Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19 www.elsevier.

com/locate/engstruct

A simple shear wall model taking into account stiffness degradation

M. Brun a,, J.M. Reynouard a, L. Jezequel b
a

URGC-Structures, Institut National des Sciences Applique es de Lyon, 69621, Villeurbanne, France b LTDS, Ecole Centrale de Lyon, 69000, Ecully, France Received 22 October 2001; received in revised form 31 May 2002; accepted 3 June 2002

Abstract The damage undergone by reinforced concrete structures affects their modal characteristics. The study consists of constructing an original simplied model for a heavily reinforced shear wall relying on modal characteristic changes related to a damage increase. The elaboration of this simplied model is realised in several stages. The rst stage is devoted to the inelastic nite element analysis of a shear wall which was tested under pseudo dynamic loading. Then, by applying a set of ideal excitations to the two-dimensional nite element modelling, the identication of the decrease of the fundamental frequency as a function of a damage variable is carried out. The third stage is concerned with constructing a new uniaxial dynamic model by introducing directly the expression of the decrease of the fundamental frequency into the equation of motion. Finally, the validity of the simplied modelling is assessed by comparing the numerical results obtained from the nite element analysis with those derived from the simplied analysis, for different types of seismic excitation. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Reinforced concrete wall; Finite element modelling; Simplied modelling; Fundamental frequency; Damage

1. Introduction Complex destructive phenomena take place in reinforced concrete structures during earthquake excitations. These include concrete cracking, interaction effects between steel and concrete, steel yielding and concrete crushing in compression. The damage generated can be translated into a damage variable which takes the local destructive effects into account in a global manner. As damage increases within the reinforced concrete structure, the alteration of the mechanical characteristics yields modal characteristics changes. In this way, Chen et al. [1] investigated the structural damage by means of the identication method of modal changes. At a critical damage level, they indicated that a decrease of the fundamental frequency up to 10% can be expected for steel beams. For reinforced concrete structures, the fundamen-

Corresponding author. Tel.: +33 4-72-43-89-72; fax: +33 4-7243-85-23. E-mail address: michael.brun@insa-lyon.fr (M. Brun).

tal frequency reduction, related to the structural damage can be signicantly larger. Pseudodynamic tests carried out at the European Laboratory for Structural Assessment (JRC-Ispra) in fact showed fundamental frequency reductions of more than 60% (Pegon et al. [2]). Such fundamental frequency decrease strongly inuences the dynamic response of the structure subjected to a seismic excitation. In this paper, a simplied model for a particular lowrise heavily reinforced shear wall is proposed. Its original formulation is based explicitly on changes in fundamental frequency according to a pertinent damage variable. First of all, a detailed nite element analysis is carried out with constitutive local models taking into account the main destructive phenomena involved during seismic excitation. The relevance of the modelling is evaluated by comparing numerical results with experimental available data. The following stage is devoted to the identication of the decrease of the fundamental frequency. This is realised by applying the nite element modelling of the wall to a variety of ideal excitations composed of sinusoidal cycles. The numerical results

0141-0296/03/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved. PII: S 0 1 4 1 - 0 2 9 6 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 8 4 - 6

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

allow to identify in a robust manner the decrease of the fundamental frequency as a function of damage. Then, this function is introduced in a simple dynamic uniaxial model, expressed in terms of displacements at the top of the wall. In the nal stage, the validity of the proposed simplied model is assessed by comparing numerical results with experimental results in a rst time, and, in a second time, with the results issued from ne nite element analyses for different types of seismic excitations.

2. Experimental programme 2.1. Presentation of the structure In this work, the chosen structure is a heavily reinforced concrete shear wall which has been tested during the SAFE research programme at the European Laboratory for Structural Assessment in Ispra. The SAFE programme has included 13 pseudodynamic tests on low-rise reinforced concrete shear walls with different reinforcement ratio. The geometry of the wall T5, which is studied here, is depicted in Fig. 1. The wall is surrounded by a top and a base slab. The two heavily reinforced anges are 80 cm thick. The web wall is 20 cm thick. The aspect ratio of the shear wall is equal to 0.4 indicating that the response is essentially controlled by shearing action. The horizontal and vertical reinforcement ratio of specimen T5 are equal to 0.8%. Reinforcement details are shown in Fig. 1. The following concrete material properties are meas-

ured before the tests : concrete compressive strength f c 29.1 MPa, concrete tensile strength ft 4.73 MPa. Two types of reinforcement steels are used. The former material properties are: E0 200000 MPa, fy 573 Mpa, fu 650 MPa, u 26.7%, corresponding to the Young modulus, the yield stress, the failure stress and the strain at failure, respectively. The materials properties of the second type of reinforcement steels are: E0 200000 MPa, fy 529 Mpa, and u 25.4%. The in-plane design frequency f0 of the shear wall T5 is equal to 8 Hz and the design shear force Hd is equal to 2.4 MN. No vertical loading is applied to the specimen. In order to submit the structure to a pure shear loading, the rotation of the top slab is prevented by means of hydraulic pistons. 2.2. Pseudodynamic tests The input excitation used during the SAFE tests is a synthetic accelerogram having as target elastic spectrum a standard spectrum employed in the nuclear eld. The spectral peak value of this standard spectrum is at about 4 Hz. The synthetic accelerogram and its corresponding acceleration spectra for different viscous damping ratios are plotted in Fig. 2. The rst excitation used in the tests, is derived by scaling the previous accelerogram to the design level of the shear wall. The scaling factor k is obtained by: k Hd M(f0,x 7%) (1)

where Hd is the design shear force, M is the effective mass in translation, and (f0,x 7%) the spectral acceleration of the standard spectrum for a viscous damping

Fig. 1. Geometry of the wall SAFE T5 (in m) and reinforcement details (in mm).

Fig. 2. Synthetic accelerogram and its acceleration spectra for viscous damping ratio of 5, 7, 10 and 20%.

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

ratio of 7%. It is to be noted that before the tests the value of M has been chosen in order to comply with the desired design frequency f0, as follows: f0 1 2p

M
K

(2)

where K is the shear stiffness of the test specimen. The specimen is subjected to a series of pseudodynamic tests with increasing level to the failure. Table 1 summarizes the ve RUNs with the corresponding scaling factors k and PGA levels. In the rst RUN, a relatively important cracking is observed, which is conrmed by a large drop of the fundamental frequency. The damage increases progressively during the two following RUNs to become very important in the fourth RUN. Because of the low aspect ratio, the shear failure of the specimen occurred at the beginning of the fth RUN by concrete crushing in the compressive zones of the wall, without fracture of reinforcement steels.

3. Inelastic nite element analysis 3.1. Constitutive models The concrete model used in this study is able to evaluate damage experienced by a concrete structure during a seismic excitation. Actually, this model, which makes use of the xed smeared crack concept, has been already validated during several previous research programmes [3,4]. The behaviour model of the reinforcing steels is modelled by an elasto-plastic rule with positive hardening. These constitutive models seem to be particularly appropriate for a structure which is heavily reinforced, such as the wall T5, due to the high reinforcement ratio which tends to create a distributed cracking across the surface. This seems to be in good accordance with the smeared crack formulation. 3.2. Modelling of the wall Due to the low aspect ratio of the wall which is loaded in its plane, two-dimensional modelling appears to be the most appropriate. Three-dimensional modelling would allow one to take into account the inuence of the anges more easily. However, analyses realised with
Table 1 PGA levels during the SAFE tests RUN k PGA in cm/s2 1 0.2147 43 2 0.2576 52

the same non linear concrete model in the framework of the benchmark NUPEC [4] have highlighted the relevance of a simple two-dimensional modelling. The equivalent plane mesh represents the different parts of the specimen. The two-dimensional representation does not allow for out-of-plane modelling of the ange walls, and thus a single layer of appropriate thickness represents these portions. Taking advantage of the high rigidity of the top and base slabs, only the web wall and its lateral anges are modelled. The concrete is represented by four-node membrane elements. The steel is modelled by two-node bar elements. The concrete and steel nodes are common, which means that perfect bond between concrete and steel is assumed. In order to reduce the sensitivity to the mesh renement, the shape of the membrane elements are set regular. Since the base slab has a high stiffness in comparison to the rest of the wall, the structure is assumed fully restrained at all nodes along the base of the shear wall. The loading device used in the SAFE programme prevents the rotation of the top slab by means of hydraulic pistons. Therefore, the degrees of freedom of the nodes at the top of the mesh are set equal to each other in the longitudinal and vertical directions. The mass in translation is assumed to be concentrated at the top nodes of the wall. The loading is composed of a constant static loading (self weight of the specimen) and the dynamic loading. The pseudo-dynamic tests performed at the European Laboratory for Structural Assessment do not take into account viscous damping in the equation of motion. The energy dissipated comes almost entirely from the behaviour of concrete and steel materials. In our calculations, for reasons of numerical convergence, the viscous damping matrix is not taken equal to zero. The damping matrix is set to be proportional to the stiffness matrix with a low multiplicative factor, corresponding to an equivalent damping factor of about 0.02%. Actually, this low value was adopted in order to comply with the experimental pseudodynamics tests, carried out without viscous damping matrix. Therefore, the energy dissipation is assumed to come almost entirely from the non linear behaviour of concrete and steel materials. 3.3. Analysis results Non linear dynamic calculations are undertaken for the rst four RUNs using the general purpose nite

3 0.3221 65

4 0.4294 86

5 0.4294 86

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

element code CASTEM [5,6]. The computations follow each other according to the experimental sequence. Global results are of particular interest, such as top displacement and shear force at the base of the wall. The timehistory of the calculated top horizontal displacement is compared in Fig. 3 with the measured displacement for the rst four RUNs. The time-history predicted top displacement appears to be in good agreement with the experimental one from the point of view of the changes in fundamental frequency and amplitude. The numerical failure is predicted at the end of the fourth RUN whereas experimental failure occurred at the beginning of the fth RUN. However, the numerical displacement at the failure of about 1 cm is close to the experimental one. Because of a good agreement between numerical predictions and available data, the model is capable of reproducing in a realistic manner the main phenomena which take place during a dynamic loading. In particular, the stiffness degradation, as shown in Fig. 4, is well reproduced.

Fig. 4.

Force-displacement hysteretic loops for the rst four RUNs.

4. Identication of the fundamental frequency In order to derive a simplied model taking into account the damage evolution in time, the damage undergone by the wall T5 is characterised at a global level. The maximum displacement at the top of the wall seems to be a good parameter to evaluate the damage. Park and Ang [7] proposed to complete this damage variable with a second term taking into account the dissipation under loading cycles. Among several authors, Fardis [8] concluded the relevance of this variable to reproduce the failure of the structure subjected to exural forces. However, one can notice that the weighting coefcient associated with the energetic term appeared very low. Therefore, the contribution of the energy term

in the Park & Angs indicator becomes negligible in comparison to the displacement term. Furthermore, the Park & Angs indicator is essentially calibrated for exural failures, so it is less suited for shear failures [9]. Eventually, the nite element modelling used in this present study is not always capable of reproducing the experimentally observed dissipation during seismic loading [4]. As a result, a damage variable based on computed energy dissipation derived from nite element numerical results would not be pertinent. In contrast, the prediction of global quantities as top displacement and force are reliable. All these considerations lead to the idea of adopting the maximum top displacement (denoted X) as the damage variable. The simplied model proposed in this work is based on changes in fundamental frequency according to the damage variable X. Since the shear wall can be considered as a dynamic system of one degree of freedom, the dynamic behaviour of the shear wall will be strongly affected by the decrease of the fundamental frequency during seismic excitation. Therefore, the changes in the fundamental frequency must be described in the most accurate manner. With this objective, a parametric study concerning the excitation is carried out in the following. 4.1. Parametric study The nite element modelling previously used is submitted to a set of ideal excitations with different frequency and amplitude. In this way, the nal damage variable X is obtained after each excitation. This value is associated with the value of the nal fundamental frequency obtained from: f 1 2p

Fig. 3.

Time-history top displacement for the rst four RUNs.

M
K

(3)

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

where K is the nal secant rigidity and M is the effective mass in translation. Fig. 5 shows the numerical values of the fundamental frequency related to the damage variable X. As a general trend, it can be seen that, from a certain threshold of damage, the decrease of the fundamental frequency is very abrupt, to become softer in a second stage. 4.2. Modelling of the fundamental frequency The expression of the decrease of the fundamental frequency as a function of the damage variable X is inspired by the local formulation of damage in the framework of irreversible processes of thermodynamics. Since the literature on this subject is very extensive [10,11], material damage notions used in this work are briey presented. The damage variable associated with the mechanical degradation process is linked to the density of material imperfections. Thus it can be dened as the proportion of surface of cracks compared with the total surface. The damage variable D is considered as a function of the cumulated plastic strain in the framework of isotropic damage. The stress tensor is written as: s (1D)E0e (4)

where c is a constant dening the kinetic of damage progression, and is the cumulated plastic strain. This formula establishes an explicit connection between the damage and the plasticity. Cases of traction and compression are distinctly explored and then combined to obtain a damage variable, taking into account the degradation generated in both distinct states. The value of the constant c is obtained from uniaxial tests in traction by: 1D exp(cep t)
p t

(7)

where E0 is the initial stiffness tensor of fourth order, and e is the elastic strain tensor. In other words, the stiffness tensor E is affected by the material degradation characterised by the scalar damage variable D as: E E0(1D) (5)

where e is the plastic strain in traction. The abrupt decrease of the fundamental frequency observed in Fig. 5, when the damage variable exceeds the threshold Xe, is modelled in an analogous manner. The global formulation is derived from the locale one by degrading the fundamental frequency with the increase of the damage variable X. The decrease of the fundamental frequency from initial frequency f0 to a frequency fp is modelled by an exponential law with a high kinetic characterised by a constant coefcient ct. In the nal stage, the decrease to a nal frequency fu, as the failure approaches, is softer than the one related to the previous stage. Moreover, numerical values are relatively scarce. This decrease is modelled by an hyperbolic tangent law with a lower kinetic characterised by a constant coefcient cc. Finally, the modelling of the fundamental frequency as a function of the damage variable X is written as: f f0 for XXe (8) ffp exp(ctX) for XeXXp f0fp ffu tanh(ccX) for XpXXu fpfu The parameters f0, fp, fu, Xe, Xp, Xu, ct and cc involved are identied from numerical results, so that the fundamental frequency curve ts them in the best possible way. In Fig. 5, the modelling of the fundamental frequency is compared with the numerical results. 5. Simplied model 5.1. Formulation The decrease of the fundamental frequency previously identied by parametric computations is introduced in a simple dynamic model. The equation of motion of the non linear one degree of freedom shear wall can be written as:
.. . (t) [w(t)]2x(t) a(t)with w(X) x(t) 2xw(t)x

Several authors (La Borderie [12], Lee [13], Nechnech [14]) consider the damage evolution in exponential form: 1D exp(c) (6)

(9)

Fig. 5. Fundamental frequency versus global damage: numerical results and modelling.

2p.f(X) and X(t) max |x(t )| 0t t

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

where x(t), x (t), x (t) are the relative displacement, relative velocity and relative acceleration, respectively; a(t) is the acceleration imposed at the base of the wall; f(X) is the fundamental frequency depending on damage (see Eq. (8)). Since the damping ratio computed from experimental data ranged from 6 to 8% [2], the damping ratio x is taken as constant and equal to the average value of 7%. 5.2. Implementation of the simplied model The simplied model is implemented within the mathematical MATLAB software [15]. The non linear dynamic computation is carried out on large time periods of 0.1 s. On a time period, the resolution of the differential equation of motion Eq. (9) is realised by means of an explicit fourth-order RungeKutta type algorithmic scheme, available within the MATLAB software and using ne time steps of 0.001 s. One can summarise the procedure as: For the rst time step corresponding to the time interval [t0, t1]: The fundamental frequency is equal to: f f(X 0) f0 The differential equation of motion Eq. (9) is solved with the initial conditions: x(t 0) 0 and x (t0) 0 For the N time step corresponding to the time interval [tN 1, tN]: The fundamental frequency equals to: |x(t)| The differential f f(X) with X max t 0t N1 equation of motion Eq. (9) is solved with the initial . conditions: x(tN1) XN1 and x(tN1) X N1. For each time step, the differential equation of motion is integrated with an updated fundamental frequency. Non linear phenomena are taken into account through the changes of the fundamental frequency as a function of the updated damage variable X. In the next section, the ability of the simplied model to reproduce the damage is evaluated by comparison to the damage evaluation obtained with the local model. 5.3. Discussion The model proposed here is based on the identication of the fundamental frequency according to the damage increase. It is interesting to compare the original formulation (Eqs. (8) and (9)) with the ones of classical hysteretic models. Firstly, a hysteretic model is based on an envelope curve which is usually identied from a push over test. In such a model, the fundamental frequency decrease during seismic excitation can be assessed from the secant stiffness. Due to the fact that the envelope curve is only derived from a static test, the evaluation of the decrease of the fundamental frequency is less

accurate than an identication from a variety of inelastic dynamic analyses. Secondly, in the proposed model, the damping is taken into account in a simple manner in comparison to the hysteretic loops of classical models. However, on account of the relative stability of the experimental damping ratio computed during the test T5, the assumption of a constant damping ratio seem to be adequate. This is justied in the particular case of a shear wall with a low aspect ratio. The assumption underlying the model is that a non-cumulative damage indicator X, which depends only on the level of top displacements, is capable of describing the decrease of the fundamental frequency. Obviously, this is questionable in cases of shear walls with exural failure modes, which were not considered in this study. Finally, one of the main drawbacks of this simplied model lies in the fact that it is valid only for a one degree of freedom structure. The main interest of this simplied model is to obtain a reliable damage evaluation quantied by the damage variable X at the end of the considered seismic excitation. In the following, the ability of the simplied model to assess the damage undergone by the low-rise shear wall T5 is evaluated in three steps. In a rst step, the damage variable increase in time predicted by the simplied model is compared with the experimental results for the rst four RUNs. Then, by using two different seismic excitations, it is shown that a good agreement between damage prediction based on a nite element analysis, as compared to a simplied analysis, can be obtained.

6. Validations 6.1. Experimental tests The damage variable, corresponding to the maximum top displacement, as computed with the simplied model, is compared with the experimental results for the rst four RUNs. The damage variable calculated for the four sequentially increased excitations is plotted in Fig. 6. The damage for the rst RUN, which corresponds to the cracking stage, is well reproduced by the simplied model. However, in the two following RUNs, the damage is underestimated. The failure of the specimen, indicated by a top displacement of more than 1cm, is predicted at the end of the fourth RUN. Due to the high number of large load cycles during the tests and to the high damage levels involved, the results remain quite good. 6.2. Tests on an near-eld accelerogram The objective of the simplied modelling is to give an evaluation of damage undergone by the wall for a variety of seismic excitation. In particular, one is inter-

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

Fig. 6. Time-history maximum top displacement for the rst four RUNs.

Fig. 8. Energy distribution in time-frequency plane by means of a physical Mark Spectrum.

ested in comparing effects of a near-eld earthquake to the ones relating to a far-eld type earthquake. So the simplied modelling is tested for a particular excitation, by comparing it with results issued from nite element analyses. The accelerogram depicted in Fig. 7 is chosen among a rich European data base [16]. It has been recorded on the 16/06/79 at the Nocera-Umbra station located at 3 km from the hypocentre during a seismic event in Italy of surface-wave magnitude equal to 4.2. The physical Mark spectrum shown in Fig. 8 allows visualisation of the energy distribution in the time-frequency plane. This distribution is characteristic of neareld excitations with an energy concentrated in the time domain around a t instant equal to 2 s. The peak in the

frequency domain is clearly exhibited in the vicinity of 8 Hz. The PGA level of the real accelerogram is equal to 1.43 m/s2. The response in terms of top displacement computed with the simplied model is compared with the response predicted by the nite element analysis in Fig. 9. The prediction obtained with the simplied model seems to be in good agreement for this type of excitation. One can try to evaluate the quality of the prediction for an increasing PGA level, ranging from 0.05 m/s2 to 3 m/s2. For each level of excitation, the nal damage X undergone by the wall is calculated with the two models. Fig. 10 represents the comparison between the two predictions. The two predictions remain close for the high PGA levels with a light overestimation for the highest levels.

Fig. 7. Time-history acceleration recorded on the 16/06/79 at the Nocera-Umbra station during a seismic event in Italy.

Fig. 9. Time-history top displacement response obtained with the two models for the real accelerogram.

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

Fig. 10.

Damage vs PGA level for a near-eld accelerogram.

Fig. 12. Energy distribution in time-frequency plane by means of a physical Mark Spectrum.

6.3. Tests on a far-eld earthquake As for a near-eld earthquake, one investigates the ability of the simplied model to predict a realistic damage for a far-eld seismic excitation, with respect to nite element analyses. The accelerogram depicted in Fig. 11 has been recorded on the 23/11/80 at the Roccamonna station located at 109 km from the hypocentre during the Campano-Lucano seismic event of surfacewave magnitude equal to 6.8. The energy distribution in the time-frequency plane is visualised by means of a physical Mark spectrum on Fig. 12. The accelerogram contains essentially low frequencies ranging from 2 to 3 Hz and the energy is distributed in the time domain. The dynamic response of the wall predicted by the simplied modelling is compared with the one of the ne modelling in Fig. 13 for a PGA level equal to double of
Fig. 13. Time history top displacement response obtained with the two models for a PGA level equal to the double of the one of the real accelerogram.

the one of the real accelerogram. The two predictions remain in good agreement. Just as for the near-eld accelerogram, the excitation level is increased. The damage predicted by the two models has been compared in Fig. 14. Contrary to the near-eld accelerogram, the evolution of the nal damage function of the increasing acceleration level is abrupt. It seems to exist at a threshold from which the damage rises dramatically. The PGA levels for which the failure can be considered (X more than 1 cm) are equivalent for the two models.

7. Conclusion
Fig. 11. Time-history acceleration recorded on the 23/11/80 at the Roccamonna station during the Campano-Lucano seimic event.

The original dynamic model based on the fundamental frequency decrease related to a damage variable seems

M. Brun et al. / Engineering Structures 25 (2003) 19

seismic excitation. Finally, hysteretic models encounter instability problems when the stiffness becomes negative. In this proposed model, such instability problems are avoided, because the non linear behaviour is handled by a simple curve representing the changes in fundamental frequency as a function of damage.

Acknowledgements The support of Electricity of France and a grant from ne-Alpes are gratefully acknowledged. the Region Rho

References
Fig. 14. Damage vs PGA level for a far-eld accelerogram. [1] Chen HL et al. Evaluating structural deterioration by dynamic response. Journal of Structural Engineering 1995;121(8). [2] Pegon P et al. Programme SAFE: Rapport du Test T5. Technical Note, Joint Research Center, 1998. ` la compre hension du fonctionnement des [3] Ile N. Contribution a ton Arme sous sollicitation dynamique. The ` se de voiles en Be nie Civil, INSA de Lyon, 2000 [in French]. Ge [4] Ile N et al. Nonlinear analysis of reinforced concrete shear wall under cyclic and dynamic loading. Journal of Earthquake Engineering 2000;4(2). [5] Millard A. CASTEM 2000, manuel dutilisation. Report CEA/LAMS No. 93/0007, Saclay, France, 1993 [in French]. [6] Combescure D, Pegon P. A ber model accounting for transverse shear in CASTEM 2000, JRC-Special Publication, 1994. [7] Park YJ, Ang AHS. Mechanistic seismic damage model for reinforced concrete. Journal of Structural Engineering (ASCE) 1985;111(4):72239. [8] Fardis MN. Damage measures and failure criteria for reinforced concrete members. In: Proceedings 10th European Conference on Earthquake Engineering, Vienna, Austria, AugustSeptember, 1994. Vol. 2, Rotterdam, Balkema. 1995. p. 137782. [9] Williams MS, Sexsmith RG. Seismic damage indices for Concrete Structures: A state-of-the-art review. Earthquake Spectra 1995;11(2). canique des mate riaux solides, 2nd [10] Lemaitre J, Chaboche J-L. Me ed. Paris: Bordas, 1988 in French. [11] Chen WF. Constitutive equations for engineering materials. Plasticity and Modelling, 2. Elsevier, 1994. nome ` nes unilate raux dans un mate riau [12] La Borderie C. Phe lisation et application a ` Ianalyse des endommageableMode ton arme . The ` se de Ge nie Civil, Universite de structures en be Paris 6, ENS de Cachan, 1991 [in French]. [13] Lee J. Theory and implementation of plastic-damage model for concrete structures under cyclic and dynamic loading. PhD Dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, CA, 1998. ` le tude nume rique du comportement [14] Nechnech W. Contribution a on et des structures en be ton arme soumises a ` des sollicitadu be caniques couple es: une approche thermotions thermiques et me lasto-plastique endommageable. The ` se de Ge nie Civil, INSA de e Lyon, 2000. [15] MATLAB. Using MATLAB version 5. The Math Works Inc., 1999. [16] Ambraseys N, Smit P, Berardi R, Rinaldis D, Cotton F, BergeThierry C. Dissemination of European Strong-Motion Data. CDROM collection. European Council, Environment and Climate Research Programme, 2000.

capable of reproducing the damage sustained by the lowrise shear wall studied in this paper. This is shown by comparing the numerical results with the experimental ones for the SAFE tests, employing a long duration synthetic excitation. Moreover, the comparisons between numerical results issued from simplied analyses and nite element analyses are in good agreement for different types of excitations. The computation time is obviously drastically reduced in comparison to a dynamic non linear nite element analysis. This allows us to carry out parametric studies related to different types of seismic excitations. However, a local behaviour model remains essential to identify the fundamental frequency decrease as a function of damage. Indeed, local models can be considered as predictive, whereas the simplied model proposed in this paper is valid for a particular structure. It is interesting to compare this simplied model with global hysteretic models commonly used in earthquake engineering. In accordance with the design philosophy of plastic hinges, hysteretic models are concerned with predicting in the most realistic way the energy dissipation corresponding to hysteretic loops area. The fundamental frequency decrease is implicitly taken into account through the stiffness loss. The model proposed in this work takes into account explicitly the changes in the fundamental frequency due to damage. The damping is modelled in a rough manner through an equivalent viscous damping which can be justied in the case of heavily reinforced concrete walls. In addition to its simplicity and ergonomics, the interest of this original model lies in evaluating the only inuence of the fundamental frequency decrease on the dynamic response of a reinforced concrete structure. In the case of shear walls, this inuence seems crucial for the determination of the dynamic response and the damage generated by a