II

BASIC ELECTRONICS
Part 6

A Course of Training Developed for THE UNITED STATES NAVY

by the

New York firm

of

Management Consultants and Graphiological Engineers VAN VALKlENBURGH, NOOGER & NEVILLE, INC.

j^

WIGAN
CENTRAL
LIBRARY
Adapted
to British

and Commonwealth Usage

by a Special Electronics Training Investigation Team of the Royal Electrical & Mechanical Engineers

LONDON

THE TECHNICAL PRESS, LTD

NEW YORK
THE BROLET PRESS

British

and Commonwealth Edition

first

published 1959

Copyright 1959 by

VAN VALKENBURGH, NOOGER &

New York,
U.S.A.

NEVILLE, INC.

All rights reserved

American Edition

first

published 1959

Copyright 1959 by

VAN VALKENBURGH, NOOGER &

New
York, U.S.A.
U.S. Library of Congress Catalog

NEVILLE, INC.

Card No. 55-6984

All rights reserved

WiGAN
PUBLIC
LIBRARIES

7^/33
fcftl

3S

Made and printed in Great Britain by William Clowes and Sons, Limited, London and Beccles

PREFACE

THIS

SIXTH

Part of

BASIC ELECTRONICS, which

and in

deals in
its

its first

half with

the fundamentals of Frequency Modulation

second half with the

comparatively recent (but immensely significant) discovery of the Transistor, represents the first important addition to an Illustrated Course of Elementary Technician
Training

carefully

planned, brilliantly simplified, and radically

developed some years ago at the request of the United States

New York firm, VAN VALKENBURGH, NOOGER &

ment consultants and method
engineers.

new which was Navy by a distinguished NEVILLE, INC., manage-

This Illustrated Training Course, consisting of the material contained in the five Parts of BASIC ELECTRICITY and in the first five Parts of BASIC ELECTRONICS,

adoption in 1953, a standard text in U.S. Navy Training men have taken it as an essential part of their training to technician level in 14 different Navy trades; their average training time has been cut by half; and supplies of Course materials are now held as part of the U.S. Navy's
has become, since
Schools.
its first

More than

100,000

official

War

Mobilization Stores.

Course was subsequently released in a condensed form to the In it has proved an outstanding success. addition to large sales to individuals, to schools and to technical institutions of all kinds, more than a score of world-famous companies have taken the published Manuals for use in their apprentice training schemes, and have found that they enable them to turn out qualified technicians both faster and at less cost than did the old methods of text-book and lecture. Several American trade unions (who take a keen interest in the "up-grading" of their members to more skilled and better-paid jobs) have chosen the Manuals as the best available training materials for their purpose. Spanish, Dutch and Portuguese translations of the Manuals have been
text of the

The

general public in the United States, where

published.

While negotiations with the American authors were in progress in the latter months of 1957, word reached the British publishers of the Manuals that there had recently been set up, under command of Training Headquarters, Royal Electrical and Mechanical Engineers, at Arborfield in Berkshire, a special "Electronics Training Investigation

Team" whose task was to devise solutions for some of the training problems which would face the British Army when National Service ended, and when the Army's increasingly elaborate electrical and electronics gear would have to be manned and serviced by recruits entering the Army with none of the technical knowledge which many National Servicemen had hitherto brought with them into the Forces. It seemed possible that most of the REME requirements for a new-style, yet technically sound, instructional approach could be met by a suitably edited British version of the & N" Manuals. A visit to Arborfield was accordingly arranged, where the reception given to the Manuals, with their attractive appearance and proved record of success, was enthusiastic; and after a careful evaluation of their merits and potential suitability had been made, War Office consent was secured to a proposal that the work of adapting text and illustrations to British notation and terminology should be undertaken by the Electronics Team at Arborfield. Later, while this work was still proceeding, a decision was reached to adopt the

"WN

Manuals as basic texts for the training of future technicians, and an order for large numbers of complete sets of the Manuals was placed. Early interest was also shown by several other branches of the Armed Forces; and the Military Advisers to the High Commissioners of at least six leading Member Nations of the
revised

REME

Commonwealth submitted
Ministries of Defence.

early proofs of the English edition to their respective

At the time of publication of

stantial

this sixth Part of BASIC ELECTRONICS, suborders for earlier Parts in the Series have been supplied to:

REME

Training
the

HQ.; the Royal Corps of

Signals; the School of Anti-Aircraft Artillery;

Army

Apprentices School (Arborfield); Technical Training

Command

of the

Royal Air Force; the Armies of New Zealand and the Federation of Malaya; the South African Air Force; the Royal Ceylon Navy; and the Jordan Arab Army. The Ministries of Defence and Education of the Republic of India are among many others who have the question of adopting the Manuals under urgent consideration. Non-Services purchasers include: the Atomic Weapons Research Establishment (Aldermaston); the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (Dounreay); the U.K.A.E.A. Industrial Group (Capenhurst); the Uganda Electricity Board; the Underwood Business Machines Corporation; British Nylon Spinners; Mullard Ltd.; Richard Thomas & Baldwins; and British Thomsom-Houston. Like all its predecessors, this sixth Part of BASIC ELECTRONICS has been adapted to British usage by the Electronics Team at Arborfield.
*
*

The original U.S. Navy Course was based on a novel technique of teaching developed by the Authors after extensive research and practical experience with thousands of students. Immense pains were taken to identify and present only the essential facts about each new concept or piece of equipment. These facts were then explained in the simplest possible language, one at a time; and each was illusby a cartoon-type drawing. Nearly every page in every one of the Manuals one or more of these brilliantly simple "visualizations" of the concept described. The approach throughout is strictly non-mathematical. Only the simplest equations needed for working with the fundamental laws of electricity are employed. Yet there has been no shirking of essentials, even when they are difficult; and students with higher qualifications and educational background find nothing in the Manuals to irritate or slow them down. They merely pass on to the next subject
trated
carries

quicker than the

rest.

-*

civilian .use.

Despite their Services background, the Manuals have been proved suitable for Their purpose, however, is limited to the training of practical tech-

nicians, taining,

not of engineers. They aim to turn out men capable of operating, mainand carrying out routine repairs to the equipment described not men capable

of inventing or improving it. They present a unique simplification of an ordinarily complex set of subjects so planned, written and illustrated as to become the best and quickest way to teach or learn BASIC ELECTRICITY and BASIC ELECTRONICS that has ever been

devised.

In these Manuals, first things come first and only the essentials come anywhere. already becoming clear that their accuracy and thoroughness, combined with their extreme lucidity, has made their publication a landmark in technical education
It is

in Britain

and the Commonwealth.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

FREQUENCY MODULATION
Section
1

Page
6.2

The Fundamentals of Frequency Modulation

2 3

FM Transmitters FM Receivers

6.6

6.27

TRANSISTORS
1

Introduction to "Solid-State" Electronics

6.56
6.67

Semi-Conductor Diodes
Transistor Construction

3 4
5

and Operation

6.81

Transistor Characteristics
Transistor Circuits

6.94
6.98

6 7

The

Transistorized Superheterodyne Receiver

6.113

Fault-finding

on a Transistor Superhet

6.119
6.125 6.127
6.129
6.131

8
9

General Review of Transistors

Introduction to Synchros and Servomechanisms

Index

Cumulative Index (Parts 1-6)

f2

LIORAHt

*'*

This Course in

BASIC ELECTRONICS
comprises 6 Parts

This

is

PART 6

It is

preceded by a Course in

BASIC ELECTRICITY
comprising 5 Parts

all

uniform with

this

volume.

Part

explained the General Principles of Electricity.

described and discussed D.C. and D.C. Circuits.

Part 2

Parts 3 and 4 described and discussed A.C.

and A.C.

Circuits.

Part 5

described and discussed A.C. and D.C. Machines.

BASIC ELECTRONICS
will

be followed by a further Course in

BASIC SYNCHROS & SERYONECHANISNS

in

two Parts
volume

also uniform with this

I :

THE FUNDAMENTALS OF FREQUENCY

MODULATION
What Frequency Modulation
Is

4 and 5 of Basic Electronics three basic methods were on the r.f. carrier signal of a radio transmitter, and then received by a receiver. You were also told that a fourth basic method existed, of which you would learn later in your Course. Let us first briefly review the three basic methods about which you have already learnt.

You will

recall that in Parts

described by which a message can be superimposed

In continuous wave (CW) transmission, the carrier signal is interrupted, or This method is used primarily for long-distance comoff, with a key. communications receiver incorporating a Beat Frequency Oscillator munication.
1.

turned on and

(BFO)

used to receive these signals. 2. In modulated continuous wave (MCW) transmission, an audio-frequency The carrier is then turned signal of constant amplitude is superimposed on the carrier. transmission. Any receiver with the appropriate on and off with- a key, just as in
is

CW

nterrupted (Keyed)
!\

MCW
Drr
Drr. n

B M ^%B A M

V-dulated
*

RF
ill]

Signal

N
li'l

TRANSMISSION

''

,!!.

ill!

|!|i!j"i|";|||

RF
Transmitter
1

Re ceiver

o1

Audio
Oscillator

~\~)
Phones

V**V

.;..

J";-",,.

\ ;

_ ^^^^^BgH^^^BB

'-

f^if^^^^S;

11

6.3
Is (continued)

What Frequency Modulation

3.

In amplitude modulated

(AM)

transmission, the amplitude of the carrier

signal,

is

varied at a rate dependent

on the frequency of an audio

and to an extent

dependent on the amplitude of this audio signal. A fourth method by which a message can be carried by an r.f. carrier signal, and then received, is called Frequency Modulation. In FM, the frequency of the r.f.
carrier signal is shifted, or deviated, to a higher or lower

second, at a rate dependent

the deviation
is

made

to

number of cycles per on the frequency of the audio signal. The extent of depend on the amplitude of the audio signal.

The

first

half of this Part of Basic Electronics will be devoted to a description of

the methods by which voice and other sound signals can be transmitted, and then
received,

by means of FM.

Modulated

RF

Unmodulated RF Carrier

TRANSMISSION

6.4

Si

Applications of Frequency Modulation

HIGH FIDELITY

HOME RECEPTION

The outstanding advantage of

interference

FM

is

that

it

permits reception which

is

free

from

and

noise.
it is

There are many occasions on which

instance, efficient intercommunication

obviously important that signals be trans-

mitted and received free from interfering noise.

In military, naval or air

tactics, for

demands clear reception of messages without danger of their content being obscured by noise. This is especially important in the case of intercommunication between moving vehicles especially tanks in which very high interference levels are produced by the variety of electrical equipment

carried.

Again, freedom from interference and noise

tion of all kinds.

is

essential in the high-speed, high-

quality facsimile transmission of detailed maps, photographs

and printed informa-

In such applications,

FM

provides faithful reproduction of the

wide band of video frequencies required, and prevents noise from blotting out the
fine details.

1]
Applications of Frequency Modulation (continued)

6.5

FM is also, of course, used in the high-fidelity radio receiver you may have in your home, in which it provides excellent noise-free reception of voice and music. It has been said that the outstanding advantage of FM is that it permits reception which is free from interference and noise. This in turn, of course, permits the reproduction of an extremely wide range of audio frequencies. are in no way inherent in Remember that the audio frequency limitations of the transmitter. It is interference and noise which cause the amplitude of the desired

AM

r.f.

signal in the receiver to vary;

and attempts to reduce the

level of noise affect the

amplitude of the required output signal. receivers, on the other hand, can be so designed that noise is eliminated without affecting the amplitude of the required output signal. In the medium- and long-wave broadcasting bands, regulations restrict transmitter system the carrierbandwidth to prevent interference between stations. In an

FM

FM

frequency must deviate over a wide band therefore not used in the medium- and long-wave bands; and receivers are normally designed for operation in the VHF band.

of frequencies (often

75

kc/s).

FM

is

FM

transmitters

and

In Part 4 of Basic Electronics you learnt that the VHF band extends from 30 to 300 broadcasts are in the 88-100 Mc/s range. Mc/s. The BBC

FM

In this frequency band

television viewers.

FM

faces the limitations

is essentially

Reception

limited to locations
is

of-sight" of the transmitting aerial,

is

and there

which are well known to all which are in "linea "fringe" area in which reception

unreliable.

FM

can be an advantage if you visualize a network of permanent This limitation of broadcasting stations in which the same frequencies can be used to provide

FM

different

programmes

for different localities.

however, In military operations involving large numbers of mobile transmitters, between interference if care great with allocated be must transmitter frequencies
stations
is

to be prevented.

6.6

2
Form of an
will

FM TRANSMITTERS

Simplest

FM Transmitter

most quickly understand the nature of FM if you consider how the form of FM transmitter would work. Picture to yourself an r.f. oscillator (such as a Hartley oscillator) coupled to an aerial. Omit, for reasons of simplicity, the buffer amplifiers, the frequency doubters and the power amplifiers which you would usually find between the oscillator and the aerial. You will remember from your previous study of transmitters that the signal sent out by this arrangement will be an r.f. sine wave carrier signal of constant amplitude. The frequency of this transmitted signal will be determined by the setting of the variable

You

simplest possible

capacitor.

capacitance,
capacitance.

The frequency increases as the capacitor is set towards its minimum and the frequency decreases as the capacitor is set towards its maximum

2]
Simplest

6.7

Form of an FM Transmitter
that

(continued)
is set

Assume
frequency

when

the variable capacitor

to the centre of

its

range, the

generated is 1,000,000 c/s (1 Mc/s).

its

Now if (using either your hand or any

suitable vibrator

forth about

mechanism) you turn the variable capacitor shaft rapidly back and you will obtain the effect of frequency modulation. If the shaft is mechanically oscillated about its centre position at a rate of 40 cycles per second, an FM receiver tuned to the centre frequency will produce a If the shaft is turned at a rate of 400 or 4,000 40-c/s tone from its loudspeaker. will produce tones of 400 or 4,000 c/s loudspeaker receiver the cycles per second, The frequency of the output from the FM receiver loudspeaker is respectively. always the same as the rate at which the carrier frequency is shifted or deviated. This is true regardless of the magnitude of the deviation. The transmitter capacitor shaft may be turned by only a small amount to either side of its centre positionvarying the frequency 1,000 c/s above and below the Or the capacitor shaft may be turned at the same 1,000,000-c/s centre frequency. rate but by a larger amount varying the frequency 10,000 c/s above and below the 1,000,000-c/s centre frequency. In either case the same tone will come out of the
centre position,

FM

receiver loudspeaker.

But the loudness of the tone will vary, the rule being that the loudness of the tone increases with the magnitude of the frequency deviation. Thus the tone produced by the 1,000-c/s shift will be quite low in volume, while the same tone produced by the 10,000-c/s shift will be much louder. You can say then that: The frequency and the amplitude of the output from the FM receiver are determined respectively by the rate and the magnitude of the transmitter frequency shift.

40c/s/

TonelvAAA

; i

Tx
Sped

'

Tx
40r.ps.

Rx

Motor
in

40rps
4Q
c/s

0'' Motor Speed

-

Cnpocitor
each

shoft oscillates at

Capacitor shaft oscillates at 40c/s

direction

Shaft deviating IO from centre position

direction..

Shaft deviatin g IO from centre position

jn
y;fif-h

4kc/s/ Tone

40c/s
Tone

[mmm

Tx

-I

H
4COOrp.s.

Rx

4QOOc/s Shnft
in

Tx
r.p.s.

Rx

Motor Speed
rfflMrttflT

*' Motor Speed 40

Capacitor
deviatin g

A***

^filiates at

shaft oscillates at

40c/s -

Shaft deviating IO from centre position

in

^0 from

centre position

each direction.

each

direction.

6.8

[2

Simple Reactance Valve

FM Transmitter

obvious that the method of frequency-modulating a carrier wave by mechanical means described on the last page cannot be used to transmit voice or
it is

Now

other complex sound signals.

is that the output from, say, a microphone used an audio amplifier must cause deviations in the carrier frequency of the transmitter. The rate of this frequency shift must be equal to the frequency of the sound going into the microphone, and the magnitude of the frequency shift must be in proportion to the loudness of the sound. One very widely used method of accompUshing these desired results is based on the use of a reactance valve. The basic arrangement of a reactance valve FM transmitter is shown in the block diagram below. Note that the frequency multipliers and power amplifier normally following the oscillator are omitted, for simplicity. In the arrangement shown, a microphone drives an audio amplifier which, by means of a

What is needed to accomplish this

in conjunction with

reactance valve, shifts the frequency of the oscillator.

s^

*J

6.9
Circuit

Bask Reactance Valve

The
circuit

diagram on this page shows a basic reactance valve circuit. This of a varying capacitance into the oscillator tuned circuit. The rate and amplitude of the capacitance change are determined by the frequency
circuit injects the effect

and amplitude of the applied audio

signal.

To

understand

how

this effect is achieved, consider first the

voltage-current relationship in a capacitive circuit. You will remember that the current through a capacitor leads the voltage across it by 90. This is illustrated by the vector diagram
(a) opposite.

Ic
n
(a)

Consider

now

the circuit

shown below:

Ec

HT+

Oscillator

Tuned
Circuit

circuit, L 3 and C3 , is part of an oscillator stage. couples the oscillator circuit to the anode of the reactance valve. When the oscillator is oscillating, the r.f. voltage across

The tuned

C2

the tuned circuit,

ot is

applied to the series circuit

its

and

The value of

x.

M
Eo

is

such that

reactance
is

is

much

greater than

is

the resistance of

Ru

so the circuit

capacitive.
,

That is to say, the current through this series circuit, Ix leads E by very nearly 90 (see diagram (b) opposite).

6.10

02
voltage

Basic Reactance Valve Circuit {continued)

The

Eg

across
.

Rt

will

be in phase with the current

So through R u i.e. with lx diagram (c). This voltage

reactance valve.

Eg leads E by very nearly 90see Eg is applied to the grid of the

Ix

Eg

have learnt that the current change in a valve is in phase with the voltage change at its control grid. In other words, that as the grid voltage goes positive, so the current through the valve increases. Since the r.f. component of the current through

You

the valve

(ia) is

in phase with

Eg

it

must

also be very nearly 90

leading with respect to

If

Eo
Ix

you compare vector diagram

(d)
is

with diagram

(a),

see that the reactance valve circuit

behaving

like

you will a capacitor

connected across the tuned circuit of the oscillator stage. The value of ia is determined by the r.f. voltage applied to the grid Eg, and by the mutual conductance (gm) of the valve. Now consider the effect of applying an audio voltage (as well
as the

-Eg

i,ia

voltage present) to the grid of the reactance valve. This audio voltage will have the effect of changing the mutual conductance of the valve, and therefore of changing the r.f.
r.f.

Eo

component (Q of the current through the

It

valve.

has been said that the reactance valve circuit behaves like a capacitor connected across the oscillator tuned circuit. Now the current through a capacitor depends on the voltage applied, on the frequency of this voltage, and on the capacitance 2ir/C, where C is the capacitance presented of the capacitor. In other words, ia

=E

by the reactance valve circuit. E and / are fixedly the oscillator

circuit

of which

C3

and

L3

are part
is

when no

audio voltage is applied, so if ia grid of the reactance valve, the capacitance presented by the reactance valve circuit must also have changed. In this way, the audio voltage applied to the grid of the reactance valve, by changing the effective capacitance of the reactance valve circuit which is connected across the
oscillator

changes when an audio

voltage

applied to the

tuned

circuit,

changes the oscillator frequency.

*]
Basic Reactance Valve Circuit (continued)

6.11

When you

connect capacitance across the oscillator tuned

circuit,

oscillator frequency in proportion to the

amount of capacitance

introduced.

you lower the The

that is injected into the oscillator tuned circuit is equal to the mutual conductance (gm) of the reactance valve, multiplied by the product of the resistance, R u and the capacitance, C (C injected =*g x C x ). m x

amount of capacitance

xR

employ pentode valves such as the 6AC7 or 6SJ7. The value of Cx is generally between 20 ^iF and 30 [XfxF, and the value of R t is usually between 500 ohms and 1,000 ohms. With such an arrangement, an audio signal of from 1 to % volts peak-to-peak on the grid will cause the capacitance injected into the oscillator tuned circuit to shift from approximately 100 (jtfjtF to 300 fifjtF. Remember that the reactance valve circuit which has been considered above is only one of the four basic types which can be used. If R and C are interchanged x x in the circuit, a variable inductance will be injected into the oscillator tuned circuit; and this will cause the desired frequency changes as effectively as did the variable
circuits generally

Reactance valve

capacitance.

And
inject

if

a coil

be substituted for

in the original arrangement, the circuit will

a variable inductance into the oscillator tuned circuit; while interchanging Li and R x will inject variable capacitance. Any of these arrangements can be used in an FM transmitter.

6.12

IS

The Complete Basic

FM Transmitter

HIGH

POWER HIGH

FREQUENCY FM
I

1_
Power
Amplifier
Intermediate

HIGH

FREQUENCY FM
J #

\
j

Power
Amplifier

\ \

LOW FREQUENCY FM
Reactance

Oscillator

Valve

t
Amplified Audio

Varying
Injected

Capacitance

Once the operation of the reactance valve

is

understood, there

is little

difference

transmitter which was described in transmitter and the between a basic transmitter; and you can see Part 4. The diagram on this page shows a basic transmitter you already know. that it is very like the To review the operation of the system, consider the function of each stage, beginning with the microphone. The microphone converts sound waves into lowvoltage electrical signals having the same frequency and amplitude characteristics as the sound wave. This low-voltage audio signal is fed to the audio amplifier,

FM

AM

FM

AM

which steps up the signal voltage to a level suitable for driving the reactance valve. Without the reactance valve the oscillator generates an r.f. signal of constant frequency and amplitude. With the reactance valve in the circuit, however, the
oscillator frequency is shifted at

and

the magnitude of the frequency shift

a rate equal to the frequency of the audio signal; is in proportion to the amplitude of the

audio signal.

2]

6.13

The Complete Basic

FM Transmitter (continued)

the intermediate power amplifier (IPA) is to isolate the oscillator improved frequency stability, and to amplify the r.f. signal in order to drive the power amplifier efficiently. The IPA is also used as a frequency multiplier. This
for

The purpose of

permits the transmitter to send out the desired frequency while the oscillator operates at a much lower frequency, where it can maintain stable operation more easily.

Note

that in addition to multiplying the oscillator signal frequency, the

IPA

also

multiplies the oscillator signal frequency deviation.

Thus,

if

the oscillator centre

frequency be 30 Mc/s with a frequency deviation of 25,000 c/s, and the IPA be operated as a frequency tripler, the IPA output centre frequency will be 90 Mc/s with a frequency deviation of 75,000 c/s. Consequently, the use of frequency multipliers permits the required frequency deviation to be obtained while leaving the
oscillator to operate at

a lower, more stable frequency and with a smaller, more

easily obtainable frequency deviation.

put

The purpose of the power amplifier is to increase the power level of the IPA outsignal. The power amplifier usually has its input and output signals at the same

frequency in order to obtain

maximum

operating efficiency.

The

aerial converts the signal delivered

by the power

amplifier into electromag-

netic waves.

HIGH

POWER HIGH FREQUENCY FM

w
4

BASIC
Xi
]

Power
Amplifier

HIGH

FREQUENCY FM
Intermediate

TRMtswrntR
LOW FREQUENCY FM
k

Power
Amplifier

r%.

X"\*A
i

Audio

Reactance
ir

HI
s

Jfrl

,.,. f*\ a Am P llfier JiS

Valve
i

f*-\ Oscillator
# i

...

Audio

Amplified Audio

Varying Injected Capacitance

6.14

[2

The Automatic Frequency Controlled

FM Transmitter

Constant

Varying LowFrequency Signal

Crystal Oscillator

Frequency High Frequency

Signal

Frequency
Correcting

High Frequency

Voltage

Frequency Converter

FM

Signal

y\t/
Power

Audio Amplifier

il

Amplifier

The

FM

transmitter just described

is

subject to oscillator frequency drift.

The

most important reasons for this drift are the changes in value which take place in the oscillator coil and capacitor by reason of temperature variations within the transmitter itself. In transmitters the most reliable method of preventing this

AM

drift is to

use a crystal oscillator.

In this type of
to

FM

transmitter, however,

it is

necessary (in order to obtain

the required frequency deviation while maintaining the necessary frequency stability)

make use of a crystal oscillator in an indirect manner. The method used is shown The FM transmitter previously described is used as the major part of the system. To this arrangement are added a crystal oscillator, a
in the block diagram above.

frequency converter (mixer), and a discriminator.

The frequency converter receives signals from both the power amplifier and the The frequency of the mixer output is equal to the difference between the two input signals. When the transmitted frequency is the same as the crystal oscillator frequency, there is no output from the frequency converter; and the
crystal oscillator.

mixer output frequency increases and decreases as the transmitted frequency drifts. The discriminator output is a "frequency correcting voltage" which rises and falls in accordance with the drift of the power amplifier signal. The operation of the discriminator will be described in detail in the section on receivers. The

FM

frequency correcting voltage

in the oscillator frequency.

is

applied to the reactance valve to cause

it

to bring

the oscillator back to the predetermined centre frequency, thus correcting any drift

2]
Pre-emphasis

6.15

is that it can be used to transhas been said that an important advantage of to frequencies up 15,000 cycles or even higher. mit a wide range of audio signals mainly the upper harmonics of the Now the frequencies above 5,000 cycles contain upper harmonics are of low These music. voice or fundamental frequencies in

It

FM

amplitude; but
quality that
is

if

they can be reproduced at the receiver, they give the unusually fine

characteristic of

FM reception.

Because these upper harmonics are low in amplitude, there is a danger that these Pre-emphasis is a method of improving the resignals will be lost in the system. production of these higher audio frequency signals. The method used is simply to increase the high frequency gain of the transmitter audio amplifier, as illustrated by the response curve below. Since the higher audio frequencies are of low amplitude, it is necessary that the amplifier gain shall be
increased as the frequency
rises.

The

simplest

amplifier is to

method of obtaining the desired gain characteristic use the RC network shown in the diagram.

in the audio

C has such a high impedance that the voltage division is deR2 As the frequency increases, the impedance of C deEventually the impedance of C is much lower than R u and the creases rapidly. voltage division is determined only by C and R 2
At low
frequencies,

termined only by

Rt

and

of the voltage dividing action is that the high-frequency signals are attenuated much less than are the low-frequency signals, and the desired frequency response characteristics have been introduced into the amplifier.

The

result

6.16

[2

The Phase-modulated

FM Transmitter
up
to this point
is

The

FM

transmitter considered
r.f.

known

as the "direct" type.

oscillator

In this transmitter the

carrier signal is frequency

modulated in the

the original source of the carrier signal.

ance with the

The oscillator frequency is deviated in accordfrequency and amplitude of the audio signal; and equivalent, but
which follow.

multiplied, frequency deviation takes place in the stages

Another basic type of

the frequency deviation
oscillator).
is

FM

transmitter

is

known

as the "indirect" type, because

not introduced at the source of the r.f. carrier signal (the Instead, the oscillator frequency remains constant, and the frequency
introduced in one of the stages following the oscillator.
this

deviation

is

The

basic

advantage of

method

is

that the oscillator can be of the crystal-controlled type,

which will maintain a stable centre frequency without the need for a separate automatic frequency control circuit. Frequency deviation is not introduced in the same manner as in "direct" transmitters; a method known as "phase modulation" is used instead.

FM

final output signal of an "indirect" FM same as that produced by a "direct" FM transmitter. The differences are confined to the methods used to obtain the final output signal; they do not
It

should be clearly understood that the

is

transmitter

the

lie

in the characteristics of the output signal

itself.

The phase-modulated transmitter consists of a crystal oscillator, frequency multipliers (IPA), a power amplifier (PA) and an aerial; plus a microphone, audio amplifier, audio correction network and phase modulator. The r.f. carrier signal from the crystal oscillator is stepped up in frequency by the frequency multipliers, and the power amplifiers increase the signal power. The audio signal from the microphone goes into the audio amplifier, and the signal is amplified to a level suitable to operate the audio correction network and phase modulator. All but these last two circuits
have been described already.

_ pH ASE-MODULATED ^-^ f m TRANSMITTER

Power
Amplifier

2]

6.17

The Phase-modulated

FM Transmitter (continued)

When
is

the frequency of an oscillator

deviated,

phase modulation takes

place;

and when the phase of the

signal is shifted, frequency

oscillator

r Leads solid curve by 45

I

simplified modulation takes place. graphic presentation of what happens

is

r Lags

solid curve by 45

given on this page.

W,

The first diagram shows a sine wave (drawn in solid line), a sine wave which lags 45 degrees behind the solid curve (drawn in dotted line) and a sine wave which leads the solid curve by 45 degrees (drawn in dot-dash line). These curves show that the peaks of a sine wave can be advanced or retarded in time by means of phase shifting.

ww
,m.

The second diagram shows work

the result

of using a variable phase-shifting netto shift the phase of the sine wave smoothly while it is being generated. When the phase is smoothly shifted so that it lags the original wave, the peaks occur later; this is equivalent to increasing the wavelength or lower-

ing the frequency.

PHASE LKAI) SIM

DKCREAMM, WAVF
If the phase
is

smoothly shifted so

that

it

leads the original

wave

(see the

original

third diagram), the peaks occur sooner;

this
is

equivalent

to

shortening the

wave length-d

increasing lead

r-JL

ahead of

wavelength or increasing the frequency.

/
I

If

/\ I \

s solid Une

It will

shifting

be seen, then, that a smooth of the phase of a signal is

equivalent to a frequency.

smooth

shifting

of

its

6.18

in

Basic Phase Modulator

The effects of a basic phase-shifting network were described in detail in Part 4 of Basic Electricity, page 4,26. The circuit consists of a capacitive (or
inductive) reactance connected in series

with a resistor. When a signal of constant frequency is connected across the series combination, the signal output across the resistor is shifted in phase with respect to the input signal. If the resistance is varied, the phase
shift also varies.

When
there
is

the resistance

is

more than

10 times larger than the reactance,

resistance

almost no phase shift. As the approaches one tenth the value of the reactance, the phase-shift approaches 90 degrees.

Basic

Phase
Shifter

Thus the constant-frequency

applied to such a network, and

r.f.

sig-

nal from a crystal oscillator can be

its

phase

can be shifted by varying the

resistance.

By

replacing

the

resistor

with

valve, the resistance in the phase shift

network can be varied by an audio signal applied to the grid of the valve. As the audio signal voltage increases and decreases in amplitude, the anode
current rises

and falls. Rises in the anode current are equivalent to lowering the anode resistance of the valve, and this causes a maximum shift in the phase of the input r.f. signal. Decreases in the anode current are equivalent to raising the anode resistance of the valve, and this causes
a

minimum
r.f.

shift in the

phase of the

input

signal.

Thus

an

r.f.

signal

of

constant

frequency, such as that coming from a

crystal oscillator,

can be phase-shifted

in accordance with the amplitude of

an audio signal at a rate dependent

on the frequency of the audio

signal.

There are many variations of this arrangement, but they all involve changing either the reactance or the resistance in a circuit of ttnYtype.

Phase
Shifter

2]

6.19

Audio Correction Network

The phase modulator described on

the previous page, however, can produce only

limited phase deviation without introducing distortion.

In the circuit there shown, the rate of phase change, and the equivalent frequency
deviation, rises as the audio frequency rises.

Assume, for instance, that a

100-c/s

audio signal of 1-volt amplitude causes an equivalent 1,000-c/s frequency deviation in the r.f. carrier. If the audio frequency rises to 1,000 c/s and the amplitude remains at 1 volt, there will be an equivalent frequency deviation of 10,000 c/s in
the
r.f.

carrier.

Such an effect is completely contrary to the working principles of FM transmission. According to the requirements of FM, the r.f. carrier frequency deviation must be proportional only to the amplitude of the audio signal, and only the rate of carrier
frequency swing
is

in proportion to the frequency of the audio signal.

effect
is

The

basic

method of eliminating the

of increasing equivalent frequency

circuit for achieving

deviation with increasing audio frequency

this effect is the

to decrease the amplitude of the audio

signal in proportion to the frequency rise.

The fundamental

RC divider network shown in the diagram below.

decreases as the applied frequency increases, but the of the resistor remains constant at all frequencies. Consequently, the amplitude of the audio output signal decreases with increasing frequency. The values of
effect

The reactance of a capacitor

and

are selected so as to

make

the audio signal amplitude decrease exactly

counteract the undesired frequency deviation increase.

AUDIO

CORRECTION

NETWORK

6.20

[2

The Link Phase Modulator

A practical
which
is

form of phase modulator shown below.

is

the link phase modulator, the circuit for

coupling capacitor C\.

Vit through the can reach the anode of Vx by either of two paths. One is through the grid-anode capacitance of the valve shown dotted in the circuit as Cga The other is through the valve acting as an amplifier in the normal way. The anode voltage of an amplifier is out of phase with the grid voltage. Since, however, the voltage fed to the anode through Cga is in phase with the grid voltage, it is theoretically 180 out of phase with the amplified voltage. (In practice, these two voltages are sometimes less than 180 out of phase.) If the valve is operated as a normal high-gain voltage amplifier, the amplified anode voltage is much larger than is the voltage fed to the anode by the grid-anode capacitance. When a large value of cathode resistor (R 5) is used, however, the operating point of the valve can be such that the amplification is greatly reduced. Moreover, if this cathode resistor is not decoupled, variations of anode current cause negative feed-back (that is to say, the varying voltage at the cathode acts in
The r.f voltage
is

applied to the grid circuit of the modulator valve

The

r.f.

opposition to the grid input voltage).

tion of the stage even more.

This negative feed-back reduces the amplifica-

2]

6.21

The Link Phase Modulator

(continued)

In this way, the r.f. anode voltage component arising from amplification can be reduced until it is of the same magnitude as the component arising from the grid-anode
capacitance.
Resistors
a.f.

R u R2 and R 3 form the

is

grid circuit of the modulator.

voltage

fed to the grid of the modulator through

C2

The modulating The H.T. voltage is

Capacitor

applied to the modulator valve through the coil

capacitances to the resonant frequency of the

L u which is broadly tuned with stray

r.f.

applied to the grid.

and resistor R2 form the audio correction network. The vector diagrams below illustrate the relative values and phase-angle relationships of the amplified component (Ea) of the anode voltage, and of the component (Ec) of the anode voltage which is fed through the inter-electrode capacitance Cga The instantaneous a.c. anode voltage (Ep) is the vector sum of Ea and Ec as shown. If the anode current is varied at an audio rate by the modulating signal, the ampliAs the audio signal fied component of the anode voltage varies in amplitude. becomes positive, the anode voltage component is decreased in amplitude; but the

C3

r.f.

signal coupled through

Cga

does not change in either amplitude or phase.

(b).

The

vector

Ec

remains constant, as shown at

resultant,

Since the amplified voltage

and phase-angle of the

Ea changes, and the voltage Ec does not, the amplitude Ep must change.
,

made negative by the applied audio voltage, the amplified anode voltage increases. The resultant voltage E p changes in amplitude and phase, in a direction opposite to its change when the grid swings positive. This is shown at (c). The phase of the r.f. output signal from the modulator valve therefore varies in
the grid of the valve
is

When

The

accordance with the amplitude of the audio signal input to the modulator valve. rate of change of phase is dependent on the frequency of the audio signal

input to the modulator valve.

on page 6.17 that a change of phase is equivalent to a change of So the r.f. output from this circuit is being deviated at a rate dependent on the frequency of the audio signal, and to an extent dependent on the amplitude of
learnt

You

frequency.

the audio signal.

These are just the conditions needed for

FM.

Ea due to
amplification

6.22

B*

The

FM Phase-modulated Transmitter
CRYSTAL OSCILLATOR

PHASE

MODULATOR

'.,. BUFFER

AUDIO AMPLIFIERS

The

circuit

above shows an

FM

transmitter using phase modulation.

its

(For

greater clarity of illustration, the

power supply unit and

connections have been

omitted.)

The crystal acts as a tuned between the grid and anode through a d.c. blocking Grid-leak bias is provided by the combination Cy-R^ H.T. is supplied capacitor, C2 The through R2 , and the output voltage of the oscillator is developed across R2 coupling capacitor C3 couples the output voltage to the grid of the phase modulator
This
transmitter has a -crystal oscillator, V\.
parallel resonant circuit connected
. .

FM

stage

in the

The phase modulator V2 has r.f. and a.f. applied to its grid, and operates manner described on pages 6.20 and 6.21. Audio voltages are introduced through the audio correction network R\6-C2q>
.

V2

frequency response required for the generation of good-quality signals. The high-cathode bias employed for this type of modulator is provided by JR 5 , its value being large enough to operate the valve near cut-off

which produces the necessary

a.f.

FM

so that only a small anode current flows through the valve.

The frequency modulated output is developed at the anode of V2 V6 and V7 together form a two-stage RC coupled a.f. amplifier. Included
.

in the

input circuit of

V6 is

the pre-emphasis circuit.

by the microphone is applied to transformer Tu where the by the step-up ratio of the transformer. Resistor R n serves to damp the impedance of the secondary winding of Tt so that the pre-emphasis network Rt 2-L6 can function correctly. The remainder of the circuitry of V6 and

The

voltage supplied
is

a.f.

voltage

increased

 2]

6.23

The

FM Phase-modulated Transmitter {continued)

V7 is conventional, RVi controlling the gain of the two-stage amplifier, and therefore the deviation of the carrier. The output from the a.f. amplifier stages is fed to the
Ri6-C2o through C22 The frequency-modulated signal from the anode of V2 passes through capacitor C4 and develops a voltage across R6 in the grid of V3 This stage is a class A buffer amplifier which isolates the modulator and associated circuits from a frequency
audio-correction network
.

which follows. employs cathode bias provided by R s and decoupled by C The output is 6 developed across the tuned circuit Li-C7 Screen voltage is applied through R
multiplier stage

V3

and

C5 acts as a decoupling capacitor.

7l

The voltage developed across L x can be either

at the fundamental crystal frequency or at harmonics of the crystal frequency, dependent on the setting of the tuning capacitor C7 . The output from the anode tuned circuit of V3 is transformer-coupled to the tuned cathode circuit of V (L2-C9). 4 You have already learnt that equipments are usually designed to operate in the VHF band. For this reason, the circuits for frequency multiplier and power

FM

amplifier stages in
Electronics.

FM

transmitters differ

The

circuits in this part

from those described in Part 4 of Basic of the transmitter are typical, and are known as

stage. The output from the buffer stage is transformer-coupled to the tuned cathode circuit, the grid of V4 being connected to earth (from an r.f. point of view) through C10 The grid is therefore, effectively, an earthed screen between the input and output of the stage which considerably reduces the
.

"grounded grid" circuits. V4 is a grounded-grid multiplier

of the interelectrode capacitances of the valve. Bias for the stage is developed similar to that used in oscillator circuits, grid current flowing when the cathode circuit is driven sufficiently negative.
effect

in a

way

Ac. micro-ammeter,

Mu

is

connected in

series

with grid resistor

R9

and

acts

as a tuning indicator, since

circuit

maximum

grid current will flow only

when

the anode

of V3 and the cathode circuit of V4 are tuned to the same frequency. This stage supplies excitation, or "drive," for the final power amplifier.
to the frequency-multiplier stage, except Bias is derived in a similar way, and

a micro-ammeter for use as a tuning indicator. the FPA is fed to a transmission line through the impedance matching network Cl4-Cls-L 5 Cl4 and C15 can be adjusted so as to achieve matching with a variety of transmission lines. H.T. is fed to the final stage through RFCU and C17 is a blocking capacitor which
2 is

that

The final power amplifier stage is similar no frequency multiplying takes place.

The output from

prevents the H.T. voltage from reaching the aerial.

6.24

[*
Ferrite Reactor

The

Modulator
a
"ferrite reactor"

modulator is illustrated below, modulating signal is applied to the grid of the modulator The secondary valve, and causes a change in the inductances of the ferrite reactor. when its inductance and of the reactor is part of the tuned circuit of the oscillator; changes changes, so the frequency of the oscillator output
typical circuit for
circuit,

FM

In this

the

a.f.

HT +

Ferrite

Reactor

Modulator
Valve

Ho

Oscillator
a.f.

Modulating
Signal

Output

have already learnt that one of the fattors affecting the inductance of a coil Core materials which are easily is the nature of the material composing its c|ore. materials are said to have high Such coil. of a inductance magnetized increase the "permeability." Ferrites, which are alloys Of iron, have very high permeability. The permeability of a material may be considered as the measure of the ease with

You

which magnetic

of force can pass through it. Clearly, a change of permeability of the core material of a coil will cause a change in the inductance of the coil. When a d.c. current is passed through one of the windings of a transformer having a ferrite the coils core, the permeability of the core material, and hence the inductances of
lines

the core, change. As d.c. current increases, so permeability decreases. In the circuit shown above, the "steady" or "no-signal" current through the moduWhe^n an audio signal is applied to the grid lator valve acts as a polarizing current. varied of the modulator valve, the d.c. current through the transformer primary is permethe in variations causing thus voltage, audio at the frequency of the applied ability of the core and hence in the inductance^ of the primary and secondary. These inductances vary at a rate dependent on the frequency of the applied signal,

wound on

and

an extent dependent on the amplitude of the audio signal. And since the secondary of the reactor forms part of the tuned circuit of the its output becomes oscillator stage, the oscillator frequency is also varied; and
to

frequency-modulated.

2]

6.25

REVIEW of

FM

Transmitters

Frequency Modulation, In frequency modulation the frequency of the r.f.

carrier signal is deviated at a rate and to an extent determined by the frequency and loudness of the audio signal being

transmitted.

Reactance

Valve.

The

reactance

valve achieves frequency modulation by

injecting the effects of varying capaci-

tance or inductance into the transmitter

oscillator
circuit.

This
into

is

known

as

"direct"
reactance
varies at

frequency
injected

modulation.
the

The

oscillator

a rate and to an extent determined by the frequency and amplitude

of the applied audio signal.

*"

Basic

FM
FM

Transmitter.

Except for

the addition of a reactance valve circuit,

^
"5]

"SI

a basic
the

transmitter is essentially

same as an

AM

transmitter with
ntcQUKNCY

lator.

modulation introduced into the oscilPre-emphasis is achieved by increasing the high-frequency gain of the

m -EL

low nmucHCY r

audio amplifier by a high-pass

frequency audio signals.

filter.

This increases the amplitude of the high-

w>
AmpUflwl A4o

r3
V*iylt
Ifl(ectd

CipKltinc*

Ferrite Reactor Modulator.

circuit,

In this
is

the

a.f.

modulating signal

applied to the grid of

a modulator

valve,

and causes a change in the inductances

of a ferrite reactor.
the reactor
is

The secondary of

part of the tuned circuit

of an oscillator. When the inductance of the reactor secondary changes, the frequency of the oscillator output
changes.

6.26

B*
(continued)

REVIEW of FM Transmitters
transmission
rectly."

Indirect Frequency Modulation.

FM
"indi-

can

be

achieved

The

oscillator

frequency rethe

mains

constant,

and
is

required

frequency deviation

introduced in one

of the stages following the oscillator.

The advantage of

this

method

is

that a

crystal-controlled oscillator can be used,

and a stable centre frequency can be

achieved without the use of frequencycorrecting circuits.

D>SS&H&fe

freModulation. Indirect Phase quency modulation can be achieved by the use of a phase modulator which
shifts

the phase of the

r.f.

signal

in

accordance with the variations of the

audio signal.

The transmitted

signal is

exactly equivalent to an

FM transmitted

signal produced "directly."

Audio Correction Network.

phase modulator
is

When a

used, the equivalent

carrier frequency deviation is in pro-

portion to the amplitude of the audio

signal.

Increases in the audio signal

frequency
phase-shift

cause

additional
r.f.

undesired
signal.

Corrected Audio Signal To Phase Modulator

of the

carrier

The undesired

increase in phase-shift is

eliminated by using an

RC

network to

decrease the amplitude of the audio signal

in proportion to the frequency rise.

3: FN
Introduction

RECEIVERS

6.27

The block diagram for an superhet receiver is very simitar to that of an superhet; but there are important differences within the i.f. amplifier and detector
sections.

FM

AM

The design and construction of the r.f. amplifier and oscillator stages also require and reliable operation is to be achieved, because FM receivers normally operate in the VHF band. The tendency towards instability arises largely from the effects of stray capacitances, which have to be minimized by using specially designed components and by careful lay-out of wiring and components.
special consideration if stable

sets which are to be used to receive high-fidelity radio broadaudio stages must be eapable of reproducing the wide range of audio frequencies used to modulate the transmitter. In receivers, for instance, the audio stages need only (by reason of broadcasting regulations) be capable of reproducing audio signals up to 7 kc/s. In receivers the audio stages are required to reproduce up to 15 kc/s. In the following pages, the differences between the i.f amplifier and detector sections of and receivers will be described; but the differences in the lay-out and con-

Furthermore, in

FM

casts, the

AM

FM

AM

FM

struction of the

r.f.,

oscillator

and audio, stages

will

not be considered.

6.28

[3

FM I.F. Amplifiers

This permits receiver the i.f. amplifiers are tuned to a fairly sharp peak. In an high gain and good selectivity to be obtained With only two, rarely more than three, simply designed stages. Since the audio signal modulating the r.f. signal does not

AM

normally exceed 5,000

result in

c/s, the mixing of the r.f. and local oscillator signals will an i.f. signal (usually of 465 kc/s) ha\)ing a bandwidth of 10,000 c/s. The bandwidth is 10,000 c/s because modulating the amplitude of an r.f. signal with an audio signal of 5,000 c/s results in sidebands both 5,000 c/s above and 5,000 c/s below the r.f. carrier frequency. Thus an i. f. amplifier can have a bandwidth as narrow as 10,000 c/s without significantly attenuating modulating signals with

frequencies

up

to 5,000

c/s.

The

situation in

FM receivers

FM

transmitter could well have a frequency deviation of 75,000 c/s above

its

below
below

centre frequency.

frequency oscillator signal,

its

centre frequency.
i.f.

Yorf have already learnt that an and signal is mixed with the fixedWhen the received the resulting i.f. [signal deviates 75,000 c/s above and This means that t 50,000 c/s is the minimum bandwidth
is

quite different.

FM

with which the

is

amplifier has to deal.

$
it

But, in order to pass the sidebands necessary to give a 150,000-c/s deviation,

desirable that the
is
i.f.

amplifier of

response

essentially flat

an FM receiver be so designed that over a bandwith of s much as 200 kc/s.

its

frequency

The
cycles.

i.f.

It
is

which

an receiver normally has a centre frequency of 10-7 megawould, therefore, be ideal for the amplifier to have a frequency response perfectly flat between 10-6 and 10-8 ntegacycleswith a perfectly sharp cutamplifier of

FM

off just outside this frequency range.

The reason why

is that, if it is

the response curve should be perfectly

flat

over the bandwidth

not, variations in gain at different frequencies will be introduced,

effect

and
un-

will

produce the

of amplitude modulation of the

signal.

This effect

is

desirable.

Although the

ideal frequency response

practice, three methods of obtaining a reasonable

mentioned above is never achieved in approximation^) it are in general use.

3]

6.29

FM I.F. Amplifiers (continued)

One method of obtaining a known as "staggered tuning."
Three
i.f.

reasonably

flat

response curve in an

i.f.

amplifier

is

amplifier stages are used, tuned to 10-6, 10-7

and

10-8 megacycles res-

pectively.

The

overall frequency response of this combination

diagram below.

Note that

is as shown in the at the intersection of the individual response curves of

two adjacent amplifiers, the gain of the two amplifiers adds up to produce a total which is about equal to the maximum gain of a single stage. Although this method produces a fairly satisfactory frequency response curve, the overall gain produced by the three stages is no higher than that of a single stage.

One way of counteracting

to have very high gain.

this is to take special care to design the individual stages

is

Another way
is

to

add a second group of

three similarly

tuned

i.f.

amplifiers

giving

six stages in all.

Neither of these solutions

required.

economical; and special alignment techniques are

Because of these two disadvantages, the "staggered tuning" method of achieving a good frequency response is not used as often as are the two others which are described in the following pages.

10.6

10.7

10.8

Frequency

6.30

[3

FM I.F. Amplifiers (continued)

Another method of obtaining the desired broad frequency response is to use i.f. amplifiers all tuned to the same centre frequency. Normally, this would give a very sharply tuned frequency response curve; but a broader response is obtained in each stage either by damping the windings of the transformers, or by using transformer coils with low Q. (Transformer windings are damped by connecting resistors of suitable values across them.) By reason of the broad frequency response of each of the amplifiers used in this method, the gain of each stage is low. The overall gain of the three stages, however,
three
is sufficient

to give the required signal amplification.

Although
duces great

curve, the overall gain

method produces only an approximation of the desired response is adequate; and neither the design nor the alignment proproblems. The method is frequently used in low-cost FM receivers.
this

Moreover, in recent years valves have been evolved capable of producing unusually high gain at the i.f. frequencies which are used in FM. When such Valves are used in conjunction with careful circuit and component design, good gain and frequency

3]

6.31

FM I.F. Amplifiers (continued)

response characteristics can be obtained with only two broadly tuned
type described.
i.f.

stages of the

A third method of achieving good

i.f.

amplifier stages tuned to the

are designed
stage
is

and tuned as

in

"over-coupled"

that

i.f. frequency response also makes use of three same centre frequency. The first and third stages the second method; but the transformer of the second

is

to say,

it is

so designed as to produce a double-

peaked frequency response curve.

When the individual response curves of the three stages are combined, the double peaks of the second stage have a significant effect in broadening the frequency response, and so producing a good approximation of the desired response curve. This method gives a flat frequency response curve with adequate gain; but alignment is more difficult than is the case in the other methods. Use of the new high-gain valves in this method gives good gain and response
characteristics.

There are other methods of obtaining the required response with adequate overgain; but they are usually combinations of the three methods mentioned. When quality rather than cost is the prime consideration, one or more i.f. stages may be added and the result will be a better response characteristic with higher gain.
all

First IF

Second IF

Third IF

Overall IF

ALTERNATE

SING LE-AND-DOUBLE- PEAKED STAGES

6.32

[3

The Llmiter and the Discriminator

Ae^

To Audio

\mplifier

AAA/
b

etor Output Smnai

Input Signal

I.imiter

Output Sign

Amplitude nations

Has No Amplitude
Variations

Two

diflferent

types of detector arrangement are in

common

use in

FM

receivers;

and these must both be described in detail. The first type makes use of two stages with different functions: a limiter and a discriminator. The limiter eliminates all amplitude variations in the received signal,
so that the detector receives a signal which
is

varying in frequency only.

The

discriminator converts the

is

FM signal output of the limiter to an audio signal,

the frequency of which

amplitude of which

is

in proportion to the

equal to the frequency of the carrier signal swing, and the magnitude of the frequency variation.

3]

6.33

Hie Limiter and the Discriminator

(continued)

The Elimination Of Amplitude Variations

Results In The Elimination Of Noise

non-ideal

RF and IF

/
lightning
electrical

Amplifier Response

equipment

'

'

/ ,/

/ ''/'

'

f
\

defective neon signs

temporary fading

The purpose of the limiter is to eliminate all amplitude variations in signals. This elimination is necessary because the discriminator is sensitive to amplitude variations and will reproduce them as signal distortion and noise in its audio output
signal.

FM

There are two main reasons for the amplitude variations which exist in signals. r.f. and i.f. stages do not have a frequency response which is perfectly flat across the top and with sharp cut-offs. Any variations from this response cause different amounts of amplification for different signal frequencies. The second cause of amplitude variations is the interference signals caused by electrical equipment, lightning flashes, atmospheric disturbances, neon signs and a wide variety of other causes. In vehicles there is also signal fading when hills,
First, the

FM

power

lines, steel bridges

and other

large objects temporarily obstruct the signal

path between the transmitter and receiver. If these variations reach the discriminator, they will produce noise or fading in the audio signal output. It is the function of the limiter to eliminate these variations, and so to give receivers their well-known freedom from noise.

FM

6.34

[3
the Discriminator (continued)

The Limiter and

i.f.

The diagram of a limiter circuit given below shows a close resemblance both to an amplifier and to the grid-leak detector described in Part 5. The circuit limits the peak-to-peak voltage of the output signal to a fixed and pre-determined value
for all

normal input signal levels received from the i.f. amplifier. Examination of a typical limiter circuit shows that the valve develops its grid bias by means of a grid resistor and of a fixed capacitor in the grid circuit. The valve is of the sharp cut-off type, and is operated with low anode voltage. The circuit diagram shows a triode for purposes of simplicity, although a pentode is generally

used.

Note that the grid circuit arrangement is basically the circuit of a diode detector. The control grid acts as the diode anode, and the grid-leak resistor, R lt acts as the diode load. The grid capacitor, Clt serves both to couple signal to grid and to take
part in developing the grid bias.

When
comes

a positive signal peak from the

i.f.

amplifier reaches the grid, the grid be-

The flow of electrons through the grid-leak resistor to earth produces a voltage drop across that resistor, and the flow is in such a direction as to make the grid negative with respect to the
positive

and

attracts electrons

from the cathode.

cathode.

During the first few positive signal peaks from the i.f. amplifier, electrons also accumulate on the capacitor plate next to the grid. Sufficient electrons accumulate on that plate to maintain a stable current flow through the resistor during all parts of the cycle. Thus the magnitude of the grid bias is determined by the magnitude of the positive The greater the amplitude of the input signal, signal peak from the i.f. amplifier.
the greater
is

the negative grid bias.

LIMITER
|

HT+

Discriminator

3]

6.35
the Discriminator (continued)

The Limiter and

To

see the effect of this negative grid bias,

examine the

IJVg

curve shown in the

illustration.

An input signal
X.

of low amplitude develops the low negative bias illustrated by line

is less

This bias voltage

will

than the voltage of the positive signal peak.

Conse-

quently, the uppermost portion of the positive signal

peak

will drive the grid positive,

and the grid

draw

current.

This current flow overloads the i.f. amplifier output transformer, and the current flow through the internal impedance of the transformer causes a drop in the output
signal voltage.

Thus the

positive

so that the peak can rise only a slight

peak of the signal is clipped at the amount above zero volts.

limiter grid,

The

negative peak of the grid signal drives the limiter almost to the point of cut-

off, just

up

to the point where clipping of the negative peak begins.

Anode

Anode Current Curve

LIMITER OPERATION

Cutoff

Grid Current Flows

6.36

[3
the Discriminator (continued)
is

The Limiter and

of greater amplitude, a large negative bias is developed, Large as this bias is, it is less than the voltage of the positive signal peak. So again the upper section of the signal peak
as illustrated

When

the input signal

by

line

Y in the diagram below.

drives the grid positive, causes grid current flow,

positive peak.

and

results in the clipping

of the

The negative peak of the grid signal is now of sufficient amplitude to drive the valve beyond cut-off, and the negative peak is clipped as shown. Thus any signal which has an amplitude greater than the signal shown will have both its positive and negative peaks clipped. The limiter output will be the same for all such signals. Weaker signals will not have their negative peaks clipped, and there will be a small amount of amplitude variation. While the clipping action does distort the shape of the output signal, the discriminator is not sensitive to such distortion,

and the desired frequency

variations are preserved.

For a

limiter stage to act as a limiter, however, grid current

must flow so

that at

least the positive

peaks of the input signal are clipped.

3]

6.37
the Discriminator (continued)

The Limiter and

DISCRIMINATOR

limiter

Audio Amplifier

Discriminator Circuit

Although there are a number of discriminator circuits in use today, they have all been developed from the basic circuit described here. In this circuit the final i.f. transformer has a centre-tapped secondary winding, and each half of this secondary winding has its own tuning capacitor. To understand the operation of the circuit, it is essential to know exactly how the various windings
are tuned. the centre frequency of the i.f. signal. Seconfrequency 75 kc/s higher than the centre frequency, a tuned to dary winding Lx is frequency 75 kc/s lower than the centre tuned to L is winding a secondary and y frequency. Thus these two Windings are tuned to the extreme ends of the maximum

The transformer primary is tuned to

frequency deviation of the

i.f.

signal.

Low-voltage signals are developed across each transformer secondary winding when the incoming signal is at the centre frequency. As the incoming signal swings towards the resonant frequency of either tuned secondary winding, an increasingly large signal is developed across that winding. The signal appearing across each transformer is rectified by a separate diode Thus, d.c. voltages are developed across resistors Rx and Ry and each rectifier. voltage is proportional to the amplitude of the signal appearing across the associated transformer secondary winding. Current flow through each resistor is in the direction shown by the arrows, and the voltages developed across the two resistors are
,

in opposition.

The resultant of these two

voltages

is

the signal applied to the audio amplifier.

6.38

B3
(continued)
indicate

The Limiter and the Discriminator

The resonance curves shown below

how an

FM signal coming out of the

of the
i.f.

i.f.

amplifier.

(You must remember

audio signal results from the that the frequency

amplifier swings at a rate equal to the transmitted audio signal,

is

and the
In this

deviation of the frequency

in proportion to the amplitude of the audio signal.)

is

Assume
case the

that the transmitted signal

a 1,000-c/s note at low volume.

its

i.f.

signal will deviate, say, 15 kc/s to either side of

centre frequency,

and

the frequency swing will be at a rate of 1,000 times per second. When the i.f. signal swings to 15 kc/s higher than its centre frequency, a certain d.c. voltage is developed across x and a lower d.c. voltage is developed across

These two voltages are opposed to each other; but since the voltage across larger, a positive signal is applied to the audio amplifier input.

Ry Rx is the
.

As the i.f. signal swings back towards its centre frequency, the voltage across Rx becomes lower; and the voltage across Ry becomes larger. At the centre frequency the two voltages are equal and opposite, and the voltage applied to the audio
amplifier
is

zero.

Then, as the i.f. signal swings towards 15 kc/s lower than

its

centre

frequency, the voltage across

negative.

Ry becomes larger,

while that across

amplifier input

Rx becomes lower.

The result is that the voltage applied to the audio

becomes increasingly

In this way, since the i.f. frequency swings back and forth at a rate of 1,000 cycles per second, a 1,000-c/s signal of low amplitude is connected to the audio amplifier
input.
If the frequency deviation increases, as
signal, larger voltages are
it

would with a louder transmitted audio

is

developed across

Rx and Ry at the extremes of the frequency

connected to the

swing.

The

result is that

an audio signal of high amplitude

audio amplifier input.

Produces Negative Voltage

Resonance
'urve of Ly

Produces Positive Voltage / Across R x

Tuned
Circuit

Resonance Curve or- L^ Tuned i

>
\
\
+

Output

/
/

FREQUENCY

10.625

10.7

10.75

\l
Across R x

Low Amplitude
Input v Signal

"I
1

Output

Across Ry
^High Amplitude
Input Signal

\l

31

"

The Foster-Seeley Discriminator

from Although the discriminator described on the previous pages is the basic type used. seldom itself it is evolved, been have discriminators other which a number of One reason is because the circuit is difficult to align, on account of the two separate is because tuning frequencies of the secondary windings of the transformer. Another
the transformer
it

uses

is

more

on account of the arrangements.

difficulties

costly to make than is the ordinary i.f. transformer, of designing and manufacturing the unusual secondary

a variation on this basic The major physical receivers. circuit which is very widely used in modern than split; and rather difference is that the transformer secondary is centre-tapped, The diodes circuit. secondary that a single tuning capacitor is used in the transformer

The

Foster-Seeley discriminator

now

to be described

is

FM

operate in the same manner as in the basic discriminator circuit. centre Both the primary and secondary windings are tuned to resonate at the the signal, i.f. of the swing frequency frequency of the i.f. signal. Regardless of the
signal voltage across the

upper half of the transformer secondary, Lx, is always The signal equal to the signal voltage across the lower half of the secondary, Lr L choke, r.f. the to is fed primary 2 , through voltage developed across the transformer
the coupling capacitor,

The

voltage across

Ca Lz adds
.

both to the voltage across

Lx and to

the voltage across

Ly

as will be shown.
this

With L and

Lz

arrangement, the phase relationships between the voltages across Lxt signal voltage is will vary as the i.f. frequency deviates; and an audio

developed across the discriminator output.

FOSTER
SEELEY

DISCRIMINATOR

_f

6.40
TTie Foster-Seeley Discriminator {continued)

[3

If you warnine the circuit diagram on page 6.39, you will see that vectorial addition of the voltages across L and L2 will produce the voltage across diode y y and its load y Similarly, vectorial addition of the voltages across L and L will x z produce the voltage across diode x and its load R x When the i.f. signal is at its centre frequency, the signal voltages across L andL x y are equal, and 180 out of phase with each other. They are also 90 out of phase with the signal voltage across Lz (for Lz is connected to the centre-tap). The voltages across diode x and diode y are therefore equal (see vector diagram (a) below), and the output to the audio amplifier is zero. When the i.f. signal rises, the reactance in the secondary winding becomes

in-

remain equal and 180 out of phase with each other, they are no longer 90 out of phase with the voltage across Lz The resultant voltage across diode Dy is higher than that across diode Dx (see vector diagram (b) below), and a negative voltage is applied to the audio
.

creasingly inductive.

Although the signal voltages across

Lx

and

Ly

amplifier.

When the i.f. signal falls below that of the centre frequency, the reactance in the secondary winding becomes increasingly capacitive. The voltages add as shown in vector diagram (c) below, and that across diode x becomes higher than that across diode y Thus a positive voltage is delivered to the audio amplifier.

So, as the i.f. frequency swings back and forth, an audio signal is developed to correspond to the frequency and amplitude of the i.f. frequency deviation. You can now see why a limiter stage is used with such discriminators. If the amplitude of the i.f. signal applied to the discriminator is varying because of
interference, the voltage across

Lz

will also

varyand

noise and the audio signal output will

be affected. There are thus two factors which could affect the amplitude of the audio output voltagechanges in i.f. signal frequency (which convey intelligence), and changes in i.f. signal amplitude (which are unwanted). limiter stage always precedes discriminators of this kind, therefore, with the object of eliminating variations in amplitude.

Voltages across components

with
if

signal at centre

frequency

NO

AUDIO SIGNAL OUTPUT

Lx
Ly
Diode

Diode Dx &

Cx
Diode

Dy&Ry

Ly

W
Lx

^ Lz
Diode Dx &

M
Cx
i

vc
l_ x

Dy& Ry

.Lz

Diode

Dx&Cx

Voltages across components with

if. signal above centre frequency. Negative Voltage to Audio Amplifier

Voltages across components with f. signal below centre frequency Positive. Voltage to Audio Amplifier

IF
[Amplifier

RATIO

DETECTOR

a circuit been developed. Since it permits the elimination of one stage in the receiver, it is in widespread use today. The diodes in this circuit are connected in series, the individual diode audio signal voltages being developed across Rx and R The detector output voltage is developed 2 across jR3 , which is in the circuit of both diodes. Because of the way in which the diodes are connected, the incoming i.f. signal is rectified in such a manner that the upper part of the RC networkR u R2 and Cy is charged positively, while the lower part of that network is charged negatively.
called

You saw on the last page that something is needed in discriminator circuits to eliminate variations in the amplitude of the i.f. signal; and that in some discriminators a limiter is used for that purpose. In order to provide detection without the need for a limiter stage,

FM

ratio detector has

FM

The

voltage developed across the

i.f.

RC network is determined by the amplitude of the

average

signal voltage.

The time constant of the network is generally of the order of 0-1 seconds. With such a time constant short-term amplitude variations of the i.f. signal caused by noise will have no effect in changing the voltage across the network.
Long-term increases and decreases in
i.f.

and

decreases across the

RC network.

signal level cause corresponding increases

6.42

t3
(continued)

The Ratio Detector

It is

very important in the operation of this circuit to establish a stable voltage

.

signal deviates about its centre frequency, the voltages across C2 As the both Cx and Cy will vary. But the sum of these voltages will always be equal to that across C2 which thus remains constant.

across

i.f.

The tuned

circuits in the ratio detector operate in exactly the

same way

as they

do

in the Foster-Seeley discriminator.

The

phase-shift diagrams for that discriminator

are also true for the ratio detector.

When
polarity.

the

i.f.

signal is at its centre frequency, the transformer secondary is at

resonance.

The voltages across Cx and Cy are therefore equal, but opposite The voltage across output resistor R$ is zero, and no signal is applied
i.f.

in

to

the audio amplifier.

When
in

the

signal increases in frequency, the phase relationships are as

shown

diagram

(b) below;
.

and

the resultant voltage across diode

.

Dy

is

higher than

that across diode

Dx When the i.f

is

signal frequency decreases, the resultant voltage

across diode

across Cx and Cy are unequal, but their sum always equals the voltage across C2 The differences between Cx and Cy cause the development of an audio frequency
.

Dx

higher than that across diode

Dy

In both cases the voltages

voltage across i? 3 , and this output signal

is

applied to the audio amplifier.

is

The purpose of inserting R4 and R 5 in the circuit circuit to reject signals of varying amplitude.

to improve the ability of the

h
JT Diode

Volumes
with
I

ar

r<

;ss
at

components
centre

Dy & Cv
"

F sim Kil frequency

^y^
|^
I

NO AUDIO SIGNAL OUTPUT

^\\

^*

Diode Dx <vC x

-y
Diode Dy&C,
Diode

Dy&Cj
(c)

(b)

a:

^
Diode

D X &CX

Diode

Dv&C,

| Voltages across components with Voltages across components with I IF signal below centre frequency IF signal above centre frequency Negative Voltage to Audio Amplifier J Positive Voltage to Audio Amplifier

 3J

6.43

The Advantages and Disadvantages of FM Detectors Both the limiter-discriminator and ratio detector circuits have advantages and disadvantages. Each type is preferred by some designers, and it is essentially a matter of
personal preference as to which is used. The important advantage of the liniiter^scriminator arrangement is that it is a relatively simple matter to balance the two sides of the discriminator, and so to obtain excellent reproduction of the audio-frequency signal. One disadvantage is that the limiter does not operate unless the incoming signal has sufficient amplitude
to cause the limiting action to take place. When limiting action does not take place, the amplitude variations in the signal result in interfering noise and signal distortion.

This means that high-gain r.f. and i.f. stages must be used to boost the signal amplitude into the limiter. Alternatively, in a number of receivers two limiters are used in a cascade arrangement to assure that adequate limiting action will take

FM

low amplitude may result in a "noisy" output from the discriminator. The important advantage of the ratio detector is that it is not sensitive to amplitude variations in the incoming signal. Hence, the ratio detector circuit has no need for a limiter stage, or stages, and does not depend on the use of r.f. and i.f. stages of unusually high gain. One disadvantage of the ratio detector is that special care

place; but even under these conditions signals of very

must be taken to balance the two

sensitivity to
signals.

sides of the detector; otherwise some of the inamplitude modulation will be lost, and noise will accompany weak
is

Another

that the ratio detector

is

more

liable to

the audio signal output

when

the

i.f.

amplifier has

an

insufficiently

produce distortion in broad frequency

response range.

O
LIMITER DISCRIMINATOR

Detector
ADVANTAGES
Simple balancing

Comparison
DISADVANTAGES

Weak

signals subject to interference

RATIO

Weak

signals not

Distortion and noise rise

with detector unbalance and

DETECTOR

subject to

interference

decreasing bandwidth

6.44

[*

FM ReceiverAutomatic Gain Control

teristics

Because of the transmission characradio waves, signals of

FM

from

distant

stations

are

subject

to

significant variations in signal strength.

Moreover, the difference between signal levels from near and distant stations is system than it is in greater in an systems, because existing

FM

AM

FM

systems

work

in the

VHF

band.
are largely

Although

FM

receivers

immune from

trouble caused

by

differ-

ences in signal amplitude,

tor or ratio detector stages.

it is still

important that the signal level at the detector

section should be of sufficient strength for correct operation of the limiter-nliscrimina-

As

in

AM superheterodyne receivers, the negative AGC voltage in an FM receiver

The gain
signals,
is

varies the gain of the

signal.

stages in accordance with the amplitude of the received voltage when there are strong reduced by the negative
i.f.

AGC

lesser degree in the case of weak inamplitude at the detector. coming signals. This results in a stable "signal can be obtained from voltage When limiter-discriminator stages are used,

incoming

and the gain

is

reduced to a

AGC

the resistor in the limiter grid-to-cathode plate next to the grid retains a negative charge.
circuit,

circuit.

Remember
two

that the capacitor

If

resistors rather

than one

a voltage divider arrangement is formed; and are placed in the grid-to-cathode of the two resistors (see diagram above). junction the AGC voltage is available at with increasing i.f. signal level, the increases grid the on Since the negative voltage
requirements for
voltage are met. circuit the voltage across the R u R 2 ,< C2 network increases detector ratio the In and decreases with corresponding changes in the i.f. signal level. Since a negative voltage
is

AGC

available, this is

a convenient source of AGC

voltage.

AGC FROM
RATIO DETECTOR

- AGC VOLTAGE

3]

6.45

FM ReceiverDe-emphasis
The purpose of pre-emphasis was explained in the section dealing with FM transIt is a method of improving the reproduction of high-frequency audio signals; and the method involves increasing the high-frequency gain of the transmitter audio amplifier according to the frequency response curve shown below.
mitters.

To bring the amplitude of the entire range of audio frequencies back to the distribution found in the speech and music originally used to modulate the carrier wave put out by the transmitter, it is necessary to use "de-emphasis" to counteract the
added high-frequency gain. introduced in the
transmitter.

The method of accomplishing de-emphasis is to use an RC network which reduces the high-frequency audio signal by exactly the same amount as that by which it was increased in the transmitter. The basic circuit is shown in the diagram below. The circuit is a low-pass filter which operates on the principle of a voltage divider. The capacitor is a small one, in the order of 0001 microfarads. At low frequencies the capacitor has a very high impedance, and most of the audio signal voltage is applied' to the grid. As the audio frequency rises, the impedance of the capacitor decreases; and increasingly less signal voltage is applied to the grid. The result is that the de-emphasis network reduces the high-frequency gain of the amplifier and
counterbalances the effects of pre-emphasis.
tector

The de-emphasis circuit and the input to the

is

first

normally to be found between the output of the deaudio amplifier.

Pre-emphasis Curve
Resultant

Frequency Response
-

De-emphasis Curve

FREQUENCY

6.46

[3

The Complete

FM Tuner
FREQUENCY CHANGER
I2AH8

RATIO
IF

RFAMP
6AM6

AMP

IF

AMP

DETECTOR
6ALS

6BA6

6BA6

To

receive

FM broadcasts, you must use an FM wireless receiver or an FM tuner

a.f. amplifier.

with a separate
detector, or
amplifier.

The

a.f. amplifier

might well be part of an

AM wireless
a.f.

receiver with switching facilities such that the output of the

FM tuner, or of the AM

of a gramophone pick-up can be connected to the input of the

The circuit of the complete

use to-day.

FM tuner shown above is typical of those in widespread

is

(See also page 6.51.)

An
plies

FM tuner is

an

FM receiver which

complete except for the audio amplifier

stages.

In some cases tuners have their

own power supply

others obtain their sup-

from a separate source, as is the case here. The FM tuner above has five valves. The circuit consists of an r.f. amplifier, a frequency changer, a two-stage i.f. amplifier and a ratio detector. The tuning range Examination of the comis from 88 to 100 Mc/s, the i.f. frequency is 10-7 Mc/s. plete circuit will show you that there is very little in it which you have not met before. FM tuners require a dipole aerial mounted as high as possible, either horizontally or vertically depending on the polarization of the transmitter aerial serving the area. The aerial should be connected to the timer by an 80-ohm screened feeder cable.

The input

circuit

of the

r.f.

amplifier in the tuner

is

broadly tuned so as to allow

band without the need for manual tuning. Incoming signals from the aerial are coupled to a 6AM6 (rX amplifier valve) by means of the r.f. transformer 7V The secondary of 7\ is not tuned by a variable capacitor; instead, the inter-electrode capacitance between grid and cathode of Vlt together with stray capacitances, broadly tune the secondary of T\ over the range 88-100 Mc/s. Although gain is lost by broad tuning, this is compensated by using high-gain amplifier valves in the r.f. amplifier and in the stages that follow. The signal developed across L x in the anode circuit of the 6AM6 is coupled to the grid of V2 > which is the frequency changerin this case a triode-hexode 12AH8. The hexode section of this valve amplifies the incoming signal frequency, and combines it with the oscillator frequency produced by the triode section of the valve.
amplification over the frequency


3]
6.47

The Complete

FM Tuner (continued)
FREQUENCY CHANGER
I2AH8

RFAMR
6AM6

mo:
22K-

Pp

3-5L_
i'5

p
,

04^015^
CB-700 P
-nnnRp
L2
Rl

47KJ

The

difference

between the two, the

i.f., is

transformer

T3 in the anode circuit of the hexode section,

developed across the primary of the i.f. and coupled by the secon-

dary of

T3

to the succeeding stages.

The
10-7

oscillator is
is

frequency

an Armstrong type, and the tuning is such that the oscillator always 10-7 Mc/s lower than the signal frequencythe result being a

in the heater circuits of Vx and V2 in order to prevent feed-back affecting the stability of the tuner. To form the two i.f. amplifier stages, two 6BA6 pentode valves are used. Conventional i.f. amplifier circuits, as described in Part 5 of Basic Electronics, are used. The i.f. transformers are permeability-tuned to the centre frequency 10-7 Mc/s. The

Mc/s i.f. signal. The choke L2 is connected

frequency response of the

i.f.

transformers

is

broad enough to allow the

full

deviation

of

75

kc/s in the

i.f.

signal to be passed to the following stage.

6.48

[3

The Complete

FM Toner (continued)
RATIO

IF

AMP

IF

AMP

DETECTOR
6AL5

6BA6

6BA6

amplifier stages is coupled to a double diode, 6AL5, connected This valve operates as described on pages 6.41-6.42, save that the transformer Ts has a third winding L2t instead of a separate r.f. choke. This "tertiary" winding, as it is called, consists of a few turns closely coupled to the lower end of the primary winding. The voltage induced in it from the primary is 180 out of phase with that in the primary. The voltages across the two halves of the secondary are both 90 out of phase with that in the primary, and the same amount out of phase with the reference voltage across the "tertiary" winding. The purpose of the tertiary is to permit the use of a high-impedance primary in the

The output of the i.f.

as a ratio detector.

anode

circuit of the last i.f. transformer, while making the construction of the transformer simpler. The a.f. output of the ratio detector is developed across C2St and fed via the deemphasis network 1S and C2 6 to the output socket. This output should then be fed through a screened cable into a good-quality a.f. amplifier whose frequency response is reasonably flat over the range 40 c/s to 15,000 c/s.

3]

6.49

REVIEW of FM

Receivers

FM
of an
the

Receiver Block Diagram.

The

block diagrams of an

FM

receiver and receiver are

AM superheterodyne

But there are differences inside every one of the stagesthe most important being in the i.f. amplifier and
same.
the detector.

LF. Amplifier Bandwidth.

tive amplification

For effecof the receiver carrier

it

and side-band
that
flat

signals,

is

desirable

the

i.f.

amplifier should have a

response for 100 kc/s both above and below the centre frequency.

STAGGERED
TUNING
Staggered-tuned LF.
i.f.

This type of

amplifier

may

contain three stages

tuned to 10-6, 10*7 and 10-8 megacycles,

respectively.

Characteristics are a good

curve,

frequency
the

response

an

overall

gain equal to that of a single stage, and

need for special alignment tech-

niques.

10.1

Frequency

mrt?"i

Centre-tuned Broad
this type

Band LF.

In

of

i.f.

amplifier all stages

emAll

ploy transformers whose windings are

damped so as

to gire a low

Q.

stages are tuned to the centre frequency.

Adequate gain can be achieved, frequency response is acceptable and the

alignment procedure
is simple.

10.

10.7

10.8

6.50

[3

REVIEW of

FM Receivers

(continued)

Double-peaked I.F. Stage. The frequency response carve obtainable with

centre-frequency tuning be can improved by using an over-coupled i.f. transformer in one stage. The doublepeaked response curve produced broadens the overall response of the

complete i.f. amplifier. The alignment procedure becomes only slightly more complex.

LIMITER

Limiter Stage.

The

limiter clips

HT*

the positive and negative peaks of the

i.f.

amplifier output signal,

and thus

eliminates amplitude variations.

One
is

or more limiting stages are required

if

a discriminator type of detector

Arrows snow electron current flow

used.

Discriminator.

The

discriminator

converts the limiter output signal to

an audio

signal.
is

The frequency of
equal to the fre-

the audio signal

quency of the carrier signal swing, and

the amplitude
is in

proportion to the

magnitude of the frequency variation.

The discriminator is sensitive to amplitude variations, and must be preceded

by a

limiter.

Ratio Detector.
provides

The ratio detector The audio

out-

FM

detection without the

need for a limiter.

put of this detector
is

a function of the ratio of the voltages across C% and

y. The circuit is not sensitive to amplitude variations in the i.f. signal.

3]

6.51

m Z D H

fe

6.53

WARNING
Certain of the processes, devices
in

and

circuit

arrangements described
6,

the following Sections

of "Basic Electronics" Part

is

are pro-

prietary.

The information given

the fact that
it is

presented for educational purposes

it is

only;

and

included does not imply that

freely

available for use in design, manufacture or sale.

No

person or body

having any part

in

the preparation, printing or publication

liability resulting

of

this

volume

will

be responsible for any

from unlicensed

use of the material in question.

The Authors and Publishers wish

to the

to

extend their special appreciation

to the

Radio Corporation of America, and

Heath Company
to

{a

subsidiary of

Daystrom Incorporated), for authority

designs.

reproduce

some of their

6 56

INTRODUCTION TO "SOLID-STATE" ELECTRONICS

Brief History of Transistors and Semi-conductor Diodes

Two important developments in present-day electronics are the "semi-conductor diode" and the "transistor." These two devices are the first commercially available
new field of study. It is called "solid-state" electronics. The semi-conductor diode is a development of the crystal detector used in the early radio receivers. This new device can detect, mix and rectify alternating current signals with excellent efficiency, and has a wide variety of important new applications. The transistor was discovered in 1948 as the result of extensive studies of the operation of semi-conductor diodes. Its name was derived from the words "transfer resistor" and is descriptive of a phenomenon which enables a completely solid device to amplify
representatives of a vast
electrical signals.

Within the next few years these two devices will extensively replace valves in many and they may be employed in a wide variety of domestic, transportation, industrial, scientific and military equipments which do not employ
types of existing equipment,
electronics at present.

Nor

is this

their only significance.

They

are the precursors of other

new

solid-

state electronic devices,

now in various

stages of development,
electric

advances in domestic and industrial illumination,

which may bring great power generation, con-

version of eiSctiicnower to mechanical motion, computer memory storage, ultraMgh-soeeo^dat^ transmission, detection and measurement of physical and chemical

changes, electronic ignitio%and in many other aspects of our domestic and industrial life.

] A Brief History of Transistors and Semi-conductor Diodes (continued)

6.57

The early discoveries in the field of electricity made by Volta, Ampere, Gauss, Faraday, Hertz and others raised fundamental problems concerning the nature of matter; and the first investigations into matter itself raised more problems than they provided answers. The first real break-through to the modern concept of matter came in 1897, when Sir J. J. Thompson discovered the electron while studying electric discharges through
rarified gasses. Thompson's discovery was rapidly verified by other investigators. In 1913 Bohr evolved the basic theory of atomic structure, and that theory has been developed to our present-day concept of the nature of matter. According to the atomic theory, all materials consist of various combinations of about one hundred different types of atoms. The atom is defined as the smallest unit into which an element may be divided before it loses its physical and chemical

identity.

All atoms consist of a positively charged nucleus, around which one or

more

The electrons rotate rings or shells located at varying distances from the nucleus.
negatively charged electrons rotate.

in orbits

which make up

The number of electrons

in the various rings or shells determine the specific element to

Electrons in the inner rings or shells

electrical characteristics; that is

which the atom belongs. have nothing to do with the ability of an atom
its

to enter into chemical combinations with other atoms, or to exhibit

various

The

electrical
its

determined only by the electrons in the outer ring. characteristics of an atom are determined by how tightly the nucleus

holds on to

by a weak

electric field, the material will

outer electrons. If the outer electrons are easily stripped off the atom conduct easily; and the material is known
If

as a "conductor."

a very strong
is

electric field is required to strip the electrons

off the atom, the material

known

as

an "insulator."

6.58

[|

A Brief History of Transistors and Semi-conductor Diodes {continued)

The material which is used in transistors and semi-conductor diodes is known as "semi-conductor" material. This term is a general one, and applies to all materials having a greater electrical resistance to current flowing through them in one direction
than they have to current flowing through them in the opposite direction. The materials which are of greatest use in present-day transistor applications are germanium and silicon, the characteristics of which will be considered shortly. Interest in semi-conductors began back in 1873, when it was discovered that rods and wires of selenium acquired decreased electrical resistance when struck by sunlight. It was demonstrated that this was due to the presence of light; not to heating, which normally results in an increase in electrical resistance. Later investigators found similar effects in other materials, but the change in resistance was so small that no practical applications could be found. The next significant development was in 1906. At that time a variety of crystalline semi-conductors were used as detectors of radio signals. Materials so used included galena (lead sulphide), silicon, iron pyrites and carborundum. The most common detector arrangement consisted of a piece of crystalline galena in contact with a short length of flexible wire (which was called a "cat's whisker"). Such a device, which was known as the "crystal detector," would have been used in the circuit arrangement shown in the diagram below. This circuit made possible the reception of radio signals; for the crystal acted as a rectifier allowing easy current flow in one direction only.

 I]

6.59

A Brief History of Transistors and Semi-conductor Diodes (continued)

The thermionic valve, known was developed, and it served as a much more reliable detector than the crystal arrangement. Valves had the additional advantage of being able to amplify the detector output signal to an amplitude and power level sufficiently high to drive a loudspeaker. During World War II radar was in a continuous state of development. One of the most important problems was the detection of its extremely high-frequency radio signals. Improvement in locating small targets demanded an increase in radar frequency, and every increase in frequency caused new problems in the mixer stage.

The

success of the crystal detector

was

short-lived.

as the

"vacuum tube"

in the United States,

New types

of valves were developed for the purpose, but eventually a frequency limit

was reached beyond which valve-type mixers would not operate. Crystal mixers were then tried; and the silicon semi-conductor type was found to be the most successful. Improved types of this mixer are widely used to-day in microwave radars. While crystal mixers were being developed, a variety of semi-conductor materials were also investigated. Of these materials, silicon and germanium were found to have very interesting properties, which were systematically investigated on a large scale as soon as the War was over.

6.60

[l

A Brief History of Transistors and Semi-conductor Diodes (continued)

the first developments was a diode detector made of germanium. This was used in radio, television and miscellaneous electronics applications; but there was only a limited need for a detector of this type. During the development of germanium detectors, however, a very important discovery was made. It was found that when two very close electrical contacts are made with a piece of germanium, the current flow through one of the contacts affects the amount of current flow through the other contact. A close similarity was observed between this effect and the signal amplification which occurs in a valve, except that no heated cathode and no vacuum was required. An enormous amount of work was done at the Bell Telephone Laboratories, in the United States, on developing this effect; and in 1948 the first solid-state amplifying device, the transistor, was announced. The discovery of the transistor led to a new interest in semi-conductor diodes, and
detector

One of

subsequently to the development of a wide variety of important

new

uses.

1]

6.61

A Vast New Field of Study Opens

,~***

AUTOMATIC DATA TRANSMISSION

The result of these discoveries, made during the last decade, is that there are opening to-day enormous opportunities for interesting and important work in the
of transistor and semiconductor diode applications. And these opportunities be vastly multiplied in the field of solid-state electronics which is just beginning to be developed. The most important characteristic of transistors to-day is their ability to replace valves in a wide variety of applications. About 65 per cent of present-day transistors are used in the field of entertainment and domestic applications, about 25 per cent in the industrial and commercial fields, and about 10 per cent goes to military applicafields

will

tions.

But in a few years' time, there can be

little

doubt that

transistors will

become

well

established in fields in which even valves have to-day only a tentative foothold.

These will include industrial control systems, complete automation systems, computers and automatic data transmission systems. It is also expected that there will soon be an enormous expansion of the use of
transistors in military applications.

6.62

The Advantages of Transistors

Why
valves?

is it

that transistors are

now

being so widely accepted as replacements for

Transistors have five basic advantages over valves;

discussed.
transistors are extremely small in ranging from the dimensions of subminiature valves down to less than a quarter of that size. This small size makes it much
First,
size,

and these must now be

briefly

easier

to
is

which

produce miniature equipment, a great convenience in the entervital

tainment and industrial fields and of importance in military applications.

l^'VI Hv! 1 I ^^ J^ B
I

Subminiature
Valve

kVf ^mII
/

a *W
Transistor

SMALL

SIZE

Second, transistors are inherently capable of performing their

function for an indefinite period

of time

before

their

operating

characteristics deteriorate. Valves

wear out much more quickly.

consume much less power than do valves. They operate without any of the need for a heated cathode which is a feature of valves and remember
Third,
transistors

wevk
vy.\VAVCAvr,

!&&>TwTivAVAV>v .\v.

Battery for Valve

Sv^&^^&Sww

Radio

that this heating of the cathode accounts for

a large proportion of the power which valvetype equipment consumes.

It is

these large

power needs
with

that

make

it

difficult

to produce portable battery-powered

valve-type

equipment
life.

Battery for Transistor Radio

reasonably

long operating

Transistors enable the

same equipment to be made both lighter and smaller; and also give it an operating life
of the order of
five

LOW POWER
CONSUMPTION

times longer.

1]

6.63

The Advantages of

Transistors (continued)

Fourth, transistors require lower power supply voltages: from about 4*5 to 75 volts,

compared with 75 to 350 volts generally required by valves. Use of these lower voltages reduces the filtering, screening and voltage rating requirements of the power supply. The lower insulation requirements permit the use of R, L and C components significantly smaller in size than those used in con-

ventional valve equipment

further

facilitat-

ing the miniaturisation of equipment.

L\1PLJHLD REPAIR

Fifth,

transistor

circuit

is

generally

simpler,

and needs fewer components than does an equivalent valve circuit. When this

feature is combined with the small size and low power requirements of transistor circuit

components,
assemblies

it

permits the construction of

larger

subminiature equipment and subminiature

for

equipment systems.

Since mass-production can be used to provide

such assemblies at low cost, they can be

available to

made

simplify the task

of keeping

equipment in operation by making possible speedy and economical replacement of complete sections of the equipment.

a possible advantage lies in the future. Transistors tend at more expensive than are valves doing the same sort of job; but as the demand for transistors reaches heights which allow certain types of them to be mass-produced, it is hoped that prices can be brought down to between a quarter and a third of present levels. Such a reduction would, of course, make some transistors competitive with valves even
Finally,

present to be

in price.

6.64
E

Semi-conductor Materials

LvxlvxlvAvXvi

XvXyAVjAVA*

lVAVAVJ
(VAVAI
WAVA^VAvAvAvi

WJVAVl
VAVAVAVAW.W.

To understand how
learn a
little

transistors

and semi-conductor diodes operate, you must

first

which

it

about the basic materials used, and about the modified forms of them has proved desirable to introduce.

silicon, both These materials are excellent insulators, because their crystalline structure effectively bonds in place all of the outer electrons which would normally be free to enter into current flow. The diagram shows a simplified picture of a pure crystalline semi-conductor material, such as germanium or silicon. Every atom has four outer electrons, which are shown as small minus signs. The inner electrons which are bound to the nucleus,

The

basic materials in commercial use are purified

germanium and

specially processed until they are in a crystalline state.

and the nucleus itself, are shown as a single solid black dot. The crystalline structure forces the nuclei into a symmetrical arrangement, with every outer electron sharing an orbit with one outer electron frm a neighbouring
atom.
It is this orbit-sharing

arrangement which

effectively locks

each electron in

placenot any unusually strong bond between the electron and its nucleus. For an applied voltage to cause electron current flow, it would have to be sufficiently high to break the electron bonds before those electrons would be free to flow towards the positive voltage terminal. In breaking the bonds the voltage would also destroy
the crystalline structure.

5 ']

6.65

Semi-conductor Materials (continued)

Since electric current will not easily flow through the pure crystalline material must be modified before a controllable amount of current flow can be obtained.
described, that material

One method of obtaining current flow is to add a small number of atoms which have five outer electrons. Atoms suitable for this purpose include phosphorus, antimony and arsenic. These atoms are distributed through the pure basic material
being processed into the crystal state, and the resulting structure is shown in The proportion of impurity atoms added is in the order of one part per hundred million. larger proportion would allow a current flow which was not precisely controllable.
it is

as

the diagram below.

The impurity atom enters into the structure in the same manner as do the atoms of The important difference is that the extra outer electron of every impurity atom remains unbonded to the crystal structure. If a d.c. voltage is connected across the ends of a piece of such material, these unbonded electrons are free to flow through the crystal structure towards the positive terminal. The total number of unbonded electrons in the crystal always remains the sameevery electron
the basic material.
is replaced by one entering at the Consequently, there is a continuous flow of current. Since the current flow in this material consists of excess negative particles (electrons), the material is known as an "excess" or "N-type" semi-conductor.

that leaves the crystal at the positive terminal

negative terminal.

V^tS Electa

N-TYPE

SEMICONDUCTOR

gniritt

(Arrows show direction pi

Electron Current Flow) \

Atone

!S?S:

ClliliKST

FLOW

IN

N-TYPL SEMICONDUCTOR
- * Electron

6.66

Bl
another method of modifying the pure basic crystalline material in order amount of current flow. During the processing of the basic

Semi-conductor Materials (continued)

There

is

to obtain a controllable
material, impurity

amounts.

atoms such as aluminium, boron or indium can be added in small These impurity atoms have only three outer electrons, and they enter into the crystalline structure as shown in the diagram below. Comparison of the diagram with that of the pure basic material shows that the modified structure has one missing electron for every impurity atom. The space in the structure caused by the missing electron is known as a "hole." Note that the hole is not necessarily located in the immediate vicinity of the impurity atom. During processing the impurity atom attracts a nearby outer electron
to

the gap in the surrounding crystal structure, and the hole "moves" elsewhere. succession of outer electrons may leave their nuclei to fill the gap, and the hole
fill

may move

a considerable distance before

it

reaches a state of equilibrium.

If a d.c. voltage is connected across the ends of a piece of such material, the hole acquires the characteristics of a positive charge, and flows towards the negative terminal of the voltage source. The total number of holes in the crystal always re-

mains the same. Every hole reaching the negative end of the crystal is neutralized by an electron which leaves the negative terminal and enters the crystal. This gives the crystal an excess negative charge. A neutral charge is regained by the crystal when it discharges an electron to the The new hole flows towards positive voltage terminal and creates another hole. the negative terminal, and the result is the continuous flow of holes through the
crystal,

and a continuous flow of electrons through the connecting wires. Since the current flow in this material is caused by defects (holes) in the crystal structure, and since these defects act in the same way as would positive charges, the
material
is

known

as a "defect" or "P-type" semi-conductor.

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR
Direction of Electron Slow ^

3;

$?~ ^tHfection ol Hole flow ; + * Hole " 'v*' *J;v

f
;
> '
.

I'Y

CUR KENT FLOW IN PL SEMICONDUCTOR

2
Basic Construction

SEMI-CONDUCTOR DIODES

6.67

Junction Diode
Pulling and Rotating Force

Cut Germanium Bar

Sealed Container

Grown N-Type Germanium Rod Grown P-Type Germanium Rod

Molten

Germanium
j3**Induction

10

Heating
Coil

Wire L

N-Ivpr'

P-Tvpt-

SIMPLIFILD DIAGRAM Oh GROWN JUNCTION IAUUE

semi-conductor diode consists essentially of P- and N-type semi-conductor

materials in close contact with one another.

There are two basic types of semi-conductor diodes in use to-day

the point-contact types.

the junction and

junction

of junction constructions are in common use. In one type the "grown," and in the second type the junction is formed by diffusion. A simplified diagram is shown of the arrangement for making a grown junction. A crucible containing pure germanium is suspended inside a sealed container, which can be either evacuated or filled with inert gas. An induction heating coil is used to
is

Two different types

heat the germanium to melting point.

begin the formation of the diode, an N-type impurity is added and diffuses throughout the molten germanium. small bar cut from single-crystal germanium is dipped down to touch the surface of the melted germanium, and is then
itself

To

slowly withdrawn and rotated. The molten germanium solidifies at the point of contact with the solid bar, and the repeated dipping and withdrawal process causes the growth of a rod of N-type germanium at the end of the bar. This rod is actually

a single perfect crystal with a diameter in the order of one inch. The junction is formed after the rod has grown to the length of about half-an-inch, by adding enough P-type impurity first to neutralize the N-type impurity in the molten germanium, and then to change the latter over to P-type. The dipping and withdrawal process is then continued, with the result that the remainder of the rod is of P-type germanium. The entire rod is a single crystal of germanium, the only difference being the type of impurity in the two halves.
Lastly, the

P-N junction

region

is

cut out of the rod,

and diced up into as many as

a hundred or more small junctions.

Every piece then has wire leads fused or soldered

6.68

Junction Diode (continued)

Basic Construction

it; and the assembly is mounted in a container which gives mechanical protection, and which also shields it from atmospheric contamination. There are several methods of making junction diodes by diffusion. The "alloy-

to

junction" method, as

it is called, has been widely adopted because it lends itself to product uniformity, and also to quantity production techniques. In this method a small disc of P-type material (indium) is placed on a somewhat larger flat plate of N-type germanium. The materials are placed in a graphite holder and heated to a temperature of about 500 Centigrade. The indium disc melts at

about 155 Centigrade; and as the temperature rises further, it dissolves away some germanium-indium alloy is formed. of the germanium beneath it. In the molten region the indium first neutralizes the N-type impurities in the germanium, and then leaves an excess of P-type impurities. After the disc and plate have been subjected to heat for several minutes, an equi-

is reached, and no more dissolving action takes place. The amount of P-type germanium formed is determined only by the temperature reached, and by the size of the original indium disc. The time spent in the furnace

librium condition

is

not important

fact

which helps greatly in achieving product uniformity.

Once equilibrium has been established, the assembly is allowed to cool very slowly. The dissolved P-type germanium begins to recrystallize out of the alloy on to the N-type germanium base. The recrystallization follows the same atomic arrangement as that in the N-type germanium base, and a uniform P-N junction is formed. After the assembly has cooled, electrical connections are bonded to the germanium base and to the indium disc. The assembly is mounted in a small container, and
the alloy-junction semi-conductor diode
is

complete.

2]

6.69

Basic Construction

Point-contact Diode

The point-contact method of construction resembles that of the crystal detector used in early radio receivers. It consists of a pointed wire pressed into contact with a small plate of semi-conductor material. The assembly is sealed in a small container, in

much the same way

alloy, tungsten,

as are the junction types.

phosphor-bronze and other types of wire are used to make the contact. Several bends in the wire give it a spring-like shape which presses its point against the semi-conductor surface. The flexible nature of this wire is the reason why it is called a "cat's whisker." The pressure applied must be sufficient to hold the point in place.
Platinum

The semi-conductor manium.

plate usually consists of either P-type silicon or N-type ger-

It has been said that a semi-conductor diode consists basically of a junction between P- and N-type semi-conductors and on first examination there certainly appears to be no P-N junction in the point-contact construction. To be quite frank about the matter, the exact method of operation of the point-contact diode is not well understood. A number of fairly involved theories on the subject are too complex to be reviewed here; but they all boil down to the undoubted fact that there is something in the point-contact region which works in the same way as does a

P-N junction! One possible

clue

may be

the fact that N-type

struction generally operate better after "forming."

germanium diodes using this conForming consists of passing a large

pulse or current through the diode.

is

After forming, the point of the "cat's whisker"

plate.

found to be bonded to the semiconductor

cooling,

The heavy current apparently

melts the semi-conductor material in the region of the point; and the rapid melting,

and then
material.

seem to cause a localized conversion of N-type material to P-type

is,

A P-N junction is thus formed.

conversion takes place
it

Why
of

this

as has been said, not easy to explain; but

the basic principles
all

exacting tests prove that

does.

What you should remember are

formed; for the method of operation of devices can be explained on such a foundation of knowledge.
a
is

how

P-N junction

semi-conductor

SIMPLIFIED CONSTRUCTION OF POINT- CONTACT DIODE

connecting

|Tj wire

Plate of N- Type Germanium or P-Ty pe Silicon

;

6.70

B2

The Operation of a P-N Junction

IHiiS^rviSiP
RRENT FLOW
IN

A DIODE VALVE

4^=I t
N-Type

= electron flow

= hole flow

- = electron

+ = hole

Semiconductor

-P- Type

Semiconductor

and P semiwhich take place at the junction are in practice equivalent to the results produced by a diode valve. This can be demonstrated by comparing the results of connecting a d.c. voltage across a diode valve, and then across a P-N junction. In the valve, electrons flow from the negative voltage terminal to the cathode, through the vacuum to the anode, and on to the positive voltage terminal. In the diagram of the P-N junction shown above, electrons are shown as minus Holes in the P-type material flow signs, and holes are shown as positive signs. away from the positive voltage terminal towards the negative terminal, and electrons in the N-type material flow away from the negative voltage terminal towards the positive voltage terminal. There thus arrives at the junction a continuous flow of holes from one direction and a continuous flow of electrons from the other diSemi-conductor diodes consist basically of junctions between
conductors.

The

effects

rection.

When
charge.
material,

the electrons meet the holes at the junction, they neutralize each other's

This permits the formation of more holes at the positive end of the P-type

and the entry of more

electrons at the negative

end of the N-type material.

All the requirements of a continuous current flow are met; and a continuous current

flow does in fact take place.

The
is

direction of current flow in the connecting leads of the semi-conductor diode

the

same
is

as

it is

in those of the valve.

The polarity used for connecting the applied

voltage

known

as the "forward bias."

2]

6.71

The Operation of a P-N Junction

(continued)

When

the positive

and negative terminals of the voltage source are reversed with

is

respect to those of the previous arrangement, a different set of conditions

created.

In the valve circuit the anode is negative with respect to the cathode. Since the electrons emitted by the cathode are negatively charged, they are repelled by the negaNo current flow takes place in the connecting wires. tively charged anode.

In the

P-N junction

diode, holes in the P-type material are attracted towards the

negative voltage terminal,

the positive voltage terminal.

electrons in the N-type material are attracted towards This biasing arrangement, therefore, does not facilitate the flow of current carrying holes or electrons to the junction; and in theory no current flow can take place in the connecting wires. In practice, however, a very small amount of current does flow through the con-

and

necting wires.

The reason is that N-type material does contain a small number of holes, and P-type material a small number of electrons. These charges are able to flow in the direction required to maintain a steady current flow, such as was
described

on the previous page.

is

The

existence of these stray charges

not due to a defect in the manufacturing

process, but

is caused by the breakdown of a few bonds in the crystal structure under the stress of thermal agitation. As the temperature increases, so the number of these stray charges and hence the current also increases. Since the polarity used for connecting the applied voltage in the condition described above is opposite to that used in the forward bias condition, this method of connection

is

known

as "reverse bias."

,6.72

[2

Characteristics of Semi-conductor Diodes

It has been shown that the amount of current flow through a semi-conductor diode depends upon the polarity of the biasing voltage. It is now necessary to find out other details of the relationship between current flow and biasing voltage. A comparison with the corresponding valve characteristic will again help to clarify the

current flow characteristics of a semi-conductor diode.

The
is

Ia a characteristic of a typical diode valve the circuit for obtaining this characteristic.

is

illustrated above.

Also shown

You will remember that in

collect in

a diode valve the heated cathode emits electrons, which a space charge around the cathode. When the anode is made negative

with respect to the cathode, no current flows from the cathode to the anode because the negative anode repels the electrons. Current cannot flow from the anode to the cathode since the anode does not emit electrons.

When the anode and cathode are at the same potential, the anode neither attracts nor repels electrons; the current can be considered zero. When the anode is made slightly positive with respect to the cathode, a small portion of the electrons are attracted out of the space charge, and flow to the anode and through the outside circuit. As the anode is made increasingly positive, so the current flow becomes
larger.
is so large that electrons are attracted to the anode as cathode can emit them. Further increase in anode voltage causes no further flow of anode current, and a state of saturation is reached.

Eventually the current flow

fast as the

2]

6.73

Characteristics of Semi-conductor Diodes (continued)

When the same procedure is used to study the voltage and current characteristics of a semi-conductor diode, somewhat different results are obtained. Shown below
is

quite different

a typical voltage-current curve for a junction diode. Examination shows that it is from the curve of a typical diode valve; but the same general type of

rectifying action nevertheless takes place.

the order of 100 milliamperes. Further increase in forward voltage causes a current rise that is almost linear in relationship to the applied voltage, and the maximum rated current is reached before one volt is applied.

Consider the characteristic curve of the junction diode. When voltage is applied in the forward direction, the current varies as shown by the solid-line curve. Note that only a few tenths of a volt are required to cause a current flow of

When
current.

voltage

the dotted-line curve.

applied in the reverse direction, the current varies as shown by Large increases in voltage cause only very small rises in In fact the current rise is so small that a different set of graph scales are
is

reverse current increase takes place with no further increase in reverse voltage. This large current increase is capable of destroying the junction itself. The reverse voltage at which this effect takes place is called the "Zener"
voltage,

needed to show the change. The currenrflow is extremely small, because there are very few current carriers under reverse bias conditions; and once all of these current carriers are flowing, a state of saturation exists. This state of saturation does not continue indefinitely. Eventually, a condition is reached where the diode resistance drops very rapidly, and a very large

named after the man who predicted the effect. The Zener effect is of practical importance only

in certain special applications in

which precautions have to be taken to conduct away the heat generated by the current, and to limit the reverse voltage.

6.74
Characteristics of Semi-conductor Diodes (continued)

B2

curve has

Shown below is the voltage-current curve of a typical point-contact diode. The many similarities to that of the junction diode considered on the last page;

but there are several significant differences to be observed. Firsts the rated current flow in the forward direction is only a small fraction of that obtainable from the junction diode. The reason is that the active junction area in the point-contact construction is much smaller than is that in a junction diode.
Second, the reverse current flow
diode.
is

several times larger than

is

that of the junction

In addition, the reverse current increases steadily with reverse voltage, and there is no sharp saturation effect as in the case of the junction diode. Third, a different effect is obtained as the reverse voltage is increased. Instead

of the Zener effect described on the last page, there is a "turnover" effect. At the turnover voltage the internal resistance of the junction appears to become negative, instead of merely dropping to zero. Therefore, the current increases very rapidly,

and continues to

even though the reverse voltage is lowered. been put forward for this effect; and it is not useful in practical applications, since the diode is destroyed when the effect takes
rise

No

satisfactory explanation has

place.

+2

VOLTS

2]

6.75

Commercial Semi-conductor Diodes

TYPICAL CONSTRUCTIONS

COMMERCIAL SEMICONDUCTOR DIODES

Illustrated

able

above are a number of various types of semi-conductor diodes availfrom commercial sources. It can be seen that there is a wide variety of physical

Included are ceramic jackets with metal ends, glass tubes with metal ends, all-glass jackets, plastic cases, plastic-coated metal cases and metal jackets with a screw mounting.

constructions available.

Some of these outward variations arise mainly from the preferences of the individual
manufacturer.

may be employed
Although
it

Others have a specific function, such as the screw-mounting which to dissipate the heat generated by power rectifiers. is not always obvious without close examination, many semi-conductor

diode cases are marked with an arrow. The arrow shows the direction of easy current flow as indicated by a d.c. milliammeter. Alternatively, the "anode" of the

may be marked with a red spot. The reason for these markings is that they give technicians and repairmen a reliable method of checking the connections required.
diode

6.76
Applications of Semi-conductor Diodes

[2

AC VOLTMETERS
TWO RECTIFIERS

RECTIFIER-TYPE

c=4

H_ft
FOUR RECTIFIERS

or diode valves are employed.

Semi-conductor diodes can be used in most applications for which metal rectifiers The advantage of using a semi-conductor diode as a
is

replacement
filament

that

it is

generally smaller

and more

efficient,

and that
rectifier.

it

operates at

is any power required as it is in the case of the valve. The most elementary semi-conductor diode circuit is one you met in your study of This circuit makes it possible for a basic a.c. meters in Part 3 of Basic Electricity.

significantly higher frequencies

than do the valve or metal

Nor

d.c.

voltmeter circuit to be used to measure

a.c. voltage.

The

simplest arrangement contains a resistor, a rectifier

and a

d.c.

meter movement.

Electron flow (indicated by the black arrows) passes through the meter movement and causes the pointer to move up-scale. This electron flow results from one half-

The electron flow resulting from the alternate half-cycle shown by the white arrows. Although only pulses of current flow through the movement, the pointer cannot move rapidly enough to follow the rise and fall; and the average value of the current pulses is indicated. The resistor is often made adjustable so that the scale can be
cycle of the a.c. voltage.

of the

a.c.

voltage

is

calibrated.

a semi-conductor diode is used as the rectifier, the meter can be calibrated at mains frequencies and will give accurate voltage readings, without a correction factor, over a wide frequency range. The a.c. voltmeter circuit considered above presents a low resistance to one halfThis is cycle of the applied voltage and a high resistance to the alternate half-cycle. In a.f. and r.f. circuits, circuits. power voltages in measuring in of no consequence however, this lack of uniform loading may cause inaccurate readings and disturb the
If

operation of the

circuit.

By the addition of a second rectifier to the circuit, however, the halfoycle which is not being used is afforded a low-resistance path around the meter, aiid fairly uniform
loading
is

achieved.
direction.

A bridge circuit of four rectifiers can also be used, as shown in the diagram, so that
both half-cycles of the a.c. current flow through the meter in the same This results in a balanced load to both half-cycles of current.

2]
Applications of Semi-conductor Diodes {continued)

6.77

circuits.

Other applications of semi-conductor diodes include their use in power supply In such applications semi-conductor diodes have the advantage of being

robust, long-lived, small in size and capajble of large current output. preferred to metal rectifiers because, although they are smaller and there is little difference in cost.

They are often more efficient,

Half-wave and bridge rectifier circuits employing semi-conductor diodes may be used in power supply units. A resistor is usually connected in series with the semiconductor diodes, to prevent the excessive current flow which could occur in the event
or of a short circuit in the equipment to which the p.s.u. is connected. LC filter would be placed between the rectifier and the load.
Either an

RC

circuit

is the voltage doubler circuit shown in the diagram. This was explained in detail in Part 1 of Basic Electronics, and only a brief review is needed here. The voltage doubler consists of two half-wave rectifier circuits. During one half-cycle of the mains voltage the upper diode conducts, and charges the upper capacitor to peak mains voltage. During the alternate half-cycle the lower diode conducts, and charges the lower capacitor to peak mains voltage. Since the two capacitors are connected in series across the d.c. output terminals, the d.c. output voltage is equal to twice the peak of the mains voltage. With a

Also available for use

240-volt mains supply, the d.c. output voltage

is

in fact

about 680

volts.

^^^^

electron flow for

line voltage

240 V.

AC
Peak)

-4
VW\r-t_

one half-cycle of

*
J

(34-OV.

electron flow for alternate half-cycle of line voltage

^2

^ J 340V DC
_ui

output (approx. 680V.)

-1OHT-J

6.78

[2

Applications of Semi-conductor Diodes (continued)

In receiver circuits, the semi-conductor diode can be used efficiently either as a mixer or as a detector. Shown in the diagram below is a simple type of semi-conductor diode mixer. Although this type of mixer can in theory be used in either the H.F., V.H.F., U.H.F. or S.H.F. bands, it is not often used in practice in the broadcast or television bands, since its gain is less than one; and significant gain can be obtained by means of valve or transistor mixers. At microwave frequencies, however, the semi-conductor

diode mixer operates

efficiently

where other

circuits fail.

When
the

the circuit

is

in operation, the local oscillator applies a constant voltage to

a constant flow of current through the semi-conductor a current flow consisting of uni-directional pulses at the frequency of the local oscillator. Also applied to the mixer is the incoming r.f. signal from the aerial. Heterodyning action takes place just as in a standard mixer circuit, and the output of the mixer consists of many different frequencies: including the frequency of the r.f. signal from the aerial, the local oscillator frequency, the sum of these incoming As in the case of a signals and the difference between these incoming signals. standard mixer, the i.f. transformer is tuned to the difference frequency only; and amplification of the modulated signal takes place at this i.f. frequency. In detector applications, the semi-conductor diode circuit is essentially similar to the diode valve detector circuit. When the amplitude-modulated i.f. signal is rectified, the result is a pulsating uni-directional current which carries both an i.f. The i.f. signal component is bysignal component and an audio signal component. passed to earth by a capacitor which is too small to bypass the audio signal component. The result is that the audio signal component is applied to the input of the audio amplifier, and detection has taken place.
rectifier.

The

result is

mixer

2]

6.79

REVIEW of Semi-conductor Diodes

Sena-conductor
fied crystalline

Materials.

Puri-

germanium and silicon are the basic materials commonly used in semi-conductor diodes and transistors. These materials are excellent

insulators

because

their
all

crystalline

structure

bonds

the

outer electrons in place.

N-Type

Semi-conductor.

Semito

N-TYPE

conductor material can be

made

conduct by adding impurity atoms

SEMICONDUCTOR

which enter the crystalline structure, but which have excess outer electrons not bonded to the structure. Current
flow
is

conducted by the excess nega-

tively

charged

electrons

flowing

through the crystal to the positively

charged terminal.

P-Type Semi-conductor.
tion can also be obtained

Conducby adding

P-TYPE SEMICONDUCTOR

impurity atoms which lack sufficient

outer electrons to
fill

all

the crystal

bonds.
fects

The unfilled spaces or deare known as "holes," and

have the characteristics of positive

charges.

An

applied voltage causes

the holes to flow through the crystal

to the negatively charged terminal.

Junction Diode.
consists of

A junction
in

diode

P- and N-type semi-conclose

Pulling and Rotating Force

ductor

materials

contact

The

junction can either be formed

Cut Germanium Bar Grown N-Tjpe Germanium Hod Grown P-T>pe Germanium Rod

during the crystal growing process

[grown junction], or by a dissolving and recrystallization process [alloyjunction].

6.80

[2
(continued)

REVIEW of Semi-conductor Diodes

Point-contact Diode,

A point-conN- or
in

tact diode consists of a plate of

P-type

semi-conductor

material

contact with a pointed metal wire.

The contact region can be regarded

as a

Plate of

N-Type Gormamuui

or P-Type Silicon

P-N

junction.

The P-N junction shown is known as "forward bias." Only a small

Forward Bias.
biasing arrangement

voltage is required to cause all holes

junction,

and excess electrons to flow to the and so give maximum rated

5: jru
N-Type
Semiconductor

current flow.

I*. P-Type
Semiconductor

Reverse Bias.

When

the junction

biasing connections are the reverse

of forward bias, nearly

junction,

all

holes and

excess electrons flow away from the

and so do not enter into a

continuous current flow.

Only stray

holes and electrons can enter into a

continuous current flow.

High

volt-

ages are required to enable them to do so, however, and the maximum
current
is

Stray Hole Flow

Stray Electron Flow

only a small fraction of that

N-Type Semiconductor

P-Type Semiconductor

obtained with forward bias.

Semi-conductor
tions.

Diode ApplicaSemi-conductor diodes can be

valves or metal rectifiers are

used in most applications for which

vacuum
also

suitable.

Such

circuits

with

which you are familiar include meter

rectifiers,

power

supply

circuits,

mixers and detectors.

TRANSISTOR CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION

6.81

Basic ConstructionPoint-contact Type

SIMPLIFIED CONSTRUCTION DIAGRAM OF POINT- CONTACT TRANSISTOR

PROTECTIVE CASE

CAT WHISKER
BASE
"Collector

Emitter

Emitter Base Collector

AAA
ELECTRODES

ELECTRICAL

S^

MBOL

Transistors to-day are of two basic typesthe "point-contact" type of construction, type. Both of these types have a number of variations; but only the basic construction of each is discussed belowthe details given being sufficiently

and the "junction"

fundamental to cover any production differences introduced by various manufacturers.

The point-contact construction is the earliest, but is no longer in widespread use. The arrangement is similar to that of a point-contact diode, but with a second "cat's whisker" in contact with the germanium block. The point-contacts of these two
"cat's whiskers" have to be kept separated a few thousandths of an inch apart, otherwise the transistor will not work.

As in the case of the point-contact diode, you must assume (as you quite validly can) that there is a P-N junction in the region of each "cat's whisker" point. The germanium block is known as the "base," since it is the foundation of the transistor. The base is exceedingly small, all its dimensions being of the order of a
few hundredths of an inch only. The material of which it is made is almost always N-type. The use of P-type material is theoretically possible, but has never been very
successful in practice.

One of the
The names

contact wires is known as the "emitter," the other as the "collector." are derived from the functions of the two wires at their points of contact

with the base. When proper voltages are applied, the emitter causes the generation of current-carrying charges at its contact point. The collector accumulates currentits contact point, and both provide terminals for conducting through the outside circuit. Also shown in the diagram above is the electrical symbol used at present to represent a transistor.

carrying charges at
electric current

6.82

(3

Basic ConstructionJunction Types

The
base,

junction-type transistor also consists of a

collector.
it

SIMPLIFIED

an emitter and a

CONS TRUCTION DIAGRAMS OF JUNCTION TRANSISTORS

which are in general way as were the same use are made in much the types "alloy-junction" the "grown-junction" and

The two

basic forms of

of junction
essentially

cases the result

semi-conductor diodes. In both of the manufacturing process is

the

sametwo P-N

junctions

are

formed, and located some thousandths of an inch

apart.

The diagrams on this page illustrate "grown" and "alloy" junction transistors. Note that in the
grown-junction type the semi-conductor materials may be arranged either in a P-N-P or in an

N-P-N sequence.
Transistor manufacturers are continuously trying to achieve greater product uniformity, plus speed and economy of production. Present efforts are

concentrated

on

methods

of

producing

P-N

junctions of easily controlled size

and

spacing.

The alloy junction method shows great promise, and automatic machinery is being developed to control precisely and speed up all stages of the
manufacturing process.

GROWN-JUNCTION
TRANSISTORS

the electrolytic etching

Another method under development starts with away of two spots on opposite sides of an N-type germanium plate
the

until

etched

surfaces

are

only

some

ten-

thousandths of an inch apart.

lytic action is

Further electro-

on to each etched
face-barrier"
collector

then used to plate an indium spot surface. The result is a "sur-

transistor in which an indium and an indium emitter are separated by

C"V.Base
Emitter

"^Collector

several

ten-thousandths

of an inch, of N-type

germanium. Although a complex "surface-barrier" theory is used to explain the operation of this type of
transistor, it is simpler to realize that the contact

Plated Indium

Plated

Emitter

Indium
Collector

"

area between the indium and the germanium has

characteristics

almost identical to those of the

M.'RFACE-

contact-area of a

P-N

junction; for the

method

BARRILR
'RANSI.s I'OR

of operation of
explained

this transistor

can be quite validly

Emitter.
Collector

on

that basis.

3]

6.83

Operating PrinciplesN-P-N Transistor

You have already seen that two

different

basic

arrangements of

semi-conductor material can be used in transistor construction.

There can either be a sequence in which P-material is located between surfaces of N-material, in an N-P-N arrangement; or there can be N-material located between surfaces of P-material, in a

P-N-P

arrangement.
is

In

either

case the transistor

made up of
very

two junctions of N- and P-type

semi-conductors
situated

close to one another.

TRIODE CIRCUIT

Either of these arrangements can be used

to amplify an electrical signal.

The operation
first,

of an N-P-N transistor
since
its

N-P-N TRANSISTOR
CIRCUIT

will

be described

operation most closely resembles

that of the triode valve

you

learnt about in

Part 2 of Basic Electronics. In the explanations that follow it is important to note that, whereas triode operation is under the control of the signal voltage applied to its input, and
there is no grid current flow under ordinary conditions of operation, transistor operation

depends on signal current flow through

input circuit.

its

Collector

The
page.

circuits

transistor operation are

used to compare valve and both shown on this

Base

Two

voltage sources,

Vx

and

V2

are

-Emitter

connected across the elements of the valve and of the transistor, and appropriate voltage

and current meters are connected

into

-JrV,

the circuit to measure the results.

6.84

[3

Operating Principles

N-P-N

Transistor (continued)

In the triode
positive anode,

circuit, electrons

flow in the direction

shown below.

They flow from

the negative cathode, through the retarding negative electric field of the grid, to the

and through the outside circuit back to the cathode. The flow of can be increased by making the grid less negative, thus reducing the effectiveness of the grid in retarding the flow of electrons from cathode to anode. Similarly the flow of electrons through the outside circuit can be decreased by making the grid more negative, thus increasing the effectiveness of the
electrons through the outside circuit

grid in retarding the cathode-to-anode electron flow.

Amplification is obtained because a very small change in grid voltage causes a change in anode current. The anode current can be passed through a large resistor, and the change in anode current will cause a large change in the voltage drop across the anode resistor. Thus, a small change in grid voltage produces a much larger change in anode voltage, and the result is signal voltage amplification. Amplification can also be obtained by passing the anode current through a stepup transformer. In this case the change in anode current can be used to produce a large signal voltage at the output terminals of the transformer secondary winding. In a Class C valve power amplifier, the grid bias is such that the input signal can
drive the grid positive for part of the signal cycle.
electrons, there is a flow of current in the grid circuit;

Since a positive grid attracts

as a

the source supplying the signal.

The

circuit is

known

a small amount of input power can be used to

power.

and power is consumed from power amplifier, because control a large amount of output

This latter type of valve operation more closely resembles that of a transistor.

High

Anode
Voltage

'^m^KEh

Direction of Electron Flow Highly Negative Grid

= Small Electron

*>

Flow

= High Anode Voltage

Slightly Negative

Grid

= Large Electron Flow Low Anode Voltage

3]

6.85

Operating PrinciplesN-P-N Transistor (continued)

" :&S&S*V

Consider

now an N-P-N
is

transistor circuit,
is set

and examine what happens when the

emitter-to-base variable resistor

to the "off" position.

Now, only the

collector-

to-base voltage

applied across the transistor.

And

a look at the polarity of the

P-N junction between the base and the collector will show you connected in the manner of a semi-conductor diode biased in the reverse direction. The positive terminal of the voltage source attracts the negatively charged electrons in the N-type collector, and the negative terminal of the voltage source
voltage across the
that
it is

charged holes in the P-type base. current carriers can combine at the junction, as they do in the case of the forward biased semi-conductor diode. The result is that the only current

attracts the positively

None of these
is

flow

that caused
it is

base, just as

by the stray holes in the collector and the stray electrons in the in the case of the reverse biased semi-conductor diode. Under these

conditions the current indicated say about 0-01 for example.

by current meters

mA

A2

and

A3

will

be very low,

Now consider
the base are
direction.

what happens when

is

V2

is

disconnected,

and the

variable resistor in

the emitter-base circuit

set to the position

is

now

connected as

of highest resistance. The emitter and a semi-conductor diode biased in the forward

The

electrons in the emitter

and the holes

in the base are attracted to-

wards the junction, where they combine to maintain an appreciable current flow. As much as 0-1 may be indicated on both A t and A 2 with the variable resistor

mA

set to

maximum

resistance.

When

the variable resistor

x

is

set
1

towards

minimum

resistance, the current flow

through

A and A 2 may increase

to

mA.

6.86

B3

Operating Principles

N-P-N Transistor (continued)

= small electron flow

^1=
/
1

<3

= small hole flow

large electron flow

= large hole

flow

The

conditions change significantly

when both

voltage sources are connected

simultaneously.

If the variable resistor is set so that

A\

indicates

indicate approximately 0-98

mA, and A 2

will indicate

approximately 0-02
0-01

mA, A?, mA.

will

There has been no With no current flow

increase in the voltage applied across the base

in the emitter-to-base circuit,

and

collector.

A$ indicated

current flowing in the emitter-to-base circuit, the current

identical to that flowing

mA; but, with through A 3 is almost

through A\.

The reason
of the base.

for this can be seen

by examining the

electrical conditions in the region

Because of the forward bias conditions between the emitter and the Because the base is base, there are a large number of free electrons in that region. so thin only some thousandths of an inch thick electrons penetrate through

the base structure and

come under

the influence of the positively charged collector

before they can combine with the holes in the base.

collector, they rapidly flow to the positive terminal

of

Once the electrons are in the V2 and on through the out-

side circuit.

Since

a small portion of the

electrons

from the emitter do combine with the holes

If the base

in the base, however, there

is

a small base-to-emitter current.

were

thicker, nearly all the emitter electrons

would combine with the base holes; and the result would be a large base-to-emitter current and a small base-to-collector current. The general rule is that the emitter electrons are divided into the two current flows shown, and the proportions of the division are determined essentially by the thickness of the base and by the base-to-collector voltage.

33
Operating PrinciplesN-P-N Transistor (continued)

6.87

You must now meet a new

or "alpha" (a)
is

technical term.

In transistor

circuits,

"current gain"

defined as "the output current change divided

by the input curreltt;

change, with the collector voltage kept constant."

Now you saw that in the transistor operation described on the last page, 1 current change in the input circuit (emitter-to-base) was required to produce 0-97 (i.e. 0-98 minus 0*01) of current change in the output circuit (collector-to-base).
other words, the current gain was 0-97, or less than unity.
transistors in general; alpha falls in the range 0-95-0-99,

mA of mA
In

This

is

true of junction

and the current gain for this

type of circuit

is

always

less

than

1.

You may now

answer
is

ask what
last

is

the point of a

method of

transistor operation (such as

was described on the

that
it

page) which produces no useful current amplification.

resistance conditions in the input

The

produces instead very significant gains in voltage and power.

Look

at the current

and

You saw

that the current in the

two

circuits is

and output circuits. almost identical; but the resistances

across the emitter

in the two circuits are enormously different.

resistances generally range

The bias

and base is in

the forward direction, giving the junction between

them a low

resistance

such

But the bias across the base and collector is in the reverse direction, giving the junction between them a high resistance such resistances generally range from 100,000 ohms to 1 megohm. In Basic Electricity you learnt that the voltage developed across a resistance is equal to the current multiplied by the resistance (E=IR), and you also learnt that the power developed in that arrangement is equal to the square of the current multiplied by the resistance. Since almost identical currents flow in the input and output circuits, and since the output circuit resistance is in the order of a thousand times higher

from 40 to 800 ohms.

than the input circuit resistance, it follows that voltage and power gains in the region of a thousand times have been produced.

0.98

mA

0.02

mA

1.0

mA

-ir-V,

fa

6.88

[3
Transistor

N-P-N

Voltage and Power Gains

useful relationships

A simple calculation will show how voltage and power gain are produced, and will
reveal also

some

and fundamental

terms.

The voltage gain

in any amplifying device is:

VOLTAGE GAIN
iilsfli

Output Voltage

Input Voltage
I

mmmm

out x
I

in

R x R

out
in

Since /ou t/^in (current gain) has already been denned as alpha (a):

VOLTAGE GAIN

ax

R out R in

manner shown, can achieve a voltage to any current amplification. It is due gain of about 2,000 times. This gain is not circuit compared with the low reoutput in the entirely due to the high resistance
Thus a
typical transistor, connected in the
sistance in the input circuit.

Amplification

is

achieved because the semi-conductor

loss,

arrangement has transferred a current, with almost no

circuit to

from a low

resistance

a high resistance circuit. This transfer through resistance

is

the reason

why

these devices are

known

as

"transfer resistors," or "transistors."

3]

6.89
(continued)
is

N-P-N TransistorVoltage and Power Gains

similar calculation
in

shows how power gain

is:

achieved by the transistor.

The

power gain

any amplifying device

.0604 x 2000
1020.8

=
Since the ratio between output
in voltage

Times

and input

and power

calculations, this ratio is

gain" (Rg).

In junction-type transistors,

is so frequently used sometimes called the "resistance the resistance gain falls within the range

resistance (i?out/^in)

of 500-5,000 times.
Additional useful relationships can be learnt from direct use of the current and
resistance gains

6.90

[3

Operating Principles of the P-N-P Transistor

PENT FLOW

IN

COMPLETE

All you have just learnt about the

transistor
transistor.

N-P-N
P-N-P

applies

equally

to

-P TitANSISTOR CIRCUIT

the

The magnitudes of

the emitter,

base and collector currents are the same; and

t\^jymA
0.98

^ ^

the same relationships exist for the current,

voltage, resistance

and power

gains.
is

The major

difference to be noted

that in

the case of the

N-P-N

transistor, the

major
is

part of the current flow through the unit

caused by the movement of electrons; while in the case of the P-N-P transistor, the major
part of the current flow
is

caused by the
holes.

movement of positively charged

Because of

this difference, it is necessary

to reverse the connections of the voltage

sources in the

P-N-P

transistor, to obtain

the desired current flow.

The diagram shows a P-N-P transistor connected in an arrangement equivalent to

= small electron flow =

that already considered.

At

the junction

^is
and the

small hole flow

large electron flow

between the emitter and the base, the bias is in the direction of easy hole current flow, and
holes flow into
resistance.

ZZ3 = large nole flow

collector,

the base with very

little

At

the junction between the base

however, the junction is biased in the reverse direction, and there is a very high resistance to the flow of the free current carriers which are normally present in the base and collector. However, since the thickness of the base is only some thousandths of an inch, many of the holes from the emitter penetrate through the base before they can combine with the free electrons in the base. Once these free holes come under the influence of
the collector, they are attracted towards the negative terminal of the collector voltage
source.

In practice, about 98 per cent of the holes from the emitter flow into the collector, and only about 2 per cent of the holes are "caught," as it were, in the base. Except
for the reversal of the voltage sources ships exist as for the

and

current flows, therefore, the

same

relation-

N-P-N

transistor already considered.

commercially available point-contact transistors operate according P-N-P transistor. An unexpected feature of these point-contact transistors, however, is that actual current gains (a) of up to 3 times or more are commonly achieved. No satisfactory explanation for this has been

Note that

all

to the principles described for the

found, and the various theories are too complex to be gone into here. In any event, although the current gain is of some minor assistance, the resistance gain remains

by

far the major factor in determining the voltage and power gains. In a typical point-contact transistor, the resistance gain is between 65 and 70; and typical voltage and power gains are approximately 175 and 400 respectively.

33

6.91

Transistor Current Amplification

The circuits just described have shown how voltage and power amplification can be achieved by means of a transistor. Current amplification also can be obtained,
and the general method used to accomplish
this will

now

be described.
it is

You

will recall that, in considering transistor operation,

often helpful to

com-

pare the emitter, base and collector with the cathode, grid and anode, respectively, of a triode valve. The circuit you have just been studying was one in which

current

change through the collector was caused by changing the current flow through the emitter. Such a circuit is called a "common-base" or "grounded-base" circuit. In a triode valve, this would correspond to changing the anode current by changing the cathode current. With a junction transistor, however, it becomes possible to change the collector
current by changing the current flow in the base circuit.
circuit, this

you saw that, in the last circuit you studied, the base current generally amounts to less than 5 per cent of the total current through the emitter and collector circuits. So, by increasing or decreasing the current through the base circuit alone
(i.e.

Now

(In terms of a triode valve corresponds to varying anode current by changes in the grid current.)

A 2 in the P-N-P transistor diagram below), it becomes possible to obtain much larger
current changes in the collector circuit. The reason is that the flow of holes through the base-emitter junction depends on the existence of a forward bias in that region. If there is no current flow in the base circuit (through meter A there can

through

ward

bias at the base-emitter junction;

and there

When the current flow through A 2 presence of an increasingly strong forward bias at the base-emitter junction; and both the base and emitter currents will increase greatly. (Except for the change in the direction of the bias, the same conditions apply to the N-P-N transistor.) The type of current gain produced in this manner is known as "beta" OS), or a', current gain, p can be defined as "the change in collector current divided by the change in base current, with the collector voltage kept constant." Values for beta are from 25 to 100; and high beta values are always associated with high alpha
circuit.

be no for2), be no current flow in the emitter increases, however, this indicates the
will

values.

A small change in
emitter -base current.

. causes a large current change in emitter-collector

circuit

^
<Q

small electron flow

^1=
I

O = small hole flow

large electron flow
= large hole flow

6.92

What Transistors Look Like

475
615

MAZDA
XAIII

SEMCONDUCTORS SBIO

SBKO
SBKD3

XAIB

470"
MULLARD

OC44 OC45 OC70 OC7I OC75

600
PHLCO
2N223

5K>

6QO

page show the shape and dimensions of a number of which transistors, the internal construction and basic operating characteristics of in inches, indicated dimension is have already been described. On every drawing, one

The

illustrations

on

this

so as to give you some idea of the relative

sizes.

You

will see that there exists

a variety of shapes,

sizes

and arrangements of

ter-

minals and leads. Except for the fact that those intended for power amplification are larger, and sometimes have flanged bases for conducting heat away, the variations
in external characteristics
facturers.

depend largely on the preferences of individual manuSection dealing

The way to identify the connecting leads is explained later on, in the
with fault-finding in transistor circuits.

3]

6.93

Care and Handling of Transistors

PROTECT TRANSISTORS FROM.

Excessive Voltage
*\^ '/>

Bright Lights

Moisture

Incorrect Bias Connections

You must now

sistors.

learn the

most important

rules for the care

and handling of
fail in

tran-

Failure to follow these rules

may make

a transistor

operation, or

may considerably
1.

alter its characteristics.

is

Unless a transistor
stored) in a

of the hermetically sealed type,

it

should not be used (or

damp

place.

2.

Do not drop transistors, or subject them to unnecessary mechanical shock. Although transistors will withstand considerable vibration and shock when mounted in equipment, rough handling can often damage them.
Some semi-conductors are sensitive to light. The fact that some transistors may be encased in a transparent casing does not necessarily mean that they will not be damaged if exposed to strong light. If such units must be used in brilliant light, they should be shielded by a covering of black tape or of other suitable material. Before installing a transistor in any circuit, check the manufacturer's data sheet. Be sure to identify the emitter, base and collector terminals. Check the bias and
other operating requirements, and

3.

4.

make

sure that the

maximum

limits will

not

be exceeded in the
5.

circuit.

Always switch off the power before making or breaking transistor circuit connections. This precaution is not only for your personal safety, but also for that of the transistor. The application of voltage to one or two terminals before it
is

applied to the others

may damage

the transistor.

6.

Always check the voltage and polarity of the circuit bias supplies before connecting a transistor into the circuit. Previous changes in the circuit may apply
excess or incorrectly polarized bias to the transistor.

7.

Sudden application of
transistor.

voltage, in previously

unchecked

circuits,

may damage

When

the circuit contains controls for varying the bias, set these
bias (emitter to base)

controls for

minimum forward

and maximum

reverse bias

8.

is made, change the biases slowly to the required operating point. Remember that a transistor is sensitive to heat. Do not put a transistor in hot places, or next to hot circuit components. When soldering the transistor into a circuit, use a heat shunt, or pliers with a wide grasping area, so as to conduct heat out of the lead before it reaches the transistor body. When soldering connections to transistors, do not keep the iron on the joint for long periods.

(collector to base) before connecting the transistor.

After the connection


6.94

TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS

Common Base

Circuit Characteristics

Approximate Constant Current Supply

CIRCUIT FOR PLOTTING

COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
Against

COLLECTOR CURRENT CURVES COMMON- BASE CIRCUIT

2 of Basic Electronics that graphs of anode current plotted against anode voltage and grid voltage could be used to illustrate the properties of a Similar curves can be drawn to illustrate the properties of a transistor. valve. These curves are in practice given you in the manufacturers' data books; but you
learnt in Part

You

could equally well obtain them by using the circuit illustrated above. Note that for plotting transistor characteristics, the current for both bias supplies

and particularly for the input circuit bias must be kept as near constant as possible. The reason is that the input and output circuits of a transistor are not isolated from one another, so that a current change in any one of the elements will affect the current
in the other two.

In making characteristic curve measurements, two of the currents must be maintained constant, while the third
If
is

varied.
is

no

reliable constant current supply

available, the next best thing

is

to use a

high-voltage d.c. supply with the output connected in series with a large value of The resistance should be at least 100 times that of the transistor fixed resistance.
circuit

being supplied. Thus, if you want to plot the collector current/collector voltage curve in the circuit above, keep the current in the base-emitter circuit constant by connecting a 10-K resistor in series with the transistor, and by supplying the bias voltage from a potentio-

meter across a 45-V battery.

4
Common Base
Circuit Characteristics {continued)

6.95

Set the 50-K potentiometer in the base-emitter circuit to give a certain value of emitter current, say 5 mA, and then vary the collector current by means of the 10-K potentiometer in the base-collector circuit. Measure the collector voltage for each

value of collector current, and plot the results to give the characteristic curve. Then plot similar curves for other values of emitter current, and you will get a family of curves as illustrated on the left below.

The curves illustrated are typical P-N-P junction transistor characteristics. Note the resemblance between these curves and the IJV curves for a pentode valve. a If you examine the curves, you will see that a change in emitter current produces a
slightly smaller

change in collector current.

This indicates & current gain

(a)

of less

than one.
Further examination of the curves will show that the collector current is not zero when the collector voltage is zero. Indeed, to reduce the collector current to zero, you will have to reverse the polarity of the collector voltage.

can also see that the collector current does not immediately drop to zero the polarity of the collector voltage is reversed. This means that holes go on flowing from the emitter through the base and into the collector even though there may be a small opposing bias across the base collector junction. The reason for this

You

when

is

the high concentration of holes in the very thin base.

COLLECTOR VOLTAGE Against COLLECTOR CURRENT CURVES FOR TYPICAL P-N-P

JUNCTION TRANSISTOR

COMMON-BASE CIRCUIT

-10

-20

collector voltage

transistor.
is

The diagram above, right, shows the characteristics Note that there is a current gain (a) of about zero when the collector voltage is zero.

for a typical point-contact

3,

and

that collector current

6.96

Common-emitter Circuit Characteristics

CIRCUIT FOR PLOTTING

COLLECTOR VOLTAGE
Against
In the common-emitter circuit,

your main interest is in the effect of changes in base current on The diagram collector current.
below, left, shows the characteristic
curves of a typical P-N-P junction
transistor

COLLECTOR CURRENT CURVES COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT

in

type of circuit.
variation

a common-emitter These curves show

collector

of

current
for

against

collector

voltage,

different values of base current.

The
curves

circuit
is

used to plot such

the right.

shown on

To

plot these curves, maintain

the base current at one fixed value,

and vary the

note
the

collector

current;
at

collector

voltage

various values of collector current.

Repeat

this for

a variety of base
infor-

current values,

and use the

mation so gained to plot a family of

characteristic curves, as illustrated.

show

Examination of these curves will that very small changes in base current produce large changes

Indeed, it is not unusual for a 25-jaA change in

in collector current.

base current to produce a

1-mA

change in collector current, giving a j8 (or a) gain of 40.

4]

6.97

Leakage Current
Another transistor characteristic usually given in manufacturers' data books is the IJIe curve. Illustrated below, left, is such a curve for a typical P-N-P junction transistor connected in a common-base type of circuit. On the right is a magnified portion of the same characteristic as it approaches the origin. You can see that there is a small flow of collector current even when the
emitter current
is

zero.

This

is

known

as the collector leakage current (Ico).

IO

Ie(mA)

50

KX>

Ie(uA)

The value of Ico

varies

from

transistor to transistor,

individual transistor as

its

temperature changes.

and will also vary for any The manufacturer quotes the

value of Ic0 at a given temperature (usually 25C).

Ico may be from 0*5 fiA to 6 jiA. There is a similar leakage effect in common-emitter-type circuits, as illustrated in the IJIb curve shown below, left. In this case there is a flow of collector current when the base current is zero. This leakage current is denoted by l' cm and may be from 120 fzA to 400.'jxA. Again, I' c0 varies from transistor to transistor; and in any individual transistor will increase as its temperature increases.

45V

-IO

Ib(uA)

The leakage current occurs because

across the thin base.
It is greater in

the collector attracts holes

from the emitter

the common-emitter type of circuit because of

the amplifying effect of the transistor

when
I

it is

connected in such a way.

In the case of the common-base

practical purposes.

circuit,
is

c0 is

small enough to be neglected for most

i' cm however,

rapidly with temperature.

too large to be neglected; and it increases At 45C, for instance, it may be six to eight times the

value of

V eo at 25C. This leakage current

is

can

interfere with the correct operation

always present as part of the total collector current; and it of transistor circuits. The effects of leakage
effects,

current,

and the methods of countering these

are dealt with later on.

cos

TRANSISTOR CIRCUITS

Introduction to Transistor Circuits

basic facts about transistors, you are ready can be used in practical equipment. You will learn about transistor circuits in a sequence similar to that which you followed when you were learning about valve circuits. You will begin by comparing a single-stage transistor audio amplifier with the equivalent single-stage valve audio amplifier. You will then learn the methods of coupling transistor stages together to make up several types of complete audio amplifiers. Following this, transistor r.f. circuits will be described, and then the completely

Now that

you have understood some

transistors

to learn

how

transistorized superheterodyne broadcast receiver.

you have been invited to compare transistor and valve In these comparisons, you learnt that the emitter, the base and the collector of a transistor could often by usefully thought of as corresponding to the cathode, the grid and the anode of a valve.
circuits.

Several times already,

Further comparisons of this type will still be helpful to you in bridging the gap between transistor and valve circuitry, but a point will fairly soon be reached at which this comparison ceases to be useful. Better progress can be made at that time by basing the explanation of more advanced transistor circuits on the knowledge

you

will

then have gained about the more basic transistor

circuits.

5] Basic Single-stage A.F. Amplifiers

6.99

You have already been told of two methods of obtaining the effects of amplification
from a
circuits described can be converted easily into practical There is also a third method of obtaining signal gain from a transistor, which you will be learning about very shortly. The valve amplifier circuit with which you are most familiar is the one shown in the diagram below. In this circuit, the input signal is applied across grid and earth, and the output signal appears across anode and earth. Actually, because of the cathode bypass capacitor, the input is effectively across grid and cathode; and the output appears across anode and cathode. This amplifier is sometimes known as the "grounded-cathode" circuit. More correctly it should be called the "commoncathode" circuit, since both anode current and grid current (when present) flow through the cathode circuit. A brief review of this circuit will clarify the explanation of its transistor equivalent.

transistor;

and the

audio amplifier stages.

makes the grid more positive (or less negative), the anode an increase in the voltage drop across the load When the input signal makes the grid resistor, and the anode voltage decreases. The result is a decrease less positive (or more negative), the anode current decreases. in the voltage drop across the load resistor and the anode voltage increases. Since the change in anode voltage is always in a direction opposite to that of the grid voltage, there is a 180 phase reversal between the input and output signals.
the input signal

When

current increases.

The

result is

BASIC VALVE

COMMON- CATHODE
AMPLIFIER CIRCUIT

6.100

6*

Basic Single-stage A.F. Amplifiers (continued)

The equivalent transistor stage is shown below. It can be seen that the emitter, base and collector of the transistor correspond respectively to the cathode, grid and anode of the valve circuit. This circuit is known as the "grounded-emitter" circuit,
it is more correct to call it the "common-emitter" circuit. The operation of the circuit is the same whether a P-N-P or N-P-N transistor is used, although the polarities of the bias voltages would need to be reversed (as is shown in the twin diagram at the foot of the page). First consider operation with an N-P-N transistor. When a positive-going input signal drives the base more positive, the forward bias across the base-emitter junction is increased. More electrons flow from the emitter into the base, and there is an

although

increase in collector current.

drop across the load

positive).

resistor,

This increase in current results in an increased voltage and the collector voltage decreases (becomes less

some of the positive bias on the base is and the forward bias across the base-emitter junction is decreased. Fewer electrons flow from the emitter into the base, and there is a decrease in collector current. This decrease in current results in a decreased voltage drop across the load resistor, and the collector voltage increases (becomes more positive).
the input signal becomes negative,
cancelled;
is always in a direction opposite to that of a 180 phase reversal between the input and output signals. There are similar results when a P-N-P transistor is used, but with all the bias changes reversed. When a positive-going signal makes the base less negative, fewer

When

Since the change in collector voltage

is

the base voltage, there

holes flow

from the emitter into the base, the

collector voltage increases (becomes

the base more negative, more holes current increases, and the collector voltage decreases (becomes less negative). The outstanding advantage of this circuit is that it produces higher power amplification than do the other types you will be considering. Disadvantages are that the circuit has the greatest tendency of the three to pedance-matching problems which will be considered
oscillate;
later.

collector current decreases, and the more negative). A negative-going signal makes flow from the emitter into the base, the collector

and

it

also has im-

BASIC TRANSISTOR

COMMON-EMITTER
AMPLIFIER CIRCUITS

5]
Basic Single-stage A.F. Amplifiers (continued)

6.101

The second

basic amplifier circuit

its

is its

known

as the "grounded-grid," or

grid," circuit in

valve form.

In

transistor equivalent, the circuit is

"commonknown as

the "grounded-base," or "common-base," circuit.

This circuit resembles the one

you used

to learn about alpha current amplification.

In the N-P-N transistor circuit, when the input signal becomes positive, part of the forward bias across the emitter-base junction is cancelled. The result is a decrease in emitter current and a decrease in collector current. The voltage drop across the
load resistor decreases, and the collector voltage becomes more positive. When the input signal becomes negative, there is an increase in the forward bias
across the emitter-base junction.
collector current.

The

result is

an increase

in

both emitter and

The

voltage drop across the load resistor increases, and the

less positive.
falls

collector voltage

becomes

Since the collector voltage rises and

reversal between the input

with the input signal, there

is

no phase

and output

signals.

The outstanding advantages of this circuit are that it produces the least noise and has the least tendency to oscillate. The amplification produced is not as high as
that produced

by the common-emitter circuit. which you have now learnt to expect, the operaWith circuit produces similar results. It is suggested that you transistor P-N-P tion of the circuit also introduces no phase reversal between the this that yourself for check input and output signals.
the alterations to the circuit

6.102

[5

Basic Single-stage A.F. Amplifiers (continued)

Basic N-P-N

Common

-Collector

Amplifier Circuit

Whi
Input

EQUIVALENT

P-N-P CIRCUIT
s$^!!!PM!|

The
In
its

third basic circuit

is

known

transistor equivalent, the

as the "cathode follower" circuit in its valve form. arrangement is known as the "grounded-collector,"

or "common-collector,"

circuit.

The

collector

is

connected to earth, from an

a.c.

point of view, by the capacitor across the battery.

Take, again, the

N-P-N transistor circuit.

and an increase

When the input signal becomes positive,

is

the forward bias across the emitter-base junction

increase in emitter current

increased.

in collector current.

The result is an The voltage drop

across the load resistor (emitter to earth) increases,

and the emitter voltage be-

comes more

positive.

When

emitter-base junction

the input signal becomes negative, part of the forward bias across the is cancelled. The result is a decrease in emitter current and a

The voltage drop across the load resistor (emitter to and the emitter voltage becomes less positive (more negative). Since the emitter voltage rises and falls with the input signal, there is no phase reversal between the input and output signals. The outstanding characteristic of this circuit is that, as in the case of the cathode follower, the voltage gain is always less than one, although power gains of over 30
decrease in collector current.
earth) decreases,

times

may be

produced.

Also, the circuit has input impedances in the order of 250,000 ohms, while the output impedance is often below 1,000 ohms. This makes the circuit useful for matching high impedance sources to low impedance input circuits.

Once

again,

you can check for yourself that the P-N-P

transistor circuit, with

oppo-

site biases, will give similar effects.

5]
Amplifier Circuit Variations

6.103

There exist quite a number of variations of the basic transistor amplifier circuits which you have just learnt. These variations often arise merely from different methods of drawing the circuit; but they may, of course, arise also from actual differences in the number and types of components used, and in the wiring. The P-N-P transistor circuit diagrams below show how even identical circuits can be redrawn so that at first glance they look different. But if you will take the
trouble to trace the connections carefully through,
the diagram
also in

you

will see that in

on the right represents simply a the diagram on the left.

different layout

each case of the circuit represented

DBAWtNCr

LAYOUT VACATIONS
DRAWING LAYOUT VARIATIONS
II

tHh
\J)

COMMON-EMITTER

J
COMMON-BASE

ii-l -_L||.

*T~^
COMMONCOLLECTOR

1"

6.104
Amplifier Circuit Variations (continued)

[5

cuit

The drawings on this page show five more variations of the common-emitter cirshown on the previous page. Similar variations exist also for the common-base and common-collector circuits. In the case of diagram 3, although there have been some changes in drawing layout, the main difference is that transformer coupling, rather than RC coupling, has been used at the input and output. In diagram 4, apart from differences in drawing layout, the major change is that one
is

used instead of two. In transistor applications this is often done. which are required can easily be obtained from a single battery, either by means of a voltage divider arrangement (as in diagram 4) or by means of individual series resistors from the battery to the collector and base (as in diagram 5).
bias battery

The two

different biases

substituted for the battery-to-collector resistor.

Diagram 6 shows how the primary winding of an output transformer can be Also shown in that diagram is a

circuit. This resistor generates a self-bias which maintains the desired operating characteristics in spite of current variations in the other circuit components. Diagram 7 shows how self-bias can be generated by a resistor connected between base and collector. The base bias resistor increases and decreases the base current

bypassed resistor in the emitter-to-earth

voltage, similar to cathode bias,

to the extent required to maintain stable operation.

ADDITIONAL VARIATIONS OF COMMON- EM]

BiBBinBaii

TRANSFORMER SINGLE BIAS BATTERY WITH OUTPUT VOLTAGE

INPUT AND
DIVIDER

l-itT&
SINGLE BIAS

tt

BATTERY WITH
'SINGLE BIAS BATTERY| SELF-BIAS WITH SERIES RESISTORS| FOR BASE

SINGLE BIAS BATTERY WITH TRANSFORMER

OUTPUT

5]

6.105

D.C. Stabilization

The
makes

variation in the common-emitter circuit

shown

in diagram 7

on the previous
It

page not only permits the use of one battery to supply both bias voltages.
it

also

possible to counter the effects of leakage current.

effect which leakage current (see page 6.97) would have in the basic common-emitter P-N-P transistor amplifier circuit shown below. The arrows indicate the direction of electron flow in the circuit. Assume that the circuit is operating at 25C, and that the bias conditions have been chosen for correct operation that is, with forward bias emitter-to-base, and reverse bias collector-to-base. The resistor in the base circuit would be about 10-KQ, and that in the collector circuit about 3-KQ. The batteries would be 1-5 V and 4-5 V respectively.

Consider the

HI
INPUT

Ic

to

o
OUTPUT

lb

Ie

O
At the given temperature of 25C, Ic
Ib about 20 {iA.
in the steady state

O
may
be about
1

mA, and

These currents flowing in the collector and base circuits respectively cause voltage drops across the 3-K and 10-K resistors to provide a voltage of 1-5 V at the collector and of 1*3 V at the base. There would thus be a reverse bias of 200 mV between collector and base. You saw on page 6.97 that Ic includes the leakage current I' co , and that this leakage current increases rapidly with temperature. Suppose now that the temperature rises. The value of F co will increase, and will cause Ic to be increased by, say, 50 (iA.
This will increase the drop across the 3-K resistor in the collector
circuit,

and

will

change the collector voltage to 1-35 V. The reverse bias voltage between collector and base

will

now be reduced to 50 mV

and increased base current

will flow.

This increased base current will in turn cause

a further increase in collector current, and so will further heat the junction. The initial increase in temperature, and hence of leakage current, will therefore upset the bias conditions in the circuit; and will start a train of events which could result in excessive collector current, and possibly even in destruction of the transistor
junction.

6.106

D.C. Stabilization (continued)

Now
is

consider again the common-emitter circuit (diagram 7 on page 6.104, which

for convenience reproduced below).

;60K

HF
INPUT

U
OUTPUT

I
In this
circuit,

4-5V

Ic

will

be of the order of 3

mA, and

the collector voltage about 4 V.

The base
to-base.

current flowing through the

60-K

resistor gives the reverse bias collector-

lector.

The amount of base current flowing is proportional to the voltage on the colIf the temperature increases, and there is an increase in leakage (and hence

of collector current), the voltage drop across the resistor in the collector circuit will be greater and the collector voltage will fall i.e., become less negative. This will reduce the base current, and so counter the effect of the temperature rise.

The

d.c.

This

circuit,

operating conditions of the circuit are therefore stabilized. however, has two main disadvantages:

(a) initially,

high collector currents are inevitable; and

is

(b)

a feed-back path from output to input

circuit

introduced.

The

below provides bias from one

battery,

and

also gives d.c. stabilization

without the disadvantages mentioned.

The bias voltage for the base is provided by the resistance divider R1-R2 in conjunction with the resistor Re in the emitter circuit. Re is decoupled at audio frequencies.
D.C.
stabilization is effected as follows.

An

increase in collector current (caused

by

means that the emitter current has increased. This causes increased drop across Re and the voltage at the emitter becomes more negative, so reducing the forward bias base-emitter. This reduces the base current; and this,
increased leakage)
;

in turn, restores the collector current to

its

original value.

5]
Multiple-stage Transistor Amplifiers

6.107

VALVE

COUPLING

METHODS
-*~HT+

Direct

Coupling

Although large amounts of power, voltage and current amplification can be produced by a single transistor stage, the requirements of practical equipment generally demand even greater amplification between the input and output. You have learnt various methods of coupling together, or "cascading," a number of valve amplifier stages. The same general methods are used in multiple-stage transistor amplifiers.

As

in valve amplifiers, the input stage

input source

or the signal generator, for example; and the output stage must be impedance-matched to the output load the loudspeaker, earphones, transmission line or meter, etc.
aerial

the microphone, the

must be impedance-matched to the

signal

Methods which can be used for coupling the amplifier stages to the input source and output load, or for coupling amplifier stages to each other, include transformer coupling and resistance-capacitance coupling. The diagram on the left, above, illustrates these two methods of coupling valves. Another method of coupling, direct coupling, makes use of a direct connection between the anode of one stage and the grid of the next stage. In such circuits, the bias requirements of the second valve are met by maintaining its cathode at an appropriately high d.c. potential. The diagram on the right, above, is of a directcoupled amplifier
circuit.

6.108
Multiple-stage Transistor Amplifiers (continued)

[5

In multiple-stage transistor amplifiers, the problem of coupling the various stages

together
is

complicated by the characteristics of the different types of individual

resistances of

amplifier stages.

Both the grounded-base and the grounded-emitter types have input

1,000
as

ohms or

lower.

In the grounded-base type, indeed, input resistance

other hand, the output resistances of these stages
for the grounded-emitter type

low as 25 ohms.

On the
ohms

may be may be

as high as 50,000

and 500,000 ohms for the

grounded-base type.
If resistance-capacitance coupling

were to be used in cascading amplifier stages of

and would result in a very large power loss in the coupling network between the stages. Such losses result in significantly reduced
these types, the very large difference between the output resistance of one stage

the input resistance of the next stage

gain through the overall amplifier.

To make up

for these losses,

it is

sometimes necessary to add one or more stages

to the amplifier.

5]
Multiple-stage Transistor Amplifiers (continued)

6.109

Although the use of resistance-capacitance coupling results in a large loss in For this amplification, it is simpler and less expensive than are the alternatives. retaining this type of coupling while reason, several methods have been devised for overcoming mismatch. partially the important problem of Matching the first amplifier stage to the signal source can be accomplished by selecting a type of amplifier circuit which has an input resistance approximately equal to the source. When the input signal source has a resistance between 25 and 300 ohms (as is the case with many transmission lines, low-impedance microphones and gramophone pick-ups) a common-base type of input stage is Used. If the output impedance of the signal source is in the range between 300 and 1,000 ohms, But if either a common-base or a common-emitter type of input stage may be used. the signal source has an impedance in the order of several hundred thousand ohms, a common-collector type of input stage is used. A similar technique is used to match the final amplifier stage to the output load. For load resistances below 5,000 ohms, a common-collector type amplifier is used as the output stage. For loads between 5,000 and 100,000 ohms, a common-emitter type output stage is used. For load resistances above 100,000 ohms, the commonbase type of output amplifier stage
is

used.

There exists, unfortunately, no very efficient direct method of transmitting high levels of signal power to a load of less than 500 ohms. In such cases a transformer
is

generally required.

In power amplifiers, a common-collector stage, with

to present a fairly

its

high input impedance

(100,000 to 350,000 ohms) and low output impedance (700 to 25,000 ohms), can be used

good impedance match between stages of the other types. Although the voltage gain is less than one, there is good power gain (about 30 times), and the mismatch losses are effectively eliminated.

6.110
Multiple-stage Transistor Amplifiers {continued)

[5

Transformers offer not only the most

stages to their inputs

shows a

three-stage,

efficient method of matching transistor and outputs, but also a fairly simple one. The diagram below transformer-coupled P-N-P transistor amplifier.

for the efficiency of transformers is that they can be manufactured to have almost any desired combination of input and output impedances, so that almost perfect matches can be achieved. Fewer stages, too, are required in a transformercoupled amplifier than in a resistance-capacitance amplifier of equivalent gain. But the use of transformers brings about the disadvantages of greater cost, and added space and weight; so that, despite the use of mass-production techniques, and although miniaturized models are widely available, it is a rare transistor amplifier which uses transformer-coupling exclusively.

The reason

INPUT

Two methods
of
.the

of directly coupling transistor amplifier stages are shown at the foot

in special amplifiers
tolerated.

page.

They are used

where the phase

Direct coupling
is

shift

introduced

by other coupling methods cannot be

previously described.

also used in the

amplification of signals at frequencies too

low to be coupled

efficiently

by the methods

Output devices such as meters, relays, earphones and other units can be directcoupled by connecting them in series with the output element of the final amplifier If the device has a high impedance, it can be used in conjunction with the stage.

common-base and common-emitter

it

types; if

it

has an impedance below 5,000 ohms,

can be connected in

series

with the output of a common-collector stage.

Note that

in the direct-coupled amplifier illustrated

on

the

left,

below, P-N-P and

N-P-N

used in conjunction, this resulting in a simplified biasing arrangement without impedance-matching problems. This method is known as the "complementary symmetry" circuit arrangement, and further examples of it will be
transistors are

met

in the description of transistorized push-pull audio amplifier circuits.

OUTPUT

INPUT

LIRECTrOl'PLLI)

AMPLIFIER

5]
Push-pull Audio Amplifiers

6.111

INPUT

In your study of valve amplifiers, you learnt that the power output needed is sometimes more than can be produced by a single output stage. When this is so, the power output can be increased by using two valves in the output stage, the pushpull arrangement producing the highest power output with the least distortion. A basic push-pull amplifier of the valve type is shown in the diagram above. In this circuit, the output signal of the previous stage is applied to the primary of a

The secondary of the transformer is centre-tapped, and applies equal and opposite voltages to the grids of the push-pull valves. Because opposite ends of the transformer secondary are applied to the two grids, the signal voltage on one grid is becoming more positive while the voltage on the other grid is becoming more negative. Thus the anode current in one valve is increasing while that in the other
transformer.
is

decreasing.

anode currents in the output transformer primary flow in opposite and high operating efficiency can be obtained from the transformer. In audio amplifiers, the power output which can be obtained from a single output stage employing ordinary transistors is usually limited to about 150 milliwatts. Such a low output is quite adequate for driving earphones, but is normally considered insufficient for use with a loudspeaker. By using a push-pull power transistor arrangement in the final amplifier stage, however, an output of 500 milliwatts can be
Because the
d.c.

directions, the transformer core is not easily saturated;

readily, obtained with Class

operation.

This

is

quite adequate for driving the

loudspeaker of a portable radio.

With the aid of high-power from a push-pull circuit.

transistors, outputs

of up to 20 watts can be obtained

transistorized push-pull amplifier circuit is also shown in the diagram. It can be seen that the two circuits are very similar, and the explanation given applies equally well to both of them. Note that the operating characteristics of the two transistors must be carefully

matched

if efficient

operation and low distortion are to be obtained.

6.112
Push-pull Audio Amplifiers (continued)

[5

Very efficient push-pull operation can be achieved by the use of a circuit with complementary symmetry. Such circuits are possible because P-N-P and N-P-N transistors can be made which have equivalent operating characteristics while de-

manding oppositely polarized

Circuits having

bias sources.

complementary symmetry can often do without several of the coupling components usually required. The circuit illustrated below, for instance, works well without either input or output transformers.

Both

transistor bases are driven without phase reversal

by the output

signal of the

The balanced voltage divider arrangement shown at the left of the circuit keeps the two bases equally and oppositely biased with respect to one another. The resistors are low in value, so that there is little loss in signal amplitude; and equal signals appear on both bases. The transistor circuits are of the common-collector type. Since one transistor is of the P-N-P type while the other is of the N-P-N type, push-pull operation is
previous stage.

obtained even though the bases are driven in phase with one another.

When there is
opposite,

no

signal applied, the currents through the load resistor are equal

and

and

so cancel out.

The

biasing selected usually cuts off the collector current

when

zero-

signal is applied, giving Class

operation for

maximum power

output.

When

the input signal becomes positive, the upper transistor does not conduct.

The lower

transistor does conduct, however, and current flows from the emitter through the load resistor and into the battery centre tap.

When

the input signal becomes negative, only the upper transistor conducts; and
achieved.
is

current flows from the battery centre tap through the load resistor to the emitter.

Thus push-pull operation

is

Since a common-collector circuit

without an output transformer.

istics,

The
two

employed, a low impedance output is achieved negative feedback obtained through the
transistors is not required.

common load resistor balances out small differences in transistor operating characterand
precise matching of the

THE TRANSISTORIZED SUPERHETERODYNE 6.1,3

RECEIVER

Introduction

RF
Amplifier

AF
Amplifier

Local
Oscillator

SUPERHETERODYNE RECEIVER
BLOCK DIAGRAM

amplifiers, you are ready to Since you are already familiar with the valve versions of these circuits, only a brief review of their workings will be

Now that you know something about transistor audio

transistor superheterodyne receiver circuits.

go on to

necessary.

remember that the superheterodyne receiver aerial picks up transmitted delivers them to the input transformer of the r.f. amplifier. The r.f. amplifier steps up the amplitude of the signal to which it is tuned, but does not amplify signals at other frequencies. Thus the purpose of the r.f. amplifier is to add selectivity and sensitivity to the receiver. The r.f. amplifier is often eliminated in domestic receivers, and the aerial signal is fed directly to the frequency changer
will

You

signals

and

or mixer.
together.

In the mixer, the incoming signal and the output of a local oscillator are mixed The anode current of the mixer varies according to both of these signals,

which are at different frequencies. output; and this signal is fed to the
frequency.

A
i.f.

beat, or difference, signal appears at the

amplifier,

which

is

tuned to this difference

The

i.f.

signal has the

same modulation

as the

r.f.

carrier,

and
r.f.

the"

only change

is

lowering of the frequency of the carrier signal.

are tuned to the incoming signal, the oscillator

When

the

amplifier

and mixer

arranged that the difference signal

fier

is

is also tuned. The tuning is so always at the same frequency, and the i.f. ampli-

can be fixed-tuned. i.f. amplifier is permanently tuned to the fixed-frequency signal coming from the mixer stage. Since no variable tuning is required, the i.f. amplifier is designed for maximum amplification and high selectivity. From one to three i.f. amplifiers are normally included in a superheterodyne receiver, and the intermediate frequency normally used in broadcast receivers is in the range 450-475 kilocycles. The detector stage receives the output of the i.f. amplifier, removes the i.f. carrier This audio signal is stepped up in amplisignal and leaves only the audio signal. drives the earphones or loudspeaker. the output of which amplifier, audio tude by the

The

6.114

B*
and R.F. Amplifier Stages

The

I.F.

(COMMON-EMITTER CIRCUIT)

The

designs of the transistor

is

i.f.

amplifier

and of the

transistor

r.f.

amplifier are

basically similarjust as

the case with their valve-type counterparts.

Once

again,

too, the

major design problem in both stages is how to achieve adequate gain at high In both cases, this is normally done by using tuned circuits. frequencies. The diagram shows a valve-type i.f. amplifier, together with two transistor-type
equivalents.

The first of these transistor circuits is a common-base arrangement. Between it and its valve-type equivalent, only two significant differences can be seen. First are the differences arising from the change in bias requirements. And second is the fact that the emitter circuit is connected to a tap on the secondary winding, rather than to the end of that winding. The purpose of this is to provide a good impedance match between the two stages; the high output impedance of the collector circuit is effectively matched to the low input impedance of the emitter which follows, while maintaining the normal tuning requirements of an i.f. transformer. In the second transistor-type i.f. amplifier circuit shown in the diagram above, a common-emitter arrangement is used. The major difference here is that the impedance match is accomplished in the transformer primary. Instead of being connected to the end of the primary winding, the collector is connected to a tap on the primary. Also, the secondary winding is untuned, as is sometimes done in valve
circuits.

Transistor-type r.f. amplifiers closely resemble the transistor i.f. amplifiers shown in the diagram, except that their frequency range is both higher and wider. Just as is the case with valves, some transistors are designed for use at r.f. and
others for use at
a.f.

6]

6.115
Oscillator and

The

Mixer Stages

Transistor oscillators operate by

positive feedback network, just as
lators.

means of a do valve oscilcircuit.

This arrangement takes a portion of the

it

output signal and feeds

back to the input

is

The phase
signal
is

relationship

such that the input a

circuit.

reinforced,

and

oscillation takes place at

frequency determined by the tuned

The

basic principles involved are identical to those

described in Part 3 of Basic Electronics.

Just as there

is

a wide variety of valve

oscillators,

so there are

many

kinds of transistor oscillators.

There

are, for instance, transistorized versions

of

the Armstrong

and Hartley
diagrams
significant

oscillators,

which are
top.

shown

in

the

opposite,

The
those

operating principles are the same in both cases;

and the only

differences

are

necessary for maintaining the proper bias on the

various elements.

There

are,

however, also a number of oscillator

These can always be recognized in a schematic diagram by the fact that they all contain a series- or parallel-tuned circuit with some form of coupling between the input and output circuits.
circuits peculiar to transistors.

Also shown on

this

page (third diagram)

is

the schematic diagram of a typical mixer circuit.

The

emitter is frequently biased by means of a bypassed resistor to earth, and the local oscillator
is

signal

injected into

it

coupling.
aerial or

The modulated
amplifier
is

by means of transformer r.f. signal from the

r.f.

coupled to the base.

The
stage
is

transistor version of a frequency changer

shown

in the

bottom diagram opposite.

6.116
Transistor Receiver Operation

K6

The diagram above shows

ceiver

incorporating
45),

the circuit of a complete transistor-type superhet rea frequency changer (OC 44), two i.f. amplifier stages

(2xOC
(OC

a germanium diode detector (OA 70), an audio-frequency amplifier and a Class B push-pull output stage (2 x OC 72). The receiver operates from a 9-V battery, and tunes over the medium- and long-wave bands. The two OC 72 transistors in the output stage have their bases biased by the two Bias is applied to the emitters by resistors R i6 and Rn across the battery supply. It is important that the two OC 72 transistors the voltage developed across i? 18 be "matched" that is to say, that their characteristics be very similar. Drive for the push-pull output stage is provided by an OC 71 working as an audio-frequency
71),
.

amplifier transformer-coupled to the push-pull output stage. 71 by a practical divider comprising Bias is applied to the base of the

OC

R10

and Ri 3

You

Emitter current flowing through R14 and R 15 provides the emitter bias. will recognize that these components provide the conditions necessary for d.c.
.

stabilization.

Negative feedback is connected from the secondary of the output transformer, through Ri 9 and C18 , to the emitter of the OC 71. The purpose of this negative feedback is both to reduce any distortion that may be present, and to flatten the audio-frequency response curve. The 680-pF capacitor will allow more feedback at the higher audio frequencies and less feedback at the lower audio frequencies, thereby compensating for the rising characteristic of the frequency response. By reason of the low input impedance of the OC 71 when connected in the common-emitter condition, the value of the coupling capacitor 8 fxF is higher than that which would be used to couple valve circuits. RVi serves a dual purpose. It acts as a volume control, as well as providing the
detector load.

6]
Transistor Receiver Operation (continued)

6.117

The detector consists simply of a germanium diode (OA 70) connected in a halfwave rectifier circuit, its load being RVx. The decoupling capacitor C12 bypasses the i.f. component to earth. The lead from the junction of MR U RVt and C12 which connects to R5 supplies AGC voltage to the i.f. amplifier. Since P-N-P transistors are used in this stage, the
action of the

AGC is
i.f.

to feed back a positive d.c. voltage as bias in order to reduce

the gain of the

stage.
.

Audio-frequency components present on the AGC line are decoupled to earth by C8 The detector is fed from the output of the i.f. amplifier, the intermediate frequency being 470 kc/s. The i.f. amplifier consists of two stages using OC 45 transistors. Both these transistors have bias voltages applied to base and to emitter, the collectors being connected to tapped points on the primaries of the i.f. transformers. The reason for this latter connection is that the output impedance of a transistor connected in a common-emitter condition is not as high as is the impedance of the primary tuned circuit of the i.f. transformer at the i.f. frequency. The collector is therefore connected to an impedance matching point on the primary. The secondaries of the i.f. transformers are untuned, since this allows a better impedance match to the input of the transistors. Sufficient gain is obtained from the i.f. stages, despite their untuned secondaries, because the coils of the transformers are specially wound on "ferrite cores," and so have high values of "Q." An RC network, C19-i?2i-Qo-^20 is connected from the secondary of T3 to the These are neutralizing components, providing negative secondaries of Tx and T2 feedback between output and input in order to prevent oscillations in the i.f. ampli.

fier.

and

base-to-emitter), neutralization

Since rather high capacitances exist in the transistor (i.e. collector-to-base is necessary, even at 470 kc/s, in order to prevent

positive feedback

which would cause the amplifiers to

i.f.

oscillate.

The combined

gain of the two

amplifier stages

is

about 60 dB.

6.118
Transistor Receiver Operation (continued)

[6

The frequency changer uses an OC 44 transistor; bias voltages are applied to both base and emitter. coupling winding, consisting of a few turns in the collector circuit, couples a portion of the output back to the emitter circuit to maintain

oscillations.

the oscillator is controlled by a tuned circuit consisting of a a 163-pF variable capacitor (C7), and a trimming capacitor. To reduce the frequency of oscillations for long-wave-band operation, an additional 310-pF capacitor (C5) is switched in parallel with the coil. The output of the collector is applied to the primary of Tlt where the i.f-of 470 kc/s is selected and passed for amplification. The aerial input circuit consists of tuned windings wound on a "ferrite rod," and loosely coupled by low impedance windings to the base of the OC 44. Switching facilities are provided, to allow reception on either medium- or long-wave bands. The primary of the long-wave coil is earthed when the stage is switched to mediumband working, in order to prevent any resonance from the long-wave winding from affecting the medium-wave winding,
coil,

The frequency of

FAULT-FINDING ON A TRANSISTOR

6.119

SUPERHET
The Basic Procedure

The
here
1.

basic procedure for fault-finding

on a

transistor superhet is

no

different

that which you learnt for a valve superhet in Part 5 of Basic Electronics.
it is:

from Once more,

2.
3.

4.

COLLATE THE SYMPTOMS. DECIDE WHICH STAGE IS FAULTY. INSPECT THE EQUIPMENT. CONFIRM YOUR DEDUCTION BY SIGNAL INJECTION AND
TRACING. FIND THE FAULTY COMPONENT BY VOLTAGE, CURRENT AND RESISTANCE MEASUREMENTS WITHIN THE FAULTY
STAGE.
2 and 3 are exactly the same as those you applied to the valve receiver, so not be repeated. But you will have to learn how to apply steps 4 and 5 to

5.

Steps

1,

they will

the transistor superhet. Signal Injection and Signal Tracing

First, it would be usual to check both audio stages together, by injecting a signal from an audio-frequency generator between base and earth of the first audio amplifier You should connect a d.c. blocking capacitor in series with transistor (OC 71).

the

a.f.

generator output, in case a d.c. path should affect the bias voltage present

between base and earth of the transistor. If the audio stages are operating correctly, you will hear a tone from the loudspeaker; and an output meter connected across the secondary winding of the output transformer will give an indication. You can check for distortion by connecting an oscilloscope across the output and observing the waveform. Some of the ways in which a sine wave appears distorted
are

shown

in the illustration below.

6.120
Signal Injection and Signal Tracing (continued)

K7

Next, you can check the operation of the detector stage by connecting an r.f. winding of the i.f. transformer T3 , having first set the signal generator output to 470 kc/s modulated. If the stage is working, an audio signal will be heard from the loudspeaker, or an indication noted on an outsignal generator across the secondary

put meter.

To test the i.f.

lated,

amplifiers,

keep the signal generator

set to

470 kc/s amplitude modu-

and connect it across base and earth of each i.f. amplifier transistor in turn. Either an audio signal from the loudspeaker or an indication on an output meter
prove that the
i.f.

will

amplifiers are working.

The frequency changer can be checked by loosely coupling the signal generator to the medium- or long-wave band coils on the ferrite rod. "Loose coupling," in this case, means that you construct a simple loop of wire and place it near one of the windings on the ferrite rod; you then tune the receiver until the signal generator output is heard. This method of injecting the signal is necessary because direct connection of the signal generator to the tuned aerial coil would connect the low impedance of the signal generator across the tuned circuit, thereby damping it and making the circuit less sensitive and less selective. A good overall check on the working of the receiver as a whole can now be made, by tuning the receiver to signals on both medium- and long-wave bands. If no signals are heard when the signal generator is coupled to the aerial (and provided, of course, that the i.f. and audio stages have been proved to be in working order) you
should next check the oscillator section of the frequency changer. Two ways of doing this are:
1.

2.

Use a valve voltmeter to see whether the oscillator is oscillating; or Measure the emitter voltage or current, and note whether the reading changes

when

the oscillator circuit

is

shorted out.

*]

6.121

Using the Multi-meter in Transistor Circuits

and resistance will normally be made with a multi-range meterone you have used for similar measurements in valve circuits. A few special points about the use of a multi-range meter in transistor circuits should, however, be noted.
Tests of voltage
similar to the
1.

In P-N-P transistor
to "earth,"

circuits,

the

positive

battery

terminal

is

connected

and the H.T.

effect

line is negative.

In

N-P-N

transistor circuits, the

2.

is connected to "earth," and the H.T. line is positive. of the meter must be taken into account when measuring voltages; for example, when measuring base-to-earth voltages in common-

negative battery terminal

The shunting

emitter circuits.
3.

voltages in common-emitter circuits, take care to avoid shorting the emitter to earth (chassis). Such a short would cause a large current to flow in the emitter, and hence in the collector; it might even

When you are measuring emitter

Thermal runaway is the term used to describe what happens when the junctions are heated by excessive current to a temperature which automatically increases the current still higher, and so on until the
4.

cause "thermal runaway."

junctions themselves are in danger of being broken down. When resistances are being measured between two points connected by parallel paths, one of which contains a transistor, it may be necessary to disconnect one

of the relevant transistor leads. Failure to do so may give rise to misleading resistance readings; for the reason that there are two resistances across a transistor junction, a "forward resistance" and a "back resistance." Which of these two

5.

measured at any one time depends on the polarity of the multi-range meter leads when the measurement is being made. Transistor circuits nearly always include low working-voltage electrolytic

resistances is actually being

When such components are being checked with an ohm-meter, or with the ohms range of a multi-meter, it is essential that the voltage and polarity of the meter itself be first checked over the appropriate range. Never connect either too high a working voltage, or a voltage of incorrect polarity,
capacitors.

to electrolytic capacitors of this kind.

.Working

6.122

[7

A Typical Fault-finding Sequence

a transistor superhet. Let us now go through a typical fault-finding sequence on signals at all being no dead, is receiver Let us say that the symptoms are that the heard on either wave-band. . Satisd.c. The first step is to check the battery voltage. Say it measures 8-5 V
.

factory.

of TR4 (see diagram Next, injection of an a.f. signal between the base and earth So the audio stages loudspeaker. on page 6.116) produces an audio output at the of T3 signal of 470 kc/s is then applied across the secondary this At is in order. stage detector the that indicates output audible An (see below). confirm that the loudand control, volume the of action the check should point you ness of the output signal varies with the setting of the control. move the modulated i.f. signal to the base of TR y Once again an audio out-

are working.

modulated

i.f.

Now

put indicates that the stage is operating. no audio But application of an i.f. signal between base and earth of TR2 gives its associated comand TR comprising stage, i.f. first the 2 in is output. So the fault
ponents.

Had this
of

been a valve

circuit,

you would next have

tried replacing the valve.

But

task of replacing one transistors are less likely to be faulty than are valves; and the check the transistor to be should step them also takes longer. So your next
voltages.

The collector voltage of TR 2 measures 6-2 V d.c, which is satisfactory; but voltage emitter checks at emitter and base show no voltage at either. No voltage at the means that there is either no emitter current, or else a short circuit from emitter to emitter resistance check from emitter to earth measures 680 ohms; so the earth.

of

Next, therefore, you check the TR2 base circuit. No voltage. Why? Well, R4 could be an open circuit; or there could be a short circuit to earth from the base of

TR2 is not short-circuited.

TR2

A resistance check from the AGC decoupling capacitor C

ponent shows
it

base of
is

TR2

to earth shows zero ohms.

The

8-(xF

suspect; and removal and checking of this com-

to be faulty.

A replacement capacitor is put in, and the receiver is back in working condition.

7]
Transistor Connections

6.123

There

will

come a

time,

when you

are fault-finding

when you

will suspect

a transistor

itself

on transistorized equipments, of being faulty; and you will want to test it.

Just as valve manufacturers give data of pin connections for valves, so do transistor manufacturers give information enabling you to identify transistor element connections. One widely used method of arranging the collector, emitter and base
leads of a transistor so that
its

various connecting leads can be easily identified

is

pictured in the top diagram.

In this diagram of a typical transistor, the

collector lead is the

one nearest to the red or

white spot painted on the transistor body. The emitter is connected to the lead farthest

from the
lead
is

collector.

And

the base connecting

the one between the emitter

and the

collector.

Notice also that the spacing between the three

connecting leads
is different.

Some

transistors are fitted with metal shields,

or "heat sinks," which slide over the outer

casing of the transistor.
is fitted

When

the transistor

an equipment, the heat sink is fixed to a point on a metal chassis; and helps to conduct heat away from the transistor body.
into

In larger transistors, the collector

is

normally

connected to the outer casing; and the emitter and base connecting leads are identified by coloured sleeving, as shown in the lower
illustration.

Note that, although these two methods of marking the leads of a transistor are widely
used, they are not universal.

When

the leads

of a transistor cannot be certainly identified, you should at once consult the manufacturer's data book for this vitally important piece of
information.

6.124
Transistor Testing

[7

The complete testing of a transistor is a big job, requiring special testing equipment There is both more complex and more expensive than are most valve testers. are, however, two important tests which can be carried out on low-power transistors with comparatively simple equipment; and they are the testing of its current gain and measurement of leakage current. Transistors are connected in a groundedwhich
emitter condition for these
tests.

You know
s

that the current gain of a transistor in a grounded-emitter condition

j3,

symbolized as

or a

and that

=
lOOK

the change in collector current the change in base current

A/WW

Your first step is to note the collector current meter-reading (1^) when the connection to the base of the transistor is open circuited; this reading represents the collector leakage current (Ico) multiplied by the current gain of the transistor. The value of this leakage current is normally of the order 0-1 to 0-3 mA. If there is either no leakage current at all, or else a current well in excess of the given range,
it is

an indication that the transistor is unserviceable. The current gain is found by supplying current to the base, adjusting the 1 -megohm variable resistor for a collector current of 1 mA, and noting the reading of base current. Re-adjust the 1-megohm resistor for a collector current of 2 mA, and note the new value of base current. The ratio of change-of-collector-current to change-of-base-current will give you j8. Assume, as an example, that the base current needed to obtain 1-mA collector current was 20 micro-amps, and that the base current to obtain 2 mA was 40 microamps. Then you get the following simple equation:
j8

(or a')

40(xA-20(xA ~ 20

mA mA _
1

mA =
fxA

50
test,

In other words, the current gain of the transistor under grounded-emitter condition, is 50.

when

it is

in the

GENERAL REVIEW OF TRANSISTORS

A junction
junctions

6.125

Junction Transistor,

transistor consists of semi-conduc-

tor materials in

an N-P-N or a

P-N-P

sequence.

The
process

m
v Emitter

may

be formed either during a

'

crystal-growing
junctions), or

(grown

Base

F
Collector

by a

dissolving

and

re-crystallization

process

(alloy

junctions), or

by an etching and

plating process.

Point-contact

Transistor,

A
two

PROTECTIVE CASE

point-contact transistor consists of

a block of N-type semi-conductor

material
in

contact

with

closely spaced pointed metal wires.

The
as

construction can be considered

the

equivalent

of

P-N-P

junction arrangement.

Transistor Amplification.
plification is achieved

Am-

because the

transistor transfers current

from a
is

low-resistance circuit to a highresistance

circuit.

This

why

they are called "transfer resistors,"

or transistors.

Common-emitter Amplifier.
This type of circuit operates in the

same general manner as does

common-cathode
valve

the

amplifier.

The

circuit

has the highest power

Input
resis-

amplification, but the greatest ten-

dency to
tance
is

oscillate.

1,000
is

ohms or lower ; output

as high as 50,000

resistance

ohms.

6.126

[8
Transistors (continued)
Amplifier,

REVIEW of

Common-base

This

circuit operates in the

same general

manner as does the grounded-grid

valve amplifier.
It

produces lower

power amplification than does the common-emitter circuit, but has

the
least

tendency

to

oscillate.

Input resistance

may

be as low as
is

25 ohms; output resistance

high as 500,000 ohms.

as

Common-collector

Amplifier.

This circuit operates in the same

general manner as does the cathodefollower.

The

voltage gain

is less

than one; but power gains of over

30 times can be produced.

resistance
is

Input

in

the

order

of
is

25,000 ohms; output resistance

as low as 1,000 ohms.

Multiple-stage Amplifiers.
coupling

The
laptduc* Matching la Transistor Am pllfisrs
25-300

of

transistor

amplifier
ohm

stages together brings important

COMMONBASE
CIRCUIT
COMMON- BASE -OR COMMONEMlTTEfl CIRCUIT

COMMON BASE
CIRCUIT

100K ohm
or higher load

impedance-matching
coupling, or

problems.

input

These are solved by transformerby careful selection of

sequence.

300-1000

ohm

""

input

COMMONEMITTER
CIRCUIT

100K ohm
or lower load

the types of stages to be used in

The
are

same
as

coupling
in

100K-500K

ohm

input

COMMONCOLLECTOR
CIRCUIT

COMMONCOLLECTOR
CIRCUIT

5000 ohm "" or tower load

methods

used

valve

amplifiers.

Transistor Applications.
sistors

Trancan be used in many of the

electronic circuits for which valves have hitherto been needed. Transistors have, however, frequency

and power limitations which prevent

their

completely

replacing

valves at the present stage of then-

development.

9
You
sider in

INTRODUCTION TO SYNCHROS AND SERVOMECHANISMS

far

6.127

have

now progressed
detail

enough

in

your study of Electronics to be able to con-

more

some of the

practical applications of the circuits

and components

you have learnt. The great technical advances made in

military equipment during the Second producing momentous consequences in industrial applications. Automatic process control more popularly known as "automation" is being installed in efficient plants in all industrially advanced countries of the world in oil refineries; in steel, textile and paper mills; in chemical plants; in the manufacture and assembly of automobile and electronic assemblies; and in the rapid "processing" of unbelievable quantities of detailed information in scientific and technical laboratories, and in offices tackling problems of stock-control, sales-tabulations, the proper phasing of production with anticipated demand, the calculation and checking of

World War

are

now

wage-packets and the

like.

At

the heart of the complex, electronically-controlled mechanisms which

make

such operations possible, lies a group of devices known as Servomechanisms. It is to a basic study of the Servomechanism "family" and of its close relations, the Synchros that the next two Parts of this Illustrated Course of Elementary

Technician Training are devoted.

.vxv"!^

This

way

to

THE COURSE

>

ttt

h BASIC SYNCHROS AH9 SCRVOMECHAHISMS

INDEX TO PART 6
(Note:

cumulative index covering

all six

Parts will be found immediately following this

Point-contact transistor, 6.81, 6.125 Pre-emphasis, 6.15

index to Part 6)

AFC,

6,14 6.44
correction, 6.19, 6.26

AGC,
Audio

Push-pull transistor

a.f. amplifier,

6.111

Base, 6.81 Bias

forward, 6.70, 6.80 reverse, 6.71, 6.80

Collector, 6.81

Ratio detector, 6.41, 6.50 Reactance valve, 6.8, 6.25 Receiver FM, 6.27, 6.49

AGC,

6.44 de-emphasis, 6.45

discriminator, 6.32, 6.50

Common-base

circuit, 6.94, 6.126

circuit, 6.102,

Common-collector

6.126

i.f.

amplifier, 6.28, 6.49

Common-emitter circuit, D.C. stabilization, 6 V105

De-emphasis, 6.45

6.96, 6.125

limiter, 6.32, 6.50

Receiver, transistor, 6.113

circuit,

6.116

Diode
junction, 6.67, 6.79

operation, 6.116

point contact, 6.69, 6.80 semi-conductor, 6.72

Discriminator, 6.32, 6.50 basic, 6.37
Foster-Seeley, 6.39
ratio detector, 6.41, 6.50

R.F. transistor amplifier, 6.114 Semi-conductor, 6.56

materials, 6.64, 6.79

N-type, 6.65
P-type, 6.66

Semi-conductor diodes
applications of, 6.76, 6.80 basic construction of, 6.67, 6.69
characteristics of, 6.72

Emitter, 6.81
Fault-finding

on

transistor circuits, 6.119

Ferrite reactor, 6.24, 6.25

history of, 6.56

FM,

6.25
of, 6.4

junction, 6.67, 6.79

point-contact, 6.69, 6.80
Single-stage transistor
a.f.

advantages

definition of, 6.2

amplifier, 6.99

disadvantage of, 6.5

receiver, 6.27

Superhet, transistor, 6.116

fault-finding on, 6.119

transmitter, 6.6, 6.12, 6.22, 6.25

tuner, 6.46

Transistor

advantages

of, 6.62

Foster-Seeley discriminator, 6.39 I.F. amplifier

care and handling of, 6.93

characteristics, 6.94

FM,

6.28, 6.49

connections, 6.123

transistor, 6.114

Junction diode, 6.67 Junction transistor, 6.82, 6.125

current amplification, 6.91 junction, 6.82, 6.125

leakage current, 6.97

Leakage current, 6.97

Limiter, 6.32

N-P-N, 6.83
P-N-P, 6.90
point-contact, 6.81, 6.125

Mixer, transistor, 6.115

Modulator

FM

superhet, 6.113
testing, 6.124

ferrite reactor, 6.24, 6.25

link phase, 6.20

reactance valve, 6.8, 6.25 Multi-stage transistor a.f. amplifier, 6.107, 6.126

voltage and power gains, 6.88 Transmitter FM, 6.6

AFC,

6.14

N-type material, 6.65

Oscillator, transistor, 6.115

audio correction, 6.19, 6.26 block diagram, 6.12

complete, 6.22 pre-emphasis, 6.15

P-type material, 6.66 Phase modulation, 6.16, 6.26

Tuner,

FM,

P-N junction,

6.70

Zener

effect,

complete, 6.46, 6.51 6.74

Point-contact diode, 6.69, 6.80

CUMULATIVE INDEX (PARTS 1-6)

A.C./D.C. half-wave
Aerials, 4.59, 4.71
rectifier, 1.91,

1.103

Beam tetrode,
Bias, 2.23
battery, 2.31

2.51, 2.53

dipole, 4.60

radiation pattern, 4.66

cathode, 2.34

radiation resistance, 4.63

receiver, 5.13, 5.20

forward, 6.70, 6.80

from power supply, 2.32

grid-leak, 3.55, 3.59
reverse, 6.71, 6.80

selecting

and

installing, 5.16

tuning, 4.65

types of, 5.14

A.F. amplifier, 5.41

in the superhet receiver, 5.57, 5.67

Bleeder resistors, 1.72 Bridge rectifier circuit, 1.46 Capacitors

in the

TRF receiver,
control, 5.40

5.38, 5.42

ganged, 5.25
padder, 5.65, 5.73

tone control, 5.39

volume

trimmer, 5.26, 5.72

tuning, 3.23

AFC,

6.14 6.44

AGC,

Cathode
bypass capacitor, 2.37
follower, 5.96

Alignment, 5.68, 5.71, 5.72

Amplification, 2.1
classes of, 2.29
factor, 2.19

Amplifiers, 2.10, 4.9, 4.16

Cavity resonators, 3.87 Class C amplifiers, 4.10, 4.16 bias arrangements, 4.12
Coils, tuning, 3.24

audio power, 2.70

beam
Class

tetrode, 2.51, 2.53

Collector, 6.81

C amplifier,

4.10

Colpitts oscillator, 3.63

classes of operation, 4.9

frequency response, 2.61, 2.64, 2.65, 2.88 high-frequency response, 3.5

Common base circuit, 6.94, 6.126 Common collector circuit, 6.102, 6.126 Common emitter circuit, 6.96, 6.125
Compensating networks
for high-frequency compensation, 3.6 for low-frequency compensation, 3.7 Coupling

low-frequency response, 3.4 pentode, 2.47, 2.53

push-pull, 2.77, 2.83, 2.85
r.f.,

3.13, 3.31, 3.39

single-stage, 2.54

RC,

2.57, 2.65

two-stage

RC coupled, 2.57, 2.65

transformer, 2.58, 2.66

two-stage transformer coupled, 2.58, 2.66

video, 3.2, 3.11

Coupling

circuits, 4.41

tuned, 4.42 Crystal detector, 5.30 Crystal oscillator, 3.68, 3.70, 3.73

Amplitude modulation, 4.77, 4.91 modulation patterns, 4.84

percentage modulation, 4.89 Anode modulation, 4.81
resistance, 2.20

tuning the, 3.71

Crystal receiver, 5.10

Current flow
in full-wave rectifier circuit, 1.43 in half-wave rectifier circuit, 1.30

Anode-bend detector, 5.35 Armstrong oscillator, 3.54

frequency of oscillations, 3.58 frequency stability of, 3.60

CW transmission, 4.72, 4.92

keying
circuits, 4.73

how

oscillations are maintained, 3.56

D.C.

stabilization, 6.105

Audio correction, 6.19, 6.26 Automatic gain control (AGC), 5.58

Decibels, 2.86, 3.36

Band

switching in receivers, 5.24

Decoupling filter, 2.55 De-emphasis, 6.45

Detector, 5.37

Bandwidth, 3.34
Base, 6.81

anode-bend, 5.35

Cumulative Index
crystal, 5.30

Frequency, 4.44

diode, 5.32
grid-leak, 5.33

Frequency changing valves, 5.54 Frequency multipliers, 4.35

doubling, 4.37
tripling, 4.38

in the superhet receiver, 5.57, 5.67 in the superhet receiver for

CW working,

5.64
in the

tuning indicators, 4.39

TRF receiver,

5.29

Frequency response,
curves, 2.64, 2.88

2.61, 2.65

Diode
junction, 6.67, 6.79

point-contact, 6.69, 6.80

semi-conductor, 6.72

methods of improving of amplifier, 3.6 Frequency spectrum, 4.70 Frequency stability of oscillators, 3.53
factors affecting, 3.60

Diode Diode

detector, 5.32
valve, 1.20, 1.35

Gain, 2.57
Grid-leak bias, 3.55, 3.59 Grid-leak detector, 5.33

cold-cathode type, 1.80

current flow in, 1.25, 1.107
gas-filled, 1.32

Grid modulation, 4.82

Hartley oscillator, 3.61

Dipole, 4.60
Discriminator, 6.32, 6.50
basic, 6.37

how

oscillation is maintained, 3.62

principle, 5.63

Heterodyne

Foster-Seeley, 6.39
ratio detector, 6.41, 6.50

I.F. amplifier, 5.56, 5.66

FM,

6.28, 6.49

Earphones, 2.89, 2.95, 2.97 Electron-coupled oscillator, 3.74

Emitter, 6.81
Fault-finding, 5.76, 5.91

transistor, 6.114
I.F. transformer, 5.55

Impedance matching, 2.75

Junction diode, 6.67 Junction transistor, 6.82, 6.125

in the superhet receiver, 5.84

procedure, 5.77
signal injection, 5.82 signal tracing, 5.81
testing within stages, 5.83

Keying, 4.73

Klystron valve, 3.88

Leakage current, 6.97

Limiter, 6.32

Fault-finding

on

transistor circuits, 6.119

Local

oscillator, 5.49, 5.65

Ferrite reactor, 6.24, 6.25

Fidelity in a receiver, 5.9
Filter capacitors, 1.54, 1.57, 1.71, 1.75

Loudspeakers, 2.89, 2.96, 2.97

Mains
filter,

1.40

dry

electrolytic, 1.59

transformer, 1.6

paper, 1.57

wet

electrolytic, 1.59

Metal rectifiers, 1.14, 1.19 Microphones, 2.89, 2.90, 2.97

Mixer, transistor, 6.115

Filter chokes, 1.66

Filters, 1.49, 1.75

Mixing, 5.52
1

capacitor input,

.69

mixer stage in the superhet receiver,

5.53, 5.66

choke input, 1.67

RC,

1.61, 1.95

resonant, 1.70

FM,

6.25
of, 6.4

mixer valves, 5.54 Modulation (AM), 4.7, 4.91 anode, 4.81

grid, 4.82

advantages

definition of, 6.2

other methods of, 4.83

disadvantage
receiver, 6.27

of, 6.5

Modulator,

FM

ferrite reactor, 6.24, 6.25

transmitter, 6.6, 6.12, 6.22, 6.25 tuner, 6.46

link phase, 6.20

reactance value, 6.8, 6.25

Foster-Seeley discriminator, 6.39

Motor

generators, 1.101, 1.105

Cumulative Index
Multi-stage transistor
a.f. amplifier,

6.107,

Receiver, 5.92
crystal, 5.10
fidelity, 5.9

6.126
Multi-vibrator, 3.83

Mutual conductance,

2.21

introduction to, 5.1

selectivity, 5.8, 5.46

N-type material, 6.65 Negative feedback, 3.8

Neutralization, 4.28, 4.34
Oscillations, 3.44
Oscillator, beat frequency, 5.64
transistor, 6.115

sensitivity, 5.7

superhet, 5.12, 5.43, 5.61, 5.74

the jobs performed by, 5.5

TRF,
Receiver

5.11,5.21

FM,
6.44

6.27, 6.49

Oscillator stage in the superhet receiver,

AGC,

5.65
Oscillators, 3.42, 3.64, 3.73, 3.89

de-emphasis, 6.45
discriminator, 6.32, 6.50
i.f.

Armstrong, 3.54
Colpitts, 3.63
crystal, 3.68

amplifier, 6.28, 6.49

limiter, 6.32, 6.50

Receiver, transistor, 6.113

circuit,

electron-coupled, 3.74

6.116

Hartley, 3.61

operation, 6.116
Rectifiers, 1.7

high-frequency, 3.85

RC,

3.82

copper oxide, 1.15

gas-filled diode, 1.32

relaxation, 3.83

TATG,

3.65

in bridge circuit, 1.46 in full-wave circuit, 1.42, 1.48 in half-wave circuit, 1.38, 1.41

variations in circuit, 3.78

Output transformer, 2.73 impedance matching, 2.75

P-type material, 6.66

metal-type, 1.14, 1.19

selenium, 1.15
valve-type, 1.20

Pentode, 2.47, 2.53

Pentodes
variable
/*,

3.29
r.f.

why used

in

amplifiers, 3.26

R.F. amplifier, 3.13, 5.41 coupling between stages, 3.37 in the superhet receiver, 5.47
in the

Phase inverters, 2.80 Phase modulation, 6.16, 6.26 Phase splitter, 2.82

TRF receiver,

5.22, 5.28

single-stage, 3.26, 3.31

two-stage, 3.32, 3.39

P-N junction,

6.70

Point-contact diode, 6.69, 6.80 Point-contact transistor, 6.81, 6.125

R.F. transformer, 5.23 R.F. transistor amplifier, 6.114 Relaxation oscillator, 3.83
Resistors, bleeder, 1.72

Power

supplies, 1.4, 1.103

for d.c. sources, 1.97

metal

rectifiers in, 1.14, 1.19

Rotary converters, 1.102 Rotary transformers, 1.101

Selectivity, 3.22, 3.34

transformer type, 1.36, 1.41

transformer-less type, 1.91

Selectivity in

a receiver,

5.8, 5.46

voltage doubler, 1.93

Semi-conductor, 6.56
materials, 6.64, 6.79

Pre-emphasis, 6.15
Push-pull amplifier, 2.77, 2.83, 2.85 advantages of, 2.84
Push-pull transistor
a.f. amplifier,

N-type, 6.65
P-type, 6.66

6.111

Semi-conductor diodes
applications of, 6.76, 6.80
basic construction of, 6.67, 6.69
characteristics of, 6.72

Q, 3.22

Radio telephony, 4.8

Ratio detector, 6.41, 6.50

RC oscillator,

3.82
6.8, 6.25

history of, 6.56

Reactance valve,

junction, 6.67, 6.79

Cumulative Index
point contact, 6.69, 6.80
Sensitivity in a receiver, 5.7

AFC,

6.14

Series

measurements, 5.69 and shunt feed in

audio correction, 6.19, 6.26 block diagram, 6.12

complete, 6.22
pre-emphasis, 6.15

oscillators, 3.78

Sidebands, 4.78, 4.94

Single-stage transistor
a.f.

amplifier, 6.99

Transmitter

lines, 4.40,

4.94

Sound, 2.89 Superhet receiver, 5.12 complete circuit of, 5.61

fault-finding in, 5.84

applications, 4.55
characteristics impedance, 4.47

non-resonant and resonant

lines,

4.49

open-circuited line, 4.51, 4.54

short-circuited line, 4.51, 4.53

Superhet, transistor, 6.116

fault-finding on, 6.119

TRF receiver,

5.11, 5.21

TATG oscillator,
feedback
Tetrode, 2.42

3.65, 3.73

Triode, 2.11, 2.22

amplifier, 2.16, 2.23, 2.40
characteristics, 2.19, 2.20, 2.21

in, 3.66

Test instruments, 5.86

Tuned

circuits, 3.17, 3.25

secondary emission, 2.43

eliminating effects of, 2.46

as oscillators, 3.47

Three-stage transmitter, 4.17, 4.34, 4.93

LC parallel, 3.19 LC series, 3.18

Tuned
Tuner,
Valve,
lines, 3.86

complete diagram

for, 4.21

FPA,

4.20

FM complete, 6.46, 6.51

IPA, 4.19
oscillator, 4.18

pentode, 2.47, 2.53

tetrode, 2.42
triode, 2.11, 2.22

tuning methods, 4.24

valve filament circuit, 4.22

Time-base generator, 5.97

Valve

testing, 5.87

Tone

control, 5.39

Valves, 1.20
bases, 1.28, 1.31

Transformers, mains, 1.6 Transistor

ft

discovery of diode, 1.21

advantages

of, 6.62

jobs

of, 1.111

care and handling of, 6.93

characteristics, 6.94

method of representation
1.27, 1.31
rectifiers, 1.20

in diagrams,

connections, 6.123
current amplification, 6.91
junction, 6.82, 6.125

stabilizer, 1.80, 1.88

thermionic emission

in, 1.23

leakage current, 6.97

Vibrators, non-synchronous, 1.97, 1.104

N-P-N, 6.83 P-N-P,6.90

point-contact, 6.81, 6.125
superhet, 6.113
testing, 6.124

synchronous, 1.100, 1.104

Video amplifier,

3.2, 3.11

Voltage stablization, 1.78, 1.88

circuit for, 1.82

valve, 1.80

voltage

and power

gains, 6.88

Voltage stabilizer

circuit, 5.99

Transmission

Volume

control

AM,
FM,

4.8
4.8

keyed, 4.7
voice, 4.8

Transmitter, 4.3
three-stage, 4.17, 4.34

Transmitter

FM,

6.6

automatic (AGC), 5.58 manually operated, 5.27, 5.40 Wavelength, 4.44 Wave propagation, 4.67 ground wave, 4.68 space wave, 4.68, 4.69 Zener effect, 6.74

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