Coral reefs

Coral reefs

Coral Reef zone food web

Top order Carnivore s First order Carnivore s Primary Consumer s Primary Producer
http://thecoralreefss.com/

Coral reefs
Most complex and diverse marine systems Formed by biological activity of corals belonging to the phylum Cnidaria (relatives of jellyfish) Oldest marine communities, more than 500 million years (different species, though)

Coral reefs

Two types of coral:

Soft Coral

Hard Coral

Coral reefs

Three types of reefs:

Fringing reefs
Barrier reefs Atoll

Atoll

Great Barrier Reefs

Fringing reefs

Coral Reef Distribution

Coral reefs distributions

Cover ~600,000 km in water >20C (23-29C opt.) Salinity requirement 32 42 PSU (practical salinity unit)

 Light is required for growth due to symbiotic algae, photosynthetic zooxanthellae (dinoflagellates); < 25 m water depth
Turbidity by sediments or phytoplankton affects coral growth and health Corals are related to benthic sea anemones, class Anthozoa, phylum Cnidaria Reefs are built of tiny individuals called polyps

Polyps

 Polyps possess tentacles containing nematocysts to capture and paralyze prey

Colonies are created by asexual division called budding, and all polyps remain connected by tissue Polyps secret calcium carbonate exoskeleton of 1-3 mm diameter, which forms the base of the reef Individual colonies can range in size up to some hundred tons, and colony form depends on species and environment (wave exposure)

Zooxanthellae

Reef-building (hermatypic) corals possess symbionts, which are already given in the planktonic larvae

Zooxanthellae:
Symbiodinium microadriacticum

Ahermatypic corals
Non-reef-building corals lack symbionts, can be solitary and live deeper (no light required)

Benefits to the Algal Symbiont

Zooxanthellae gets a place to live Receive chemical wastes from animal metabolism (CO2 & NH3). Surrounding animal tissues can concentration substantial amounts of ultraviolet light absorbing compounds.

Benefits to the Coral Host

Higher rates of calcification (skeleton deposition). Receive DOM & O2 Removal of chemical wastes from animal metabolism (CO2 & NH3). Receive chemicals that absorb damaging ultraviolet light (Micosporine-like amino acids (MAAs)).

Ahermatypic Corals
Octocorals, wire corals, black corals, sea pens Both hard and soft forms exist non reef-building no photosynthesis

Sexual reproduction

Polyps reproduce sexually, producing planktonic larvae (called planula), which settle again for new colonies; planulae possess already symbionts

 Symbionts (dinoflagellates) provide O2 and organic carbon from photosynthesis; also enhance CaCO3 deposition by corals (experimentally shown) Animals (corals) provide shelter and nutrients for zooxanthellae close nutrient cycling in the oligotrophic sea All corals are mixotrophs, and polyps also feed on zooplankton, preferably at night

 Temperature changes such as related to El Nino are made responsible for lowered resistance of corals to infections Diseases without pathogen include Tissue Bleaching (temperature >32C), White Band Disease (temperaturecontrolled, triggered by settlement of cyanobacteria), White Plague, White Pox

 Diseases with pathogen include Black Band Disease, Red Band Disease, Black aggressive Bands, Lethal organ disease, Yellow Band Disease, and more. Most are caused by bacteria or triggered by overgrowth by cyanobacteria Worldwide average: 16% of reefs lost, 27% of reefs in acute threat; in certain areas, the share of affected reefs can be substantially higher

Importance of Coral Reefs

Threats to coral reefs

Natural Anthropogenic activities

Environmental Factors Affecting Corals

Water Motion Depth: photic vs aphotic zone & water motion Sedimentation Salinity: 32-35o/oo Temperature: 18-32 oC Tidal fluctuations Nutrients: Eutrophic vs oligotrophic

Oligotrophic vs Eutrophic

Reef Critters

coralivore

Coral Reefs: Threats

Starfish: crown of thorns (why?

Pollution: particles in the water

Human impacts on coral includes:

Aquarium/Souvenir Trade Overfishing Pollution Dredging Coastal Development Tourism Global Climate Change Ozone Depletion

Coral Reefs: Human Impact

Worldwide disappearance Fishing with explosives

Waste oil dumping

Sediments

Dynamiting Reef

Destructive Resource Extraction Practices

Toxic Chemical Spills

Sediment Plume Entering the Ocean

Corals Smothered in Sediment

Dredging

Coastal Development

Anchor Damage

Diver Damage

Ecotourism

Pennekamp Reef, Key Largo, FL

Net Damage

Net Entanglement

Overfishing and Bycatch

Ornamental Trade:

Fan worm Threadfin Butterfly fish

Introduced Species
Acanthophora, Eucheuma, & Gracillaria

Feeding Fish

Nutrients and Algae Growth

Dictyosphaeria cavernosa

Bleaching

Global Bleaching (2002)

none

low
moderate

severe
severity unknown

Sea Level Rise