UNIT 1 Introduction to Electrical Safety

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Notes

Unit 1 Introduction Safety

Objectives

to

Electrical

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After completion of this unit, the students will be aware of the following topics:

Meaning and Importance of Electrical Safety Basic facts of Electricity Ohms Law Types of Electrical Faults Electrical Safety Organisation

Introduction
Electricity is the requirement of modern life, both at home and on the job. Some employees work with electricity directly, like engineers, electricians, electronic technicians and power line workers are also among them. Other work areas concerned with employees, such as office workers and sales people, work with it indirectly. Perhaps as it has become such a common part of our daily life, many of us dont give much thought to how much our work depends on a dependable source of electricity. More significantly, we be apt to neglect the hazards electricity poses and fail to treat it with the respect it deserves.

1.1 Meaning and Importance of Electrical Safety

Electrical safety is not solely defined by the prudent behaviour of individuals in the presence of energized objects. A reasonable attitude towards electrical equipment might only avert direct contact, that is, an accidental contact with parts usually live (e.g., energized conductors, terminals, bus bars inside of equipment, etc.). Individuals are also exposed to the danger of indirect contact, that is, contact with faulty exposed-conductive-parts (ECPs). ECPs are particulars

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provided by the electrical systems that are not generally live, but that are accidentally energized due to breakdown of the basic insulation. Naturally, assuring that equipment is safe is not the only concern that business owners face. Proper training of employees is necessary in order to avoid accidents and other measures also need to be taken to ensure that everyone in the workplace is safe. Here are a few places mentioned where electrical safety should be emphasised: Computers Computers are indispensable part of everybodys life today, used in nearly all businesses and can create a menace if they are not maintained properly. Computers should be PAT tested as urged to assure that they are safe to use. Factories Electrical appliances or products used will depend upon the type of factory and what is being manufactured. Unsafe equipment in a factory is simply invites trouble. Maintaining all electrical equipment in good condition is essential in protecting not only employees but the structure itself. Till Points A till is fundamentally the same thing as a computer and the very safety cautions are apparent. Tills should be tested on a regular basis to ensure that there are no damages or defects that could pose a hazard when they are brought to use. Kitchen equipment Kitchen appliances and equipment need the same attention as computers need and thus, must also be tested. Ranges, microwaves, ovens and other appliances should be inspected on a regular basis to ascertain against damage or defects. Accidents are pretty common in commercial kitchens and seeing to it that your electrical appliances are in good working order will help to bring down the incidences of accidents in the business.

What affects the Flow of Electricity?

Electricity flows more effortlessly through some materials than others. Some substances such as metals in general offer less resistance to the flow of electric current and are called

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conductors. Surface or subsurface of the earth is a common but perhaps unnoticed conductor. Glass, plastic, porcelain, clay, pottery, dry wood, and other similar substances generally slow down or stop the flow of electricity. They are given the name insulators. Even air, ordinarily an insulator, can become a conductor, as occurs during an arc or lightning stroke.

How does water affect the flow of electricity?

Pure water is a poor conductor of electricity. But small amounts of impurities present in water in form of salt, acid, solvents, or other materials can convert water itself and substances that normally act as insulators into conductors or better conductors. Dry wood, for example, usually slows or blocks the flow of electricity. But wood turns into a conductor, when saturated with water. The same is true of human skin. Dry skin has a reasonably high opposition to electric current. But when skin is moist or wet, it acts as a conductor. This means that anybody working with electricity in a damp or wet environment needs to exert extra caution to keep from electrical hazards.

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Importance of Electrical Safety

Electrical safety is severely important in all faces of life. All business owners should be aware of measures that can be taken to assure electrical safety and all employees should comply to these steps in order to keep themselves safe. Business owners are lawfully responsible for assuring that everyone working for them exercises safety. Safety issues spring up whenever certain equipment is used and assuring that your equipment is safe is predominant to protecting yourself as a business owner. Accidents will take place but when the person is prepared, these accidents will be few and far less disastrous. If an accident takes place because the employer is allowing employees to use equipment that is viewed as as unsafe, the employer could find himself facing a legal battle. In a few cases, the employer may actually face criminal charges as a outcome of an accident. Equipment for electrical distribution (that is, wiring, switches, outlets, cords and plugs, fuse and circuit breaker boxes, lighting fixtures and lamps) are the heading causes of home

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fires and thus fire deaths. The subsequent statements taken from recent reports on electrical accidents in Canada, exemplify the motive behind providing electrical safety education in the schools:

Electrical related deaths, more common among school age children, are more likely the outcome of high voltage and lightning strike. After electricians, children make up the demographic most likely to fall victim to an electrical injury. Extension cords and electrical cords cause almost twothirds of electrical burn injuries to children ages twelve and below. Electrocution incidents rose sharply from June, July and August as the parents and their children were spending more time doing yard work and falling victim to it. Human error is the likeliest cause of electrocution.

Facts

About 30,000 workers encounter electrical shocks yearly. More than 3600 disabling electrical contact injuries occur annually. Electrocutions are the fourth heading cause of painful occupational fatalities. Over 2000 workers are sent to burn centers each year with severe Arc-Flash burns. Figures show that 10 Arc-Flash incidents occur every day in the most powerful economy of the world, US. More than fifty percent of the workplace accident deaths are induced by burn injuries. Over thousand electrical workers lose their life each year from workplace accidents. Medical costs per person may outstrip $4 million for severe electrical burns. Total costs per electrical incident can go beyond $15 million.

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As many as 97% of the electricians have been shocked or injured on the job.

1.2 Basics of Electricity

The most versatile form of energy is Electricity, if used in the right way. Prior to the handling of electrical equipment, workers ought to know the fundamental electrical facts and the significance of learning and following safe work practices. ELECTRICITY = ELECTRONS IN MOTION

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These electrons can be measured in current, force and resistance. To interpret these terms, lets compare electricity flowing through a circuit to water flowing through a garden hose. The fundamental terms that are used in Flow of Electricity and Water are shown in Table 1.1.

TABLE 1.1: KEY TERMS USED IN FLOW OF ELECTRICITY AND WATER

(Source:http://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy07/sh16610-07/01_pg-module_1.pdf)

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People who work with electricity need to have a hold of the basic terminology. Following Table 1.2 describes the basic terminology in Electricity which should be known.

TABLE 1.2: BASIC TERMINOLOGY IN ELECTRICITY

(Source:http://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy07/sh -16610-07/01_pg-module_1.pdf)

The Human Body Resistance Model

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It is crucial to understand the resistance of parts of the human body to electric current. The following Figure 1.1 depicts the resistance of various parts of the human body.

FIGURE 1.1: DIAGRAM OF HUMAN BODY PART RESISTANCE

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(Source:http://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy07/sh -16610-07/01_pg-module_1.pdf)

Current and Its Effect on the Human Body

The effects of electricity on the human body depends upon many variables, like:

The strength of the current Duration of contact Body mass (small frames provide less resistance, large frames provide more) Gender of the person Moisture of the body The path of the current

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TABLE 1.3: HUMAN SAFETY AND ELECTRIC SHOCK

(Source: W.B. Kouwenhoven, Human Safety and Electric Shock, Electrical Safety Practices, Monograph 112, Instrument Society of America, p. 93. (Papers delivered at the third presentation of the Electrical Safety Course in Wilmington, DE in November 1968.) If the extensor muscles are stimulated by the electric shock, the person may be thrown away from the circuit.

1.3 OHMs Law

In 1827, George Simon Ohm found that the flow of electric current was directly proportional to the applied voltage and inversely proportional to the resistance of the wires or cables (conductors) and the load. This discovery came to be known as known as Ohms Law which is explained in the following Figure 1.2.

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FIGURE 1.2: V, I, AND R, THE PARAMETERS OF OHM'S LAW

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(Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohm%27s_law) The Current in Amperes (I) is equal to the electromotive force, or Voltage (V) divided by the Resistance (R) in ohms which is shown in Figure 1.2. Ohms Law states that one volt will cause a current of one ampere to flow through a conductor having the resistance of one ohm. As a formula, Ohms law is represented by:

V (volts) = I (amps) X R (resistance)*

A simple way to keep this formula in mind is to use the symbols in a circle like the one below.

To decide amps (I = V/R), put your finger on the I in the figure below (Figure 1.3). To determine resistance (R = V/I), put your finger on the R. To determine voltage (V = I x R), put your finger on the V.

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Notes ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ FIGURE 1.3: DIAGRAM OF OHM LAW

(Source: http://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy07/sh-1661007/01_pg-module_1.pdf) Using this formula, you can get to know and also you can explain the amount of electric current moving through a conductive body. *Remember that the unit of resistance (R) in which it is measured is ohms (). Note: Electrical current is frequently expressed in terms of milliamps. Just as we can divide one meter into one thousand millimeters, one amp can be divided into one thousand milliamps.

1 amp = 1,000 milliamps Example: An emf source of 6.0V is linked to a purely resistive lamp and a current of 2.0 amperes flows. All the wires are resistance-free. What is the resistance of the lamp?
Solution: The gain of potential energy takes place as charge passes via the battery, which means, it gains a potential of =6.0V. There is no loss of energy to the wires, as they are accepted to be resistance-free.

FIGURE 1.4: DIAGRAM OF THE CIRCUIT IN THIS PROBLEM

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(Source:http://www.physics.uoguelph.ca/tutorials/ohm/Q.ohm .example.ohm.html) By energy conservation, the potential that was gained (that is, =V=6.0V) must be lost in the resistor. Hence, by Ohm's Law: V=IR R=V/I R = 3.0

1.4 Types of Electrical Faults

Electrical power system show dynamic and composite behavior. Various types of faults can disrupt the healthy operation of the power system. Some of the major electrical faults are phase faults and include the following: 1. Open Circuit Faults Open circuit faults happen either by overhead line parting or pole of the circuit breaker not fully closing. This leads to load instability on generators and motors lead to negative phase sequence commponents in the stator current. This negative phase sequence component current rotates at twice the supply frequency in the opposite direction in relation to the rotor and causes extra eddy current losses, as an outcomes to this temperature raises in the rotor. 2. Interturn faults Interturn faults occurs in machines like, Transformers, Motors and Generators. The insulation breakdown between the turns of the same phase or between the parallel windings belonging to the same phase of the machine leads to an Interturn fault. The cause of the interturn fault is normally mechanical damage of the insulation or an overvoltge . Interturn Faults are more grievous on power transformers, high voltage motors and large alternators (generators). Interturn fault is most commonly experienced in rotating machines where numerous windings are present in the same groove. For large generators, in general single winding rod per groove is designed. Interturn Fault can take place at

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both stator and rotor for rotating machines like generators and motors. When an interturn fault happens on stator of a rotating machine there is a high chance that such fault can contribute in to the ground fault. When Interturn faults occur on the rotor winding the symptoms mentioned below may be observed:

When such fault occur high excitation current is needed and this is compensated by the voltage regulator Machine runs less smoothly, on asymmetry of the excitation curve account of the

Magnetization of the shaft due to asymmetrical flux Damage in the bearing due to current flowing in it

Interturn faults on power transformers can be occured due to the overvoltages accompanying ground faults or worsening of the insulation due to chemical influence of the transformer oil. 3. Overload Faults due to overload will happen due to more than the maximum permissible load current throught the transmission lines, windings, cables, or due to diminution in the cooling offered to the windings. Electrical conductor is planned in such a manner that the conductor allows permitted amount of current without getting over heated. In this way the current carrying rating of the conductor is determined. When the current passed through the conductor is above permissible level, no quick damage occurs but over a time period conductor insulation gets damaged due to the excess heat generated. The diagram of Overload is depicted in Figure 1.5.

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FIGURE 1.5: CURRENT FLOW DURING AN OVERLOAD CONDITION

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(Source:http://www.lanl.gov/safety/electrical/docs/arc_flash_s afety.pdf) Excessive associated loads, stalled motors, overloaded machine tools, etc. can overburden a circuit. Most conductors can convey a controled overload for a short length of time without damage. As a matter of fact, transitory, moderate overloads are part of normal operation. Some common examples are startup or temporary surge currents for motors, pumps, or transformers. Overcurrent protection must be chosen that will carry these currents. Nevertheless, if the overload remains for too long, excessive heat will be generated finally causing insulation failure. This might result in fires or lead to a short circuit. In large generators and power transformers of large MW ratings, the heat generated is enormous, so compulsory fooling is provided in such cases. Hydrogen cooling is provided for large generators and forced cooling is provided for large transformers. When these cooling methods fail then the damage to the equipment is surely fast as compared to the other cases. 4. Short Circuits Any current not confined to the normal path, is given the name, Short Circuit. The term comes from the concept that such currents bypass the normal load (that is, it finds a short path about the load). Generally, when a current is greater than six times the normal current, it should be got rid of as quickly as possible from the circuit. The diagram of Short Circuit is shown in Figure 1.6.

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Notes ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ ___________________ FIGURE 1.6: CURRENT FLOW DURING SHORT CIRCUIT CONDITION

(Source:http://www.lanl.gov/safety/electrical/docs/arc_flash_s afety.pdf) Short Circuits are generally caused by accidental contact or worn insulation and are graver than overloads. Damage occurs almost immediately. Cases of Short Circuits include two or more conductors accidentally touching, someone touching or dropping tools across energized conductors or accidental connection between energized conductors and ground. Such ground faults may change from a few amperes to the maximum available short circuit fault current.

1.5 Electrical Safety Organisations

Various organizations have developed and continue to revise standards to cover the numerous fears requiring electrical power. Standards and safety organizations include: 1. OSHA (Occupational Administration) Safety & Health

The principal goal of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) is to ensure safe and healthful conditions for every American worker. OSHA presently has thousands of rules and regulations that cover workplace safety. Federal and state OSHA programs impose regulations through workplace inspections, voluntary help programs and training activities. Citations and fines are also imposed upon for violations detected during inspections.

OSHA Regulations

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Published by the U.S. Federal Register, OSHA regulations can be found in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) under Title 29. More specifically and legally imposed by OSHA, Subpart S (Parts 1910.301 to 1910.399) deals with Electrical safety standards and covers the safeguarding of electrical workers in a pragmatic way. Subpart S is divided into four major divisions:

Design safety standards Safety-related work practices Safety-related maintenance requirements Safety requirements for special equipment

2. NFPA (National Fire Protection Association) The primary organization in the U.S. for fire and electrical safety standards is the NFPA. Their document, NFPA 70E, Standard for Electrical Safety in the Workplace, has been adopted by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) as an American National Standard. This standard addresses safety related work practices, specifies qualified and unqualified workers and renders guidance to base an electrical safety program. It also needs an electrical hazard analysis for shock and flash, talks about energized work permits, and right Lockout/tagout procedures. NFPA 70E defines and establishes shock and Arc-Flash approach boundaries to energized equipment and directs how to select suitable PPE (personal protective equipment) and protective clothing. 3. IEEE (Institute Engineers) of Electrical and Electronic

The Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, Inc. (IEEE) is an affiliation of electrical and electronic engineers established to promote the theory and application of electrotechnology and allied sciences. The Industry Application Society (IAS) of the IEEE is the group that addresses power distribution in industrial and like facilities. There are numerous sub-committees that meet on a regular basis to research, publish, and update standards and guidelines for the testing, evaluation, and application of their specific industry or specialty. In 2002, the Petroleum and Chemical Industry Committee IAS published IEEE1584, entitled, IEEE

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Guide for Performing Arc-Flash Hazard Calculations . Though there are other methods of finding out Arc-Flash hazards, IEEE 1584 has rapidly become the de facto standard for deciding the extent of possible Arc-Flash Hazards. 4. NEMA Association) (National Electrical Manufacturers

The National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) has more than four hundred member companies together with large, medium, and small businesses that manufacture products used in the generation, transmission and distribution, control, and end-use of electricity. NEMA has formulated and published hundreds of standards jointly developed by its member companies. The standards have been founded in the best interests of the industry and users of its products. NEMA works intimately with the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC) to be an advocacy group to UL and governmental agencies. Many NEMA publications have been assumed by ANSI as American National Standards. Some address the use and application of overcurrent protective devices including AB3-2001 Molded Case Circuit Breakers and their Application ; AB4- 2003 Guidelines for Inspection and Preventive Maintenance of Molded Case Circuit Breakers Used in Commercial and Industrial Applications; and FU1-2002 Low-voltage Cartridge Fuses, whereas others address safety issues like, safety signs, tags, and barricades. 5. ANSI (The American National Standards Institute) The American National Standards Institute (ANSI) is a private, non-profit organization that administers and coordinates the U.S. voluntary standardization and conformity assessment system. Working in conjunction with organizations such as NFPA, IEEE, NEMA, ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), ASCE (American Society of Civil Engineers), AIMME (American Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineers), and ASTM (American Society of Testing and Materials), ANSI coordinates and adopts these various industry consensus standards and publishes standards to promote US and Global conformity. ANSI has adopted many NFPA, NEMA, and ASTM standards for procedures, materials,

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and personal workers.

protective

equipment

used

by

electrical

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6. ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) ASTM International, formerly known as the American Society for Testing and Materials, is a voluntary standards development organization mainly involved with laying down standards for the testing and analysis of materials. Several standards accepted by ANSI have been published by the ASTM and other organizations that rule the manufacturing, testing methods, and ratings of personal protective equipment (PPE) used by electricians and other workers. 7. NECA (National Electrical Contractors Association) NECA, the National Electrical Contractors Association, is in the process of formulating installation standards for electrical construction work. NECA has also developed electrical safety standards with stress on their members. In lots of cases, these standards are being taken by ANSI (The American National Standards Institute).

1.6 Student Activity

A worker is using an electric drill and perspiring. He has hand-to-hand resistance of 1,000 ohms. The worker contacts 120 volts with one hand and touches a ground surface with the other. This completes the loop to the voltage sources. Using Ohms Law and the values stated in this problem, calculate the flow of current.

1.7 Summary
Electricity is good servant but bad master. It can prove fatal if circuits are not properly protected. The major fault that comes out in electrical network or equipment is termed as short circuit. In short circuit, the supply phase and neutral or earth is accidentally short circuited due to some foreign metallic substance coming in contact with phase & neutral or earth or due to overload. Thereby destructing the insulation resulting in short circuit that is, directly connected resulting in gruelling current flow called "short circuit current". This high current heats up the terminations, switches, plugs and cable due to which temperature rises to such a high degree

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that it is enough to generate sparking which further leads to fire.

1.8 Keywords
Electricity: Electricity is a form of energy and the flow of electrons. Electrical safety: Electrical safety involves using safe practices when working with or near electricity or electrical devices. Electrons: An electron is a negatively charged subatomic particle. It can be either free (not attached to any atom), or bound to the nucleus of an atom. Resistance: The movement of electrons along a conductor meets with some

opposition which is known as

resistance.
Electrical Resistance: The opposition offered by an electrical conductor to the flow of a current through itself, resulting in a conversion of electrical energy into heat and radiation. Electrical Faults: A low-resistance connection established by accident or intention between two points in an electric circuit. Overcurrent: Overcurrent is a condition in an electrical circuit when the current (amperage) in the circuit exceeds the rated amperage capacity of that circuit or of the connected equipment on that circuit. Short Circuits: A faulty or accidental connection between two points of different potential in an electric circuit, bypassing the load and establishing a path of low resistance through which an excessive current

1.9 Review Questions

1. What is Electrical Safety? Discuss its importance. 2. Electricity is the most versatile form of energy when used properly. Elucidate. 3. Throw some light on the Human Body Resistance Model.

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4. What are the Effect of current on the Human Body? 5. Elucidate Ohms Law with the help of example. 6. What are the various types of Electrical Faults? 7. List out some of the Electrical Safety Organisation.

1.10 Further Readings

Books
Cadick,John & Neitzel,Dennis (2005) .Electrical Handbook 3E. McGraw-Hill Prof Med/Tech. Safety

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Princeton Energy Resources International (2011). Handbook of International Electrical Safety Practices. John Wiley & Sons. Fowler,Thaddeus W. (2010). Electrical Safety: Safety and Health for Electrical Trades: Student Manual (rev. Ed.). DIANE Publishing. Great Britain: Department of Health: Estates and Facilities Division (2006). Electrical safety guidance for low voltage systems. The Stationery Office. Keller, Kimberley (2010). Electrical Safety Code Manual: A Plan Language Guide to National Electrical Code, OSHA and NFPA 70E. Butterworth-Heinemann. Jones,Jane & Jones,Ray (2004). Electrical Safety in the Workplace. Jones & Bartlett Learning.

Web Readings
http://kiran111.hubpages.com/hub/Electrical-Faults-on-PowerSystem http://www.lanl.gov/safety/electrical/docs/arc_flash_safety.pdf http://www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy07/sh-1661007/01_pg-module_1.pdf www.osha.gov/dte/grant_materials/fy07/sh-1661507/ppe2.ppt http://www.osha.gov/Publications/osha3075.pdf http://www.mtech.edu/env_health_safety/safetyprogs/docs/W orkplace%20Electrical%20Safety%20Tips.pdf

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http://talkbusinessmagazine.co.uk/2012/09/the-importanceof-electrical-safety-in-the-workplace/ http://ehstoday.com/safety/importance-safety-homeworkplace-0501