summer temperature is between 21-26° C
* winters receive quite a bit of snow
* mean annual precipitation ranges from 15-26 cm
- annual precipitation has reached a maximum of 46 cm and a
minimum of 9 cm
* heaviest rainfall of the spring is usually in April or May
> in some areas, rainfall can be heavy in autumn
* soil is heavy, silty, and salty
> contains alluvial fans where soil is relatively porous and
drainage is good so that most of the salt has been leached
out
* plants are widely scattered
- areas of shadscale, about 10 percent of the ground is
covered, but in some areas of sagebush it approaches 85
percent
* plant heights vary between 15 cm and 122 cm
* main plants are deciduous, most having spiny leaves
* widely distributed animals are jack rabbits, kangaroo rats,
kangaroo mice, pocket mice, grasshopper mice, and antelope
ground squirrels
- areas like Utah, population density of these animals can
range from 14- 41 individuals per hectare
- All except the jack rabbits are burrowers
> burrowing habit also applies to carnivores like the
badger, kit fox, and coyote. Several lizards do some
burrowing and moving of soil.
- Deer are found only in the winter.
The desert jack rabbit eats plants, such as the cactus. It is very
careful to avoid the prickly spines! Its ears pick up any sound of
danger. They also help keep the rabbit cool because heat can
escape through the tiny blood vessels that are found there.
Camels are the most well known desert animals. They are
sometimes called "the ship of the desert" because they can
cross the desert better than any other animal. Camels have bushy
eyebrows and two rows of eyelashes to keep the sand out of their
eyes. Their nostrils can also be closed. The humps on camels'
backs do not hold water as commonly believed. Instead they
store fat reserves that can be broken down into food when
crossing the desert. The hump will shrink if a camel is starving.
GRASSLANDS
* average rainfall is about 125-75 cms (10-30 in) per year
> not enough water fro trees but sufficient for grasses
* natural pastures for grazing animals
* natural grasses hold the soil through their spreading
roots
> grasses die and decompose
> accumulates organic materials
>> produces the rich soil for the grain growing regions
of the world
>>> support the world’s food supply
* USA - Great Plains or Tall Grass Prairies
ex. Bison, burrowing mammals
* Africa - Serengeti Plain (Tropical Grasslands of Africa )
ex. Zebra. Ostrich, lions
* considered as the transitional biome
- grasslands are usually found between the desert and the
forest
> would become a forest if grasslands received more rain
> if it received any less rain, it would be a desert
* large areas with rolling hills of grasses and wildflowers
* found on every continent but Antarctica
* grasslands are also called prairies, savannahs, or steppes
* roots of the grasses and small plants make the soil rich and
great for farming and animal grazing
* extremely hot during the summer months and very cold during
the winter months
* grasslands receive anywhere from 10-30 inches of rain per
year
Types of Grasslands
1. Tall grasslands - have very tall grass, up to 5 feet tall
- almost 30 inches of rain a year
2. Mixed grasslands - have grasses that grow around 2-3 feet
high
- about 15-25 inches of rain in a year
3. Short grasslands - almost a desert
- has very short grass
- receives 10 inches of rain each year
Note: True prairies and grasslands are becoming harder and
harder to find. People are taming the wild lands, and the
grasslands are becoming as extinct as the animals that are
missing from them today.
In Africa, national parks are being set up to preserve the
grasslands. The United States is starting to preserve the wild
grasslands. It is even replanting grass where it has been cleared
for farming.
Savannah - a grassland with scattered trees
- Americas = grazed by cattle ; Bisons (before)
- Australia = cattle, sheep, kangaroo, small rodents
- Africa = African elephant, lions, zebras, giraffe, lions,
tigers, black rhinoceros, cheetahs, and insects
FRESHWATER AND MARINE BIOMES
* Freshwater and marine biomes are probably the most
important of all the biomes
* medium – water
- a major natural resource
- the basis of life
- supports life, growth, and reproduction
- countless species live in it for all or part of their lives
* Freshwater biomes supply us: our drinking water
water for crop irrigation
* the world's oceans have an even greater effect on global
climate than forests do
> water has a high capacity for heat
> because the Earth is mostly covered with water
> temperature of the atmosphere is kept fairly constant
and able to support life (climate-buffering capacity)
* oceans contain several billion photosynthetic plankton which
account for most of the photosynthesis occurring on Earth
> without these, there might not be enough oxygen to
support such a large world population and complex animal
life.
* includes lakes, rivers, streams, ponds, inland swamps, springs,
and rivers
* planktons in the still waters of lakes ands ponds do not survive
the running waters of streams and rivers
* Biotic and abiotic factors:
1. strength of current and type of bottom
2. differences in water temperature
Freshwater biome
A lake at Acadia National Park, Maine.
* Freshwater - defined as having a low salt concentration
> usually less than 1%
* plants and animals in freshwater regions are adjusted to the
low salt content and would not be able to survive in areas of high
salt concentration (i.e., ocean)
* Different types of freshwater regions:
1. Ponds
2. Lakes
3. Streams
4. Rivers
5. Wetlands
Ponds and lakes
* range in size from just a few square meters to thousands of
square kilometers
> a pond is a body of water smaller than a lake
* scattered throughout the earth, several are remnants from the
Pleistocene glaciation
* many ponds are seasonal, lasting just a couple of months
(such as sessile pools)
* lakes may exist for hundreds of years or more
* ponds and lakes may have limited species diversity since they
are often isolated from one another and from other water sources
like rivers and oceans
* lakes and ponds are divided into three different “zones”
which are usually determined by depth and distance from the
shoreline
1. Littoral zone
2. Limnetic zone
3.Profundal zone
Littoral zone
* the topmost zone near the shore of a lake or pond
* warmest zone - shallow and can absorb more of the
Sun's heat
* sustains a fairly diverse community:
several species of algae (like diatoms rooted and
floating aquatic plant grazing snails, clams, insects,
crustaceans, fishes, and amphibians
* insects ( dragonflies and midges)
> only the egg and larvae stages are found
* vegetation and animals living in the littoral zone are food
for other creatures such as turtles, snakes, and ducks
Limnetic Zone
* near- surface open water surrounded by the littoral zone
* well-lighted (like the littoral zone) and is dominated by
plankton, both phytoplankton and zooplankton
Planktons - small organisms that play a crucial role in the
food chain
- without aquatic plankton, there would be few
living organisms in the world, and certainly
no humans
- a variety of freshwater fish also occupy this
zone
> plankton have short life spans
> when they die
> they fall into the deep-water part of the
lake/pond, the profundal zone
Profundal Zone
* zone is much colder and denser than the Littoral and
Limnetic Zones
* little light penetrates all the way through the Limnetic zone
into the Profundal zone
* fauna are heterotrophs
> they eat dead organisms and use oxygen for cellular
respiration
* temperature varies in ponds and lakes seasonally
- summer: the temperature can range from 4° C near the
bottom to 22° C at the top
- winter: temperature at the bottom can be 4° C while the
top is 0° C (ice)
* in between the two layers, there is a narrow zone called the
thermocline where the temperature of the water changes rapidly
during the spring and fall seasons
> there is a mixing of the top and bottom layers, usually due
to winds, which results in a uniform water temperature of
around 4° C
> mixing also circulates oxygen throughout the lake
* many lakes and ponds that do not freeze during the winter
> top layer would be a little warmer.
Streams
* a.k.a. brook, beck, burn, creek, crick, kill, lick, rill, river,
syke, bayou, rivulet, or run
* bodies of flowing water moving in one direction
* streams and rivers can be found everywhere
* get their starts at headwaters, which may be springs,
snowmelt or even lakes
> travel all the way to their mouths
> usually another water channel or the ocean
* characteristics of a river or stream change during the journey
from the source to the mouth
Source: cooler temperature
clearer water
higher oxygen levels
freshwater fish such as trout and heterotrophs can
be found

Middle: the width increases, as does species diversity
> numerous aquatic green plants and algae can be
found
Mouth: water becomes murky from all the sediments that it has
picked up upstream
> decreasing the amount of light that can penetrate
through the water
> since there is less light
> less flora diversity
> because of the lower oxygen levels, fish that require
less oxygen, such as catfish and carp, can be found
Wetlands
* area of land consisting of soil that is saturated with moisture
ex. swamp, marsh, bog
* in terms of physical geography, an environment "at the
interface between truly terrestrial ecosystems and aquatic
systems making them inherently different from each other yet
highly dependent on both“
> essentially, wetlands are ecotones
* often host considerable biodiversity (highest) and
endemism
* areas of standing water that support aquatic plants
* plant species adapted to the very moist and humid conditions
are called hydrophytes
ex. pond lilies, cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce
* marsh flora: cypress and gum
* fauna: amphibians, reptiles, birds (such as ducks and waders),
and furbearers
* not considered freshwater ecosystems, such as salt marshes
> have high salt concentrations
> support different species of animals, such as shrimp,
shellfish, and various grasses
* freshwater biomes have suffered mainly from pollution
> runoff containing fertilizer and other wastes and
industrial dumpings enter into rivers, ponds, and lakes
> tend to promote abnormally rapid algae growth
> when these algae die, dead organic matter accumulates in
the water
> makes the water unusable and kills many of the
organisms living in the habitat
Note: stricter laws have helped to slow down this thoughtless
pollution
* overfishing and pollution have threatened to make oceans into
ecological disaster areas!
* educating people about the consequences of our actions, we
can all gain a better understanding of how to preserve the Earth's
natural biomes
Note: The areas that have been destroyed the most will never
regain their original forms,but conservation will help to keep
them from getting worse!
Marine biome
* marine regions cover about three-fourths of the Earth's
surface
* include oceans, coral reefs, and estuaries
* marine algae: supply much of the world's oxygen supply
take in a huge amount of atmospheric carbon
dioxide
* evaporation of the seawater provides rainwater for the land
OCEANS
* largest of all the ecosystems
* very large bodies of water that dominate the Earth's
surface
* average temperature of all oceans is about 39 degrees F (3.8
degrees C)
* the oceans in different parts of the world can have very
different climates:
ex. Tropical oceans
- oceans near the equator, are warm and clear on the
surface
Equator - is an imaginary belt which circles the earth and
divides it into two halves
- areas of land and water which are near this belt are
called the tropics, and are always warm.
cold polar regions - the ocean is so cold that its' surface is
frozen
> huge blocks of ice called ICEBERGS drift in these seas
* the sun's heat warms only the surface of the water
> deep down, oceans everywhere are cold, dark, and still
* over 70 percent of the earth's surface is covered by water
* average depth is 3.7 kms (2.2 miles) ; deepest - 11.5 kms (6.9
miles)
* like ponds and lakes, the ocean regions are separated into
separate zones:
1. Intertidal zone
2. Ocean water - Pelagic zone
3. Ocean bottom/floor - Benthic zone
a. Littoral zone
b. Deep sea zone
4. Abyssal
* all four zones have a great diversity of species
> some say that the ocean contains the richest diversity of
species even though it contains fewer species than there
are on land
* average depth of all oceans is about 2.3 miles
* there are mountains, volcanoes, and deep trenches in the
ocean
* oceans are always moving
* currents flow like rivers, carrying warm water from the
tropics, and cold water from the north and south poles
* tides change twice a day, all over the world, as the oceans rise
and fall along the shoreline
> scientists think this is caused by the pull of the sun and
moon on our earth
* four main oceans: the PACIFIC, ATLANTIC, INDIAN, and
ARCTIC
PACIFIC Ocean - largest of the four main oceans
- name means peaceful, if can be very
rough
- It is 64 million square miles
ATLANTIC Ocean - the busiest
> many ships cross the Atlantic, carrying cargo between
the Americas, Africa, and Europe
- It is 32 million square miles
INDIAN Ocean - located in an area bordered by the continents
of Asia, Arica, Antarctica, and Australia
- it is 28 million square miles
ARCTIC Ocean - smallest and coldest
- it is 5 million square miles
Intertidal Zone (Foreshore)
* shore area alternately uncovered and covered by water
* zone where the ocean meets the land
> submerged or exposed, as waves and tides come in and out
> because of this, the communities are constantly changing
* on rocky coasts, the zone is stratified vertically
> where only the highest tides reach, there are only a few
species of algae and mollusks
* in those areas usually submerged during high tide
> more diverse array of algae and small animals, such as
herbivorous snails, crabs, sea stars, and small fishes
* at the bottom of the intertidal zone, which is only exposed
during the lowest tides
> many invertebrates, fishes, and seaweed can be found
* the intertidal zone on sandier shores is not as stratified as in
the rocky areas
> waves keep mud and sand constantly moving
>> very few algae and plants can establish themselves
* fauna: worms, clams, predatory crustaceans, crabs, and
shorebirds
Pelagic zone (Ocean water)
* pelagic comes from the Greek word pélagos, which means
open sea
* includes those waters further from the land, basically the open
ocean
* any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom
* generally cold (hard to find average temperature range)
> just like ponds and lakes, there is thermal stratification
with a constant mixing of warm and cold ocean currents
* Flora: surface seaweeds
* Fauna: many species of fish and some mammals, such as
whales and dolphins
> feed on the abundant plankton
* Flora: primarily by seaweed
* Fauna: since it is very nutrient-rich
> include all sorts of bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea
anemones, worms, sea stars, and fishes
* most important abiotic factor: depth of sunlight penetration
e.g. 180 meters ( 595 feet) – reaching the pelagic zone
> lighted area is the most productive area = abundant
nutrients
Plankton - basic food in the Pelagic Zone
- includes diatoms, dinoflagellates, unicellular
algae**, protozoans, and larval forms of animals
- many copepods*, small shrimp, jellyfish and
worms
> copepods feed on microscopic algae
>> copepods are eaten by small shrimps ( krill )
>>> krill is the major food of the whale
*** unicellular algae = most important food producer in the
ocean
Benthic zone (Ocean bottom /floor)
* area below the pelagic zone although it does not include the
very deepest parts of the ocean (see abyssal zone below)
* bottom of the zone consists of sand, silt, and/or dead
organisms
* temperature decreases as depth increases toward the abyssal
zone
> since light cannot penetrate through the deeper water
* Flora: primarily by seaweed
* Fauna: since it is very nutrient-rich
> include all sorts of bacteria, fungi, sponges, sea
anemones, worms, sea stars, and fishes
Benthos - the organisms which live in the benthic zone, and are
different from those elsewhere in the water column
- many are adapted to live on the substrate (bottom)
- most organisms in the benthic zone are scavengers or
detritivores
Abyssal zone
* the deep ocean
* water in this region: very cold (around 3°C)
highly pressured
high in oxygen content
low in nutritional content
* supports many species of invertebrates and fishes
* mid-ocean ridges (spreading zones between tectonic plates),
often with
hydrothermal vents, are found in the abyssal zones along the
ocean floors
> chemosynthetic bacteria thrive near these vents because of
the large amounts of hydrogen sulfide and other minerals
they emit
>> these bacteria are thus the start of the food web as
they are eaten by invertebrates and fishes
Oceans
* animals below the light penetrating region get their food from:
a. sinking plankton
b. dead animals
c. swimming animals passing between the two levels
*deep sea bottom feeders : falling food from above
bacteria present in the ooze of the ocean bottom
> break up dead organisms in the bottom
* mineral exchanges in the ocean occur due to currents and
upwellings
> changes in water temperature
>> cause deeper waters to rise to the surface periodically
Upwellings > bring colder waters to the surface
> bring minerals and essential substances to
the surface
>> marine life are attracted to area
due to food abundance
 >>> sustainable fishing areas
Depth and layers
* Depending on how deep the sea is, there can be up to five
vertical layers in the ocean
1. Epipelagic (sunlit)
- From the surface down to around 200 meters (656 ft)
- the illuminated surface zone where there is enough
light for photosynthesis
> plants and animals are largely concentrated in this
zone
- nearly all primary production in the ocean occurs here
- this layer is the domain of fish such as tuna, many
sharks, dolphin fish, and jellyfish
2. Mesopelagic (twilight)
- 200 meters down to around 1,000 meters (3,280 ft)
- some light penetrates but is insufficient for
photosynthesis
- at about 500 meters, the water becomes depleted of
oxygen
> animals with more efficient gills or minimal
movement survive
- Fauna: swordfish, squids, wolf fish, a few species of
cuttlefish, and other semi-deep-sea creatures live here
Bathypelagic (dark)
- from Greek bathýs, meaning deep
- from 1,000 meters down to around 4,000 meters (13,123 ft)
- by this depth, the ocean is almost entirely dark (with only
the occasional thermoluminescence organism, such as the
lanternfish
- there are no living plants, and most animals survive by
consuming the snow of detritus falling from the zones above or
(like the marine hatchetfish) by preying upon others
- giant squid, as well as smaller squids and Dumbo octopuses
live at this depth
> hunted by deep-diving sperm whales
Abyssopelagic
- from the Greek ábyssos, abyss, meaning bottomless
- From 4,000 meters down to above the ocean floor
- no light whatsoever penetrates to this depth
Hadopelagic
- the deep water in ocean trenches
> waters below 6,000 m (19,685 ft), whether in a trench
or not.
- derived from the Greek (Haidēs), Hades, the classical Greek
underworld
- zone is mostly unknown
- very few species are known to live here (in the open areas
> many organisms live in hydrothermal ventsin this and
other zones
- some define the hadopelagic and other zones very similar in
character, or marine biologists combine them into a single zone
or consider the latter two to be the same.
Coral reefs
* vast, rocky areas located in warm, shallow, tropical waters
> the tropical rain forest of the ocean
>> where the greatest variety of plant and animal life in
the ocean live
* found as barriers along continents
ex. Great Barrier Reef off Australia, fringing islands, and
atolls
* naturally, the dominant organisms in coral reefs are corals
Corals - consist of both algae (zooanthellae) and formed from
tissues of small sea animals / creatures called polyps
* reef waters tend to be nutritionally poor
> corals obtain nutrients through the algae via
photosynthesis
> by extending tentacles to obtain plankton from the water
* besides corals, the fauna include several species of
microorganisms, invertebrates, fishes, sea urchins, octopuses,
and sea stars
Estuaries
* areas where freshwater streams or rivers merge/flow with the
ocean (sea)
> mixing of waters with such different salt concentrations
creates a very interesting and unique ecosystem
* zone between the freshwater and marine biomes
* nurseries for many young fishes, crustaceans and shellfishes
* Flora: microflora like algae
macroflora, such as seaweeds, marsh grasses, and
mangrove trees (only in the tropics)
* Fauna: support a diverse fauna, including a variety of
worms, oysters, crabs, and waterfowl
Polar Biomes
A. Antarctica ( South Pole)
- very large continent - USA and Canada combined
- The name Antarctica is a romanized version of the Greek
compound word Αntarktikí meaning "opposite to the north”
- the coldest, driest and windiest continent
has the highest average elevation of all the continents
> there is little precipitation, except at the coasts
>> the interior of the continent is technically the
largest desert in the world
- no permanent human residents
- only cold-adapted plants and animals survive
Fauna: penguins, fur seals
Flora: mosses, lichens and many types of algae
* covered by ice ; average ice depth = > 1km long ( 0.6 miles)
- more than 90% of the world’s ice found here
- Antarctic’s winds measure at more than 300 kms (180
miles) / hour
- mean temperature does not go above freezing at any time
> water is always frozen
South Pole
* vegetation: only 3 flowering plants exist at the tip of the
peninsula
> lichens and moss are rare
>> lack of food producers
* fauna: few animals are present
ex. penguins, few migrating birds, mites, wingless fly, rare
insects
** 50% of these small invertebrates are parasites supplied by
 the pelagic marine biome surrounding Antarctica
B. North Pole
* also known as the Arctic
* word Arctic comes from the Classical Greek word arktos
which means bear
> name refers to the constellation Ursa Major, the
"Great Bear", which is prominent in the northern
portion of the celestial sphere
* smaller landmass than Antarctica and spread out in several
continents
> sometime some Tundra biome extends to it
* ice sheet covering = about 5 meters thick (16.5 ft.)
* average Arctic temperature = 17C (62.6F) - >25C (77F)
* 90% of its landmass loses its ice during summer
> supply water to plants
* about a million people live here
e.g. Eskimos and reindeer herders from North America,
Europe, Asia and Greenland
* vegetation: more than 100 flowering plants identified aside
from mosses and lichens
* animals: polar bears, arctic foxes, insects, birds, and other
mammals
> derive their food from the pelagic marine biome, as in
Antarctica
_________________
BIOLOGICAL COMMUNITIES
(Plant and Animal Communities)
ECOSYSTEM - synonymous with biological communities,
EXCEPT that it includes the non-living or physical environment
of the community.
- smaller unit of the biosphere where living and
non-living things interact and where materials can be recycled.
- smaller units of interacting biotic and abiotic
factors in the biomes and are dependent on each other
ex. light,oxygen,CO2, growing space, minerals,
temperature, and most importantly, ENERGY.
Examples: lakes, rivers, ponds, meadows
* vegetation / plant communities are more pronounced
> vegetation is basic in any study of intra-communal
relationships
Terms and definitions
Biotic Community - organisms living and acting in an
ecosystem
Population - group of organisms of the same species
living in an ecosystem
Physical Environment - Refers to the non-living part of the
ecosystem
Classification of Communities – no universal acceptance
1. Biocoenosis - technical term for a single community graded
into complex hierarchies
Ex. consocies, associations, formations
2. Habitat - popular term
- environmental complex occupied by a particular kind
of organism, or by a single community of organisms
Example of hierarchies:
lake - a large ecological unit
> smaller units of beach communities, shallow margins,
deep bottom, and the open water
>> marginal communities
>>> special communities associated with
water surface, certain plant species, or
with bottom mud
Ecological communities adopted by biologists:
Ex. aquatic series - plankton, neckton, and benthos
Plankton - “ wandering”
- numerous and diverse in the sea and fresh
water
- in the oceans, forms the basis for the whole
economy
Neckton - larger, free swimming organisms ex. Fish
Benthos – organisms that live on or in the bottom
* To define a community in terms of a “dominant” and a
“sub-dominant” species
a. Temperate terrestrial habitats - a particular savannah grass
or a tree species in the
forest may dominate
b. Tropical or aquatic habitat - concepts of dominance is
insignificant
Interaction between biotic and abiotic factors in a lake
ecosystem:
* green plants MUST grow near the water surface to receive
the sun’s rays
* depth, stirred-up mud, heavy algae growth, ice/snow limits
light penetration
> no photosynthesis
* clear lake water enables the sun’s rays to penetrate up to 25
m(82.5 ft) deep
* remains and accumulated debris of dead plants and animals
> may reduce lake size
* daily or seasonal variation of water temperature
> affects organisms
* conditions like rain runoffs
> carry plant/animal debris and soil to the lake
* biotic community member like man
> dumping, destroying, playing
>> affects the ecosystem
Interaction among physical factors in a lake ecosystem:
* either temporary or permanent changes
* factors / conditions affecting the lake ecosystem (either
gradual or rapid) cloud covers ; silt carried from runoffs ;
daily / seasonal temperature chemicals from fertilizers of man or
wastes from factories ; water levels
Succession of Communities:
Regular series of changes in the growth or aging of a
community or a series of communities
 > constant
> series of human disturbances and geological processes >
altered landscapes
>> slow and regular succession of communities
>>> relatively stable and unchanging conditions
>>>> “climax forest”
>>>>> repetition of cycle
* areas with lesser human depredation
> succession is real but less obvious
ex. landslide
> bares the cliff surface ;
a tree falls in the forest
>> beaches, rivers - may become deposition areas
NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS IN AN ECOSYTEM
Terms:
FOOD CHAINS - better term > FOOD WEB
- important relationship within a community
- the sequence of organisms through which energy and materials
are passed as the organisms eat or are eaten
- many overlap > organisms eating more than one type of food
FOOD WEB - the complex of interlocking food chains in
almost all communities
TROPHIC LEVEL - the position of an organism in a food
chain
PRODUCTIVITY - the accumulation of energy
- only the accumulated energy is available to
the next trophic level
ex. productivity of the herbivore is 15% of
the energy it has taken from the plants
AUTOTROPHS - aut, auto = self ; trophos = one who feeds
- organisms that make their own food from inorganic nutrients
and energy from the sun
ex. Cattails, duckweeds, algae
- food producer of the ecosystem ; important resource
HETEROTROPHS - hetero = other, different ; trophos = one
who feeds
- organisms that obtain their food by eating plants and other
animals
- all are food consumers > divided onto several trophic levels
PHYTOPLANKTON - phyton = tree, plant ; plankton =
wandering
- refers to the suspended microscopic algae serving as food for
the small crustaceans ex. ostracods and copepods
TROPHIC PATTERN - transfer of energy form the autotrophs
to the herbivores and through several levels of carnivores
ex. starts always with the producer > first-level carnivore, and
so forth
HERBIVORES - herba = grass, green crops ; voro =
devour or eat
- heterotrophs or any organisms feeding on plants
> FIRST FOOD CONSUMER
- energy is used when it moves, eats, digests, respires, and
reproduces
> most of the energy in its food is not stored
>> used up to maintain life’s processes
ex. copepod – uses 85% of the energy for
maintenance ; 15% is stored
CARNIVORES - carnis = flesh ; voro = devour or eat
- animals feeding on other animals
ex. minnows feeding on small crustaceans = first-level
carnivore
* First-level carnivore – feeds on herbivores
> 15% of the energy taken in – 15% of 15%
= 2.25% is available to the next trophic level
( represents the original energy produced by the
green plant)
*bass feeding on minnows = second-level carnivore
> energy in the bass - 0.3375% of the original energy
produced by the green plant
Lake ecosystem : more than one food chain
if no other animal eats the bass
> bass = top carnivore ; except for man
> if the bass dies = crayfish eats it
>> bullfrog or raccoon eat crayfish
*young fishes feeding on both herbivores or minnows
> not considered either as first or second-level carnivores
OMNIVORES - omnis = all ; voro = devour or eat
- animals that eat both plants and animals
- do not confine their feeding habits to one trophic level
ex. man
SCAVENGERS
- organism that feeds on dead organisms
- important in the recycling of chemicals
- transfer the energy to the animals that feed on them
ex. crayfish, snails, some fishes
DECOMPOSERS - breakdown tissues and wastes of organisms
into simpler substances
> return nitrogen, phosphates etc. to the soil or water
>> without them, bacteria cannot recycle them to
ecosystem
>>> autotrophs can use them to restart
another cycle
Decay - process of breaking down tissues / wastes of organisms
into simpler substances
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS
* normally seen in nutritional relationships
* BASE = food producers ; TIP = top carnivore
Three common models:
1. Pyramid of Productivity
2. Pyramid of Numbers
3. Pyramid of Mass
Pyramid of Productivity
 - trophic structure of the food chain based on the energy
passed on from one trophic level to another
ex. sun’s energy
> algae ( BASE )
> copecods (15%)
> minnows (2.25%)
> bass (0.3375% ; TIP)
Pyramid of Numbers
- trophic structure of the food chain based on the number of
individuals involved in each trophic level of the food chain
- helps us to understand the energy relationships in ecosystems
and predict future changes
ex. hectare of field - food producers = 5M
herbivorous invertebrates = 700,000
* food for about 300,000 ants, spiders, and predatory
beetles
* average of 3-5 birds and 3 mammals on top
> tree > caterpillar > bird > hawk
Pyramid of Mass
* gives us a clearer picture of biotic relationships
* determines the mass of each link ; pyramid of mass - actual
pyramid
ex. in a selected area – all organisms are weighed and
separated
> trees are lesser than caterpillars
>> ONE tree can support many caterpillars
>>> mass of the tree is greater than the mass
of the caterpillars
* tree > caterpillar (BASE) > birds > hawk (TIP)
Food Pyramids - may help solve man’s social problem -
Hunger? Population?
* sun’s energy in each food level – most are loss during transfer
- about 85% due to respiration, growth, excretion, heat, and
movement
* man should position themselves here and become herbivores
than first or second-level carnivores
> more food energy found
>> larger population can be fed from the same
amount of original energy from the sun
SPECIAL NUTRITIONAL RELATIONSHIPS
* most heterotrophs are bulk feeders
Bulk Feeders - eat the whole or parts of the organisms
* most heterotrophs are called saprophytes
Saprophytes - absorb nutrients from dead tissues or waste
products from organisms
- includes bacteria that decompose plant and
animal bodies, fungi, and yeasts
- vital in returning materials to the
ecosystem
SYMBIOSIS ( MUTUALISM )
* biotic relationship in which two species (symbionts) live in
close association with one another ; may or may not be
nutritional
ex. orchids growing on trees on a tropical forest (limited
space/ sunlight)
> no food is given but more exposed to sunlight than in
forest floor ruminants (cellulose-eater), horses, and
their intestinal bacteria which partially digests raw food
materials
Three Types of Nutritional Symbiosis
1. Parasitism - a relationship in which one organism obtain its
nutrition at the expense of another organism.
ex. Intestinal worms, ticks , fleas
- limited to forms belonging to the animal
kingdom
> aptly termed animal parasites
- disturbs physiologic activities
> causes tissue destruction and/or damage
- consistent feature: alters the chemical and
physical composition of the blood
> some are beneficial to the hosts = produce
antibodies
ex. agglutinins, precipitins, and opsonins
> some are detrimental = produce anemia,
leucocytosis, leucopenia
Characteristics of Parasitism:
a. provides a certain degree of danger to the host
b. maintain a more or less constant and close association
between the host and parasite
c. a complete dependence on food produced by the host,
either in the form of digested substances and tissues
2. Mutualism - a relationship between two species in which
both benefit from living together.
ex. birds picking on a a carabao’s back
hermit crab ( transports the sea anemones to new
feeding grounds) while the sea anemone
(camouflages / hides/ protects the crab with its
poisonous tentacles)
3. Commensalism - or neutral parasites
- a relationship in which one organism benefits (commensal)
and the other neither benefits or is harmed (host)
ex. intestinal protozoa, bacteria (E. coli*) of man
* may become pathogenic under certain conditions
- may be in the: internal organs ( endocommensalism)
body surface like hair, skin
> ( ectocommensalism / epicommensalism)
- seen in some bacteria species
ex. bacteria species A cannot use a certain potential food
> needs bacteria species B, if present, to breakdown
the food material and produce compounds that can
be used by bacteria species A
>> growth occurs
Structure of Biotic Communities
1. Biotic community is made up of organisms living together
and interacting
Predation - interactions between organisms on different trophic
levels
- involves predator and prey
Competition - interactions on the same trophic level
- the use of or defense of a resource by one individual that
reduces the availability of that resource to other animals
 ex. hawk catches/ eats mice = less one mouse for
other hawks
- does not always involve the same species
ex. if the hawk was successful > one less mouse
for the owls to eat
- competition may be indirect
ex. hawk and owl
> feed at different times ; eat a variety of
different foods

* competition is more pronounced and severe among member of

same species
> seeks the same resources and have the same needs

2. Scarce resources - the number of individuals of a species

living in a community will be limited
ex. barnacles in the intertidal zone = other barnacles
require the same space

> a larval barnacle attaches itself onto a a sparsely

populated rock and grows into an adult
> limited space on the rock if a rock is fully covered
> larva attaches itself into the shell of another animal
>> grows rapidly and kills the other animal in
the process
>>> occupies its space, grows
rapidly for a while, then dies

3. An animal’s behavior may reduce competition

- a single resource can serve to support several populations in a
community
ex. birds feeding on insects in a forest
> feed at different levels in the trees

Patterns Within a Biotic Community

A. Rhythms
Diurnal - an animal that is active during the day
Nocturnal - an animal that is active at night
Crepuscular - an animal that is active at dusk and dawn